Scribd Logo
Загрузить

Добро пожаловать в Scribd!

  • Allen Et Al. Prolegomena To A Study of The Letter Bearer in Christian Antiquity

    Загружено:

    Andra Juganaru
    63 просмотров7 страниц
    Prolegomena

    Оригинальное название

    Allen-et-al.-Prolegomena-to-a-Study-of-the-Letter-Bearer-in-Christian-Antiquity

    Авторское право

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Доступные форматы

    PDF или читайте онлайн в Scribd

    Этот документ был вам полезен?

    Это неприемлемый материал?

    Пожаловаться на этот документ
    Prolegomena

    Авторское право:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Скачайте в формате PDF или читайте онлайн в Scribd
    Отметить как неприемлемый контент
    63 просмотров7 страниц

    Allen Et Al. Prolegomena To A Study of The Letter Bearer in Christian Antiquity

    Загружено:

    Andra Juganaru
    Prolegomena

    Авторское право:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Скачайте в формате PDF или читайте онлайн в Scribd
    Отметить как неприемлемый контент
    из 7
    © Peeters Publishers Louvain — Belgium 2013 Alright serve, clung te it owas oto rebar sh opr ete a Dpossosn2/tt ISBN: 978-59-429 2995-4 A catalogue record fr this hook is stable From the Library of Congress ‘Printed io Regiom hy Pesiry, Leuven STUDIA PATRISTICA VOL. LXIL Papers presented at the Sixteenth International Conference (on Patristic Studies held in Oxford 2011 Esited by MARKUS VINZENT Volume 10; ‘The Genres of Late Antique Literature Foucault and the Practice of Patristics Patristic Studies in Latin America Historica LEUVEN ~ PARIS — WALPOLE, MA, 2013 480 R. Bosco antique Rome and Constantinople states, “even as Rome needed a new narra- tive that could accommodate its unanticipated senility and possible demise, Constantinople needed a new narrative about its birth and formative adolescence”. But it is Procopius’ Gothic War that points out exposed nerves fof coping with the past for people living in and fighting for the ancient capital of the Roman Empire. © Raymond Van Dam, Rome and Constantinople: Rewriting Roman History daring Late Ansiquiy Edmondson Historical Loctares 30 (Waco and Texas, 2010) 3, Prolegomena to a Study of the Letter-Bearer in Christian Antiquity! Pauline ALLEN, Brisbane, Au tralia, and Pretoria, South Aftica AastRact (One scholar has recently written of ‘an apparent explosion of epistolary practice” i late antiquity: another states that ‘our most substantial evidence for Greek and Latin leiter-writing and collection practices is late antique’. Yet although in the last decade considerable attention has been paid to travel and information-transfer in late antiquity there is no book on exly Clstan letter-writing in general, and the role ofthe private letter-bearer has gone almost unnaticed. Tn this paper I begin to redress the imbalance between the avid scholarly attention paid tothe cursus publicus and the role of the leter-bearer in Pauline literature and Christian papyrologieal lete-material on the one hand, and en the other the scant cognizance of the many hundreds of people, often named, who delivered bishops private liters in Christian antiquity. Although originally only certain ranks of the clergy were engaged as couriers for bishops, in fact we find a large range of private and lay individuals female and rae, Chistian and non-Christian, slave and fre, ear ‘ying ters and gifs to and from their bishops and performing other favours at their estnations. Chiefly on the basis of edited Greek snd Latin episcopal letters from the fifth and sith centuries I exaruine the identity of the bearers, and the role of tx verbal communication with regard to the public/private nature of letter-writing and the place of philiafamicita in epistolary exchange. The paper concludes with a short appendix devoted 0 the nomenclature ofthe late-anique letter-bearr, 1. Importance of late antiquity for letter-writing Andrew Gillett writes of “an apparent explosion of epistolary practice” in late antiquity;? Jennifer Ebbeler states that ‘our most substantial evidence for Greck and Latin letter-writing and collection practices is late antique’. Sigrid Mratschek remarks that this epistolary activity is ail the more surprising given. "The research on which thie paper is bo is nded by the Austin Research Coupe an suppored by Australian Cathlle Univers and the University of Pretra, Lam grateful to Sigh Mrtscek for several electronic epiolry conversations about leter-beare. ‘Commutiestion in Late Antigity: Use and Reuse’, in The Orford Handbook of Late Antigy, otheoring. tradition, tanovntion, and Bpstolry mares a Philip Rewseau (8), A Companion to Late Aqui. