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THE SELF FROM VARIOUS
PERSPECTIVES
Philosophy, Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology,
and Western & Oriental/Eastern Thought PHILOSOPHY
HOW DO YOU ANSWER THE QUESTION:
WHO AM I IN RELATION TO THE
NATURAL WORLD (COSMOS)?
Unit 1 1
Understanding the Self
Ancient Philosophy
1000 BC to 500 AD
Pre‐Soctratics (The Milesians)
Cosmo-centric
There is a fundamental principle/
Pre‐Socratic The Ancient Triumvirate thing that underlies everything else,
Post‐Aristotelians
(The Milesians) (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)
including the human self
Three Periods
Unit 1 2
Understanding the Self
Pre‐Soctratics (The Milesians)
Cosmo-centric
There is a fundamental principle/ thing that underlies
everything else, including the human self
Unit 1 3
Understanding the Self
Physical World Our Soul (Self)
Changeable, transient, imperfect Strive for wisdom and perfection
World of Senses/Matter
Reason is the soul’s tool to achieve such state
Two Aspects of Reality Dualistic Reality: Body and Soul A unified, indissoluble, immortal entity that
remains the same over time
Spiritual World That is in the very likeness of the divine
Unchanging, eternal, perfect
World of Ideas/Form
Unit 1 4
Understanding the Self
3‐Part Soul/Self (Psyche) 3‐Part Soul/Self (Psyche)
Reason: the divine essence that lets us think deeply The three are in a dynamic relationship with each other: in
(wisdom), make wise choices and achieve a true agreement or in conflict.
understanding of eternal truths.
But it is the responsibility of the Reason to restore harmony
Physical Appetite: accounts for the basic biological needs among the three.
such as hunger, thirst and sexual desire
Harmony: Justice in the individual, social, and political levels.
Spirit/Passion: accounts for the basic emotions such as
love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, empathy
Unit 1 5
Understanding the Self
The Post‐Aristotelians The Post‐Aristotelians
Stoicism
Maintains the dualism between Apathy or indifference to pleasure
body and soul
Hedonism
More ethical in the ideas
“Eat, drink, and be happy. For tomorrow, you will die.
moral norms‐ attainment of
happiness Epicureanism
Moderate pleasure
Medieval Philosophy
500 AD to 1350 AD
IS THE SELF RELATED TO A Theo‐centric
From the scientific investigation on
SUPREME BEING/GOD? nature and search for happiness to the
question of life and salvation in another
WHO AM I IN RELATION TO A realm, in a better world (i.e. the afterlife)
SUPREME BEING/GOD? Influence from ancient thought:
The (human) self endures through time.
Unit 1 6
Understanding the Self
Medieval Philosophy St. Augustine
500 AD to 1350 AD
More imposing than informing,
because it was trying to aim at
paganism and barbarism.
There was an aim to merge
philosophy and religion
(Christian, Jewish, Muslim)
St. Augustine St. Thomas Aquinas
Theologian, Philosopher Theologian, Philosopher
Integrates Platonic ideas with the Self‐knowledge is dependent on our
tenets of Christianity experience of the world around us
Platonic Realm of Idea/Forms = (objects in our environment)
Christian Philosophy of a We don’t encounter ourselves as
Transcendent God isolated minds or selves, but rather
The self strives to achieve union with always as agents interacting with our
God through faith and reason environment
Unit 1 7
Understanding the Self
St. Thomas Aquinas St. Thomas Aquinas
The labels we attribute to ourselves are
taken from the things we encounter in
our environment
“The things that we love tell
Gardener, Artist, Kind, Loving us what we are.”
St. Thomas Aquinas
Experiencing that something exists
doesn’t tell us what it is
If St. Thomas Tells us that our knowledge is based on our encounter of things,
Knowing and learning about a thing
Does this mean that we get to know requires a long process of
everything simply by experiencing it? understanding; same with the mind and
the self – with experience and reason
Unit 1 8
Understanding the Self
Modern Philosophy
14th Century to the early 20th Century
Genuine knowledge has to be based
HOW CAN I BE SURE THAT THE on independent rational inquiry and
real world experimentation, rather
SELF EXISTS? WHAT ARE THE than dependent on knowledge
PROOFS THAT THE SELF EXISTS? handed down by authorities.