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient Wot (Chichester, 2008), 270-84, 271. Sadia Ptisica LXH, 441-19 © Pests Publishers, 3013, 482 PoAuis that in the Classical period only eminent and politically active people like Cicero, Seneca, and Pliny the Younger could afford a private postal service+ Yet there is no general book on the subject of letter-writing in this period, although « great deal of attention has recently been paid to travel and informa ‘ion-transfer in Tete antiquity.* For the carriage of literary letters we still rely largely on the 1925 work of Denys Gorce.* It stands to reason that if episto- lary practice Mlourished there must have been a corresponding increase in the role of the letter-bearer, and indeed they are mentioned prolifically in surviv- ing letters, olten by name.” The best example here is Paulinus of Nola, about twoxthirds of whose letters contain references to the bearer.® In this paper I begin to redress the imbalance between the avid scholarly atten- tion paid fo the cursus publicus? and the sole of the leter-bearer in Pauline literature" and Christian papyrological letter-material on the one hand," and ‘om the other the scant cognizance of the many hundreds of people, often named and or identifiable, who delivered bishops" private lewers in Christian antiq- tity. For reasons of time/space, as far as possible I shall exclude bishops? * Der Brgfecchst des Paulinus von Nola. Kommunitation wn ssi ain tclckuellon, Hypomsersata 134 (Goeingen, 2002), 286, 5"See eg, Lionel Casson, Travelin the Ancient World (Baltimore. 1994); Sigrid Mrat- Schick, “Eibiicke fn einen Postack. Zur Strktur und ion dr "Natalcia” des Paulin vow Nok’. Zeitchrfi fir Papyrofosie nd Epigraph 114 (1996), 165-72: Liieta Di Pola, Vineet erasport¢lslicton!: studi sul cursus piblces,Potorig 5 (Messina, 1999): Ane Kolb. Transport nd Nachrichiotransfer tm Romischen Reich, Klio, Betge zur Alte Geschichte, Betefte, NE Bd, 2 Berlin, 2000) Linda Ellis and rank L. Kidner (eds, Prove, Communication and Geography in Late Antiquity. Sacred and Profane (Aldershot td Bi Tington, VT, 2004): Blake Leyere, “Mobily and the Traces of Empire, in Ph Rewsscat (eh). 4 Companion 1o Late Arlqaity (2008), 110.2%: Chie Sotinel, Wow Were Bishops Informed: Information Transmission across the Adsatic Sea in Late Antgity’, in L. Elis an FL. Kidner (eds), Travel. Communication and Geography (2008), 63-71; Clie Soil, Information and Political Power, in Ph. Rousseau (ed) A Companion 10 Late Antiquity (2008), 128-38, 125-6 "Les voyages, Phonptalit otf port des fetes dans te monde chriten dex Vet sicles (Vépion-sr Meuse and Pas, 1925) sp. 191-247 "The majority ofthese, mos excepting the clergy, ae picked up in PLRE © See Michel-Yves Prin, ‘ad imple carats mniterinn. La place des couriers dans la corapoadance de Paulin de Nole, Mélonger de (Ecole franaise de Rome. Antigité 104 (1993), 1025-68, 1026-7 “See Me. Pein, “Ad iplendum carats minister’ (3992), 1028; C. Stine How ‘Were Bishops Informe” (2005), 6, remake that "Stes ofthe cursus publics genic cerned with ts primarily instiatonal bas See Hans ose Klauck, De ae Breteratur und das Nene Testament: cin Let und Arbeishuch (Padevnon, 1998); English tas. Anciem Letters andthe New Testament A Guide ‘e Comest and Eeogets (Waco, TX, 206) 60-8 "A good example is Peer M. Head, “Named LeterCaniers among the Oxyshynchis Papysi Journal forthe Stuy of he New Testament 31 (2009), 27099 Komatie sischen Prolgomens to «Stuy othe Leter-Beare in Cristian Amity 483, formal or official letters," and thus bearers sueh as papal envoys." Although originally only certain ranks of the clergy were engaged as couriers for bish~ ‘ps, in fact we find a large range of private and lay individuals, female and ‘male, Christian and non-Christian, slave and free, carrying letters and gifts to ‘and from their bishops and performing other favours at their destinations, 2, Desideratum for a study of late-antique letter-bearers, esp. private episcopal letter-bearers Up to the present there is no work dedicated to letters and bearers in late antiq- vity.