Modern Philosophy René Descartes
14th Century to the early 20th Century A Rationalist; Mathematician, Philosopher, Scientist
Anthropocentric “Cogito ergo sum.”
Thinkers began to reject the scholastics’
I think, therefore, I am.
(medieval thinkers) excessive reliance on
authority Human identity: self‐awareness
Period of radical social, political and The Self if a thinking thing which
intellectual developments can exist independently of the body
Unit 1 9
Understanding the Self
René Descartes John Locke
Dualism An Empiricist; Physician & Philosopher
Knowledge originates in our direct
Pineal
Gland
sense experience.
Thinking
Reason plays a subsequent role in
(Spiritual) Self Physical Body figuring out the significance of our
Governed by the
Governed by laws of
reason & God’s will laws of nature
sense experience and in reaching
intelligent conclusions.
John Locke John Locke
The self is not necessarily embedded in
But the self endures because of
a single substance or soul, but exists in
memory.
space and time
Conscious awareness and memory
Every aspect of the physical body is
integrated with personal identity. The of previous experiences are the
body changes, the physical self changes. keys to understanding the self.
Unit 1 10
Understanding the Self
David Hume David Hume
An Empiricist, Skeptic, & Nihilist
There is no self!
Empiricism The self is a “bundle or collection of
Impressions – basic sensations of
experiences different perceptions, which succeed
Ideas – copies of our impressions each other in an inconceivable rapidity,
Impressions form a fleeting stream of
sensations and are in perpetual flux and movement.”
No constant and invariable self that exists as
a unified identity over the course of life.
Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant
Philosopher
A priori concepts: fundamental organizing rules or
Contests Hume’s idea by principles built into the architecture of the mind,
alluding to the primary which categorize, organize and synthesize sense data
experience of the world that into the familiar fabric of our lives, bounded by space
is not a disconnected stream and time.
of sensations. They are innate.
Unity of consciousness that makes the world intelligible
Unit 1 11
Understanding the Self
Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant
The self actively organizes all the sensations and The self exists independently of
thoughts into a picture that makes sense to each one and transcends experiences.
of us. WE CONSTRUCT THE SELF! The self is a transcendental
The self is not an object located in the consciousness, unifying principle of
but rather, it is a subject, an organizing principle that consciousness.
makes a unified and intelligible experience possible.
Sigmund Freud Gilbert Ryle
Father of Psychoanalysis Physicalist
The self is multi‐tiered/ Behaviorism
multi‐layered: No more dichotomy by denying
Conscious the inner selves, immortal
Preconscious souls, states of consciousness,
Unconscious or unconscious entities
Unit 1 12
Understanding the Self
Gilbert Ryle Paul Chruchland
Physicalist
The self is defined in terms of
behavior that is presented to the Eliminative Materialism:
world. grounded in neuroscience
The self is a pattern of behavior, • The mind/self is the brain
the tendency or disposition for a
person to behave in a certain way
in certain circumstances.
Contemporary Philosophy
Late 19th Century
Political Revolution
Industrial Revolution
Scientific advancements and growth of
DESCRIBE WHAT HAPPENS TO materialism
YOU WHEN YOU FALL IN LOVE Theory of Evolution
— PHYSICALLY, EMOTIONALLY, MENTALLY (COGNITIVELY) More humanist as a response to the so‐called
alienation of the human person.
Unit 1 13
Understanding the Self
Edmund Husserl Maurice Merleau‐Ponty
Father of Phenomenology French Philosopher
We experience our self as a “lived body”
unity which the in mental and An entity that can never be
objectified or known in a completely
physical are seamlessly woven objective sort of way, as opposed to
together. the “body as object” of the dualists.
“There is no duality of substance
but a dialectic of living being in its
biological milieu.”