* There is a survey of fifth- and sixth-century letter-writing" and collee- tions of individual writers have been studied. In particular Paulinus of Nola hnas fared well because of the high frequency with which he mentions his cou- riers compared with other late-antique writers, whether Christian or pagan." © aldough tis sometimes difficult distinguish hetwcen the puble and private spheres. 8 pind out by ElabethPaolLfays, “Meseagers et messages. Lo diffusion es nouvelles de Fatigue d' Augustin ver es régions dade des mee", L formation tla mer dans le monde ‘niqu,t ladtecton dle Andress et de Catherine Vislouvet (Rome, 2002), 283-59, 235. ‘On papal envoys in general soe Andrew Gillet, Exors und Poltical Communication in the Late Ange Wes, 411-533 (Cid, 203), ep. 227-5, «Narn RP. McGuire, “Letlers and Later Caenors in Chistian Antiquity’, The Classical World $35 (Feb. 1960}, 148-53, L845, 199-200 (very general, Matilde Calbia.“ ator dsl cenipandenz di Agotino: ta idclizzarione e real. Agtintanam $1 (2001), 113-48 tea, "Perso ils 1 Iter elle epistte di San Agostino (dzone Dijk Acme Sdn dele Fao i ltere« floufia del? Universita deh stad ds Mino $4 (2001), 113 S"Mrabchek, Der Brefwechsel dee Paulina von Nola (2002), 30224; EPaoi-Lafaye, "Mi Sets et messages (2002); {- De Salvo, "Mare, commercio¢infonmazion privat nella tra nici, in Jean Andkcu nd Catherine Viloet (es) LTnyormaron et a mer dans le monde antique (Rowe, 2002), 298-319; Pauline Allen, "e's in the Posts Technigus nd Difiulies of eter Writing in Antiquity with Regard to Augustine of Hippo’. Tendal Lecture 2005, in Pro {ceuings of the Auaralan Academs of the umanites 30 (Canbera, 2006), 111-29; Sigh Mae ‘chek. Di uageschrcbenen Bree dex Abgustnus von Hippo, sn Jacob A. vin den Bers, Anne fnaré Kotz, Tobias Niklas, and Madeleine Seopello (eds), Ia Search of Truths Augustin. Maniclacism and Other Gnosticism. Stades for Janes san Qort at Sty (Leiden and Boston. 2011), 108-22 1 Se Pauline Allen, “How do Saudy Episcopal Letter Writing in ate Ansgulty: An Over view of Pullihed Werk on the Fifth and Sinth Centunes’, in Vladimir Baranov, Basil Loui tnd Kanuhiko Demura ted), Svinlum, Revue de poroogie haglographi otigu e dhistore ‘elesnsiqne 6: Patologia Pca: Selected Papers Presented othe Asia Pace tly Chis tan Stes Society Piscataway, NJ, 2010), 13042 (eter-collection. Te Obverved by Me¥. Pus “Ad inplendon carne minsterium’ (1992), 1026-7. See Dennis. Tout, Poulin of Mla Life, Levers, and Poems (Beskley and Los Angeles, 199) Catherine Conyieze, Panlinus Noster Self and Symbols tn the Leters of Pawns of Nola, Oxford Eariy Chrstsn Stutie (Oxford, 2001) S. Miatschck, Der Brlechsel des Paulinus on Nada (2002 484 Pauses 3. The identity of the carrier of private episcopal post Ignatius of Antioch, who Was martyred probably in the reign of Trajan (8: 117 CB), writes to the community of Philadelphia that they should send a dea- con on an embassy to the church of Antioch, This has been interpreted as norma- tive for leter-carrying by deacons,” but Ignatius continues with the observation that other churches have sent bishops, and stil others presbyters and descons on the same mission." In the correspondence of Cyprian of Carthage we find sub- deacons and acolytes as letter-cariers in exceptional circumstances and an insistence that church correspondence be conveyed by clerics. From the fourth century onwards there is an increasing number of deacons as bearers, which may be attributed to the development of the diaconate*" With regard to lay letter- bearers, some people were not allowed 10 carry certain types of letters, For ‘example, Canon 11 of the Council of Chalcedon (451 CE) stipulated: subject to examination, all paupers and needy persons ae to travel with ecclesiastical lewers or eters of peace only, and not of commendation, since it befits only reputable persons to be provided with letters of commendation.” Mathilde Caltobiano suggests that a bishop frst tried to reeruit a bearer from the ranks of his clergy and only if that was unsuccessful did he look to other possibilities She also observes that, generally speaking, when the name of the bearer is given it is accompanied by a description of his or her rank or ‘qualifications forthe task? Among the ranks of the clergy we find predomi- nantly priests and deacons earrying letters, but there is also evidence of aco- Iytes.* Readers and sub-deacons. on the other hand, ae just about non-existent " Bg. by 1G. Davies, Deacons, Deaconeses and the Minor Onde in the Patric Period, ournal of Eelesiaxica History 14 (1963), 1-15, 7 followed by Graeme W. Clatk, The Letert ‘of Sr-Cyprian of Carthage I Leners 1-27, Ancient Cristian Writers 43 (New Yor ad Ramsey I, 195, 208 ¥ Sce-Ad Phil. 10; Michael W. Holmes ed. se ian), The Apostolic Fathers, Greek Tete cand English Translations, eater the ete work of FB, Lightfoot and JR. Hamer (Grand ‘apis, ba, 2007) 2448 1 See frther G.W, Clarke, The Letters of St. Cyprian (1988), 1205, 225 2 This is soggested by D- Gore, Les voyages (1925), 2111, Disappointing thse e nothing cn leis a later bearers in Lewis J Patsavos, A Noble Task? Eur int the Clergy Ou he Firat Five Cennwries, tans. Nowtan Russel, forevrd by Kallistos Ware (Brookline, Maes, 2007), 5 Norman P. Taner (ext and wan) Decrees ofthe Eewmenical Councils val 1, Nleae to Lateran V (Landon aad Washington DC. 1990), 92: "Ornmespauperes et indigenes aus, profs. sub probrione apstlseclesiasics pace tantunamodo commendat decree nus, enon commendatci eters, propterea qual Commendaiia hiterae persons honoratlo ‘hs solunmodo conceduntar M, Caltobiano, "loot" (2001), 14 id. 16, Augustine opp 191, 193,30 198 writes of he Roman acolyte, Albin, 2 a epeat bearer See D. Gores. Leh tovages (1925), 211, and F PaolsLaaye, “Messager ef mesages” (202), 2491 on repeat beac (the later op Augustine's carer Inoventive ad Fm) Proeyomens to Stuy ofthe Let Bearer in Christin Ami y 485 as Jeter-bearers. There are many mentions of monks carrying letters: as just fone example we could cite the unnamed monk who carried his own letter of| recommendation from Severus, patriarch of Antioch, to Simeon, bishop of CChaleis.» In fact the letters of Paulinus of Nola and Sulpicius inform us that there were dedicated monk-couriers.” Paulinus’ repeat bearer, the monk Victor, stayed with in Nola for months at a time, performing various services from ‘cooking. giving a haircut and a massage, to nursing Paulinus back te health.* Sometimes coincidentally the bearer was a member of the elite on official business on the cursus publicus:® Basil of Caesarea speaks of giving his letter to the revenue-collecior of the office of prefects, who was going to travel on the cursus publicus;» the bearer of one of Synesius” letters was a fellow cur: alis travelling on the cursus publicus to distribute gold;*! Severus of Antioch uses the governor of Syria Secunda as his carrier.” Further down the social ladder we find business people as letter-bearers, such as the bookseller and the dealer in writing-tablets employed by Sidonius Apollinars.* Two women served Augustine as bearers as they carried their ovn letter of recommends- tion together with relics of the protomartyr Stephen to the recipient, while ‘Theodoret sends a letter to a fellow bishop recommending the bearer, a young girl called Maria, who has sought asylum in Syria from the Vandal invasion in Libya and now requires safe passage on her return. Sometimes the leter- writer was obliged to use somebody of lowly status as the carrier of his ‘own private letter of recommendation, as a letter of Sidonius to his kinsman Simplicius illustrates: As observed by D. Gone, Ler sovoges (1925) 211 2% Bp. 1.7, ed. Best W. Brooks (ed. and tras, Th Sith Book of the Select Leters of Severus Patriarch of nth in the Syriac Version of Athans of Nii, 2 vol London te (Oxted, 1902 ana 1903; cepe, Farnborough 1968), TH17F- ext, H 108-6 ra. 2 See further M.-Y. een, “Ad omplendu coitaris minster (1992), 1030, 1032, 1034, 10 Ep, 23.69 (cooking), 5 (massage, 10 (eur: Ep. 28.3 (uring). Ba. CSEL. 29, 1627 ote; 16s 2638 *'L. De Salvo, ‘Mae, comerco ¢informazione privat (2002), 317 stresses the ome= times ad hoe arangements for procuring bearers of pve letters and the fact tha offical td pate hearer ocasinaly overlpped, a nthe fllowingexarple hers, gp. 218, ed, and trans, Yoer Courtome, Sant Baste. Correspondance. Tame It Letres CMLCCNVIT (Pai, 2003), 2060 "Ep. 19; wd. and ans, Antonio Gazzya and Denis Roques, Synéxins de Cyréne, Tame I Covrespondance, Lees LLXME (Pats, 200), 28 hp 8 ed and wans. ED. Brod, Select Letrs 440 ant I 394 tans). © Bp. 515; ed and tans Anisé Loven, Sidae Apollntre. Tome I, Letes (Lives 1) ari, 1970), 198, and Ep. 914A; od. and ans. A Laven, Siolue Apolinaire. Tome Hl Lets (Livres VED) Pars, 1970, 11. Sep. 212: Nuova Biblowca Agostinana thencefrth NBA) 28, $30 ° kp. 10; ed and tans. Wan Azéma, Théodoret de Cor, Correspondance, vol. 2, SC 98 (Pari, 1964). 152°5. See further Bronwen Nei and Paslie Alen, “Displaced Penples: Reflec tions fiom Late Aiqny en a Comernporay Cis’, Pacifica 2 (2011). 29-42. 486 Pauw ‘The bearer ofthis eter [gevuluc] earnestly begs me to let him take a note from me to you ... [picture o myself how novel everything wil be to this fellow, whois seaeely 1m enviable paragon of gentility, when you bid the stranger welcome in your home, the nervous messenger to a talk with You, the buipkin to your gaicty, the poor man to your table ... And afterall, hough persons of that sor are generally insignificant creatures, yet in the maiter of paying regard to our friends by letters affection loses rnuch if itis detered from indulging in more frequent corespondence by te lowliness of the bearers From this example and others, however, it appears that a bearer of lower rank vas the exception rather than the rule, and that bishops mostly recruited from a “better” class or person, if only for the important verbal and social role that the carriers had to perform when they arrived at their destinations. The bearers of episcopal letters were not confined to members of the Chris tian community: again it is Sidonius who furnishes us with the nice example ‘of a Jew who carried two letters for him." It was also not uncommon for slaves to act as letter-bearers, although in Latin letters the word puer is ambig- uous, referring both to household boy's and slaves." One kind of letter-carrier I have not yet addressed is the winged varity. the carrierpigeon, which was used for civil and military purposes in Graeco- Roman antiquity. Although I have found no references to these birds carry- ing leters in the material under examination, there are nevertheless abundant metaphorical references to Psalm 54 verse 7a (‘like the wings of a dove’) in the episcopal correspondence of late antiquity. The image is used to express the desire of the weiter to be with the addressee of the letter and to bridge the % Ep, 2.1-8 ean ans. A. Loyen, Sidoine IL 126: Eng. trans. W-B. Anderson, Sidon ‘Leners IL-BK, LCL. 420 (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1997), 89: "Balls apc seo precatur. a dos @ me Titra fre. Vdere nu sider, wt Romi non axe ad onda Derfaceto nova erat emia, cum instabiurpererines ad dmiclan, eps ad conta, ‘rates laetitine, pauper ad mensan Sed quarguan Sutuemad rope personae desea. Dies ferme sn, sedatoustamen per litera excotendsdispend matt artes stn, ‘ah wea frequemione ellga ponttorin wltae revocetr” See Ep. 6 10 on a deacon-beaee of Tow sts See finer M. Caltbiane. fe” (2001), 140-2, who writes of “an buow livello cul smog Augustine's bearers. © gp. 2.4; ed and Wane. A Loyen,Sidoine It SSE, and Ep. 5; bid 123 (se Bp. 6.1) Fp 8.13 is delivers bya Jewish conver. For examples of hive at» carier sce Symeson, Ep. 98; A. Oar and D, Rogees, I 22iks Augustine Ep. 24.1 (NBA 2Ut, 130; a Teter fom Palins of Nola and Thaasio)- On ‘he ambjgbous tem puer se D. Gose, Les wyages (1925), 208; MY. Pern, Ad inplendae arts mister (1092), 1030" A. Kol, Trantport und Nachrchtentraefr (2000), 2705 M. Calohiano, “I Iatoe'(2001), 118, In the case of te corespondence of Pains of Nols, SiMnachck, Der Brifvechse! des Paulinus von Nola (2002, 616, noes Tat "pues were ‘mostly saves under the age of seventeen on exceptional eases were monks * See Daniel Haag-Wackeragel, Die Taube. Vm heilign Vogel dev Lihesgitin ur Strate sentaue (Base, 1998), 68, on pigeon postin Creek aig: 70°80 on he Use of the Bde for Roman civil and miley purpoes Proiegomena to 9 Sty ofthe Later Bearer in Cristian Aniguity 487 distance between them. | In other words, we are dealing with a Christianisa- tion of the tapas of separation between letter-writer and addressee, ‘We know that letter-bearing could be an anonymous and thankless occupa tion, Augustine states that he did not see the bearer of his letter, nor could he ‘evenremember who the bearer was." It could also be a hazardous occupation’ sometimes bearers were unable 10 deliver the letter because they died en route: When they arrived at their destination, their reception was not always guarznteed, Perhaps they met with one or other of the fates that Libanius out- lined for the recipient of one of his letters: “It is right and proper for you, if you are pleased with this letter, to show your gratitude to the bearer and, if you are annoyed, to punish him’ However, it is the delicacy involved in the ‘occupation of letter-bearing that is perhaps its most intriguing aspect, and here Tam going to turn to how verbal information from the letter-writer to the recipient was conveyed through the intermediary of the bearer. 4. Verbal communication by bearer Gillet points to the ‘oratorical nature of diplomatic missions’ in Classical Greece and Rome, where envoys were given something written to deliver, but also gave an oral report, for the function of the envoy was negotiation and advocacy, @ practice that extended into private episcopal comespondence in Tate entiquity:* “The correspondence of Bishop Ruricius of Limoges contains at least two sions of bearers setting out with only verbal messages. In one case he men tions a messenger co delivered a communication to him orally rather than bringing a leter; and in a second case he receives a bearer who conveys infor- ‘mation orally. * In tricky matters of ecclesiastical politics Leo I of Rome ‘entrusted confidential information to his bearers which they were to convey verbally.” ‘Sometimes the oral information was the product of caution or familiarity con other occasions it was a short-cut on the part of the letter-writer, particu. larly in letters of recommendation carried by the person recommended. The carriage of non-writen information was thus common enough and it was not 4 Se in detail Klos Taste, Grunge griechisch nimicherBrieflop, Zetemata. Mone- srapion ur Klaiichon Altrumsoisseschaft Hof 48 (Munich, 1970). 1748 ep, 1491.22 NBA 22, 19655, © hulp. 95: ef, Y. Couronne 1207-8, and Augustine, Ep 7.1.25 NBA 21/2, 54 4 Ep ds ed nd rans, AF Nona 1495. © A-Gilot, Envoy (2003), 1-26, ep. 26. 4 Epp. 2:0 and 264, MGA AA 8, 31 and 350, respectively. © Epps 67 and 85, Ep 67, ed Cates Sva-Tarouea Eplstula coma Eutchis haces. Lents Magni Tests ot dociment, Series hechogic, vol 20 (Rome. 1988) 157: Ep. 85, e Sila-Taroea, vo. 15 Rome, 1934). 488, Pau ‘without its dangers to the bearer, as Sidonius Apollinaris reports, He is refer- ting in the following extract to the procedures of the thought-police, particu larly in Visigothic-oecupied Gaul: courier [tabellaius] can by no means pass the guards of the publ ‘without a sirct scrutiny; he may indeed incur no danger, beng fre from guilt, but he usually experiences a great deal of difficulty, a the watchful searcher pres into every secret ofthe letier-catiers [gerulorum], and if theie answers to their questions should hhappen to show the least nervousness, they are believed to carry verbally in their beads the messages not committed to siting; thus the man sent often suffers il-tweatment and the sender acquires an ill name, more particularly in these days when the estab lished treaties of kingdoms long jealous of one another are made unstable by fresh

    Вам также может понравиться