WHICH AMONG THESE
PHILOSOPHIES CAN YOU RELATE
WITH? HOW DO THEY AFFECT THE SOCIOLOGY
WAY YOU SEE YOURSELF?
Unit 1 14
Understanding the Self
The Self in the Sociological Perspective The Self in the Sociological Perspective
The self is socially constructed in the
Classical sociological perspective: sense that it is shaped through
the self is a relatively stable set of interaction with other people.
perceptions of who we are in As with socialization in general, the
relation to ourselves, others, and individual is not a passive participant in
to social systems. this process and have a powerful
influence over how this process and its
consequences develop.
The Looking Glass Self The Looking Glass Self
Charles Horton Cooley: Charles Horton Cooley:
Actually, how we see ourselves does not come from who we really
A person’s self grows out of a person´s are, but rather from how we believe others see us.
social interactions with others.
The view of ourselves comes from the
contemplation of personal qualities and
impressions of how others perceive us. HOW MY HOW MY HOW MY EX‐
PARENTS GIRLFRIEND GIRLFRIEND
SEE ME SEES ME SEES ME
Unit 1 15
Understanding the Self
The Self in the Anthropological Perspective
The Self embedded in the culture
The significance of the self is greatly
underestimated in anthropology.
Identity (shared with others) vs. Self
ANTHROPOLOGY Western Self vs. non‐western Self: Individualistic vs.
Collectivistic
Content Outline
The self as a Cognitive Construction
William James and the Me‐Self; I‐Self
Global vs differentiated model
Real and Ideal self concepts
PSYCHOLOGY Multiple vs Unified selves
True vs. False selves
Unit 1 16
Understanding the Self
Start of Self
START OF SELF The origin of one’s self start when a man and
a woman become attracted to one another
and have sexual relationship and later on the
woman got pregnant
Start of Self
THE SELF BASED ON
PSYCHO‐ANALYTIC APPROACHES
When she gives birth to a child that is the
start of the development of the self of the
newly born person.
Unit 1 17
Understanding the Self
The Self based on Psycho‐Analytic Approach The Self based on Psycho‐Analytic Approach
Unconscious Forces
Libido
the energy of the sexual drive as a
component of the life instinct.
Sex is influenced by biological,
psychological and social factors.
ID EGO SUPEREGO
Unit 1 18
Understanding the Self
The Id represents the basic need of man. If it is not
satisfied it could result to stress and tension but if
How could the ID be controlled?
satisfied it could give you comfort and joy.
What do you want to be?
If the id is properly If the id is angered or provoked it
controlled it could bring or
could destroy not only himself
warmth and comfort but also his surrounding
Do I have a choice?
What can I do
Power of Choice Output
Thinking Consists of ways of behaving
Reasoning and thinking that are socially
acceptable
Consequences/
Outcome
Unit 1 19
Understanding the Self
Product of your choice made possible by
The Egp
your ego
Product of your choice made possible by your ego
Whatever you have done or product you produce it is always subject
for evaluation
According to functionalists, mental states are identified by what they
do rather than by what they are made of.
Pride guilt
conscience
Unit 1 20
Understanding the Self
Wiliam James Theory Functionalism
Focused on the operation of conscious activity
According to James's pragmatism, the Example: thinking and learning
value of an idea is dependent upon its Study of man’s adjustment to his environment
usefulness in the practical world rather Materials
than its absolute truth. Capacities
Skills
Self ‐ concept
Mental representation
what we look like
How we feel in different types of situation
THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE How we behave towards others
What do we do at work
CONSTRUCTION What are the roles we have in the family or society
Unit 1 21
Understanding the Self
“I and the Me” self ( social
Imaginary Audience
philosophy of George Herbert Mead,
Adolescents are thought to believe that others are always watching symbolic interactionism.
and evaluating them, and that they are special and unique the "me" is the socialized aspect of the person
and the "I" is the active aspect of the person
Real and Ideal Self
A person's ideal self may not be consistent with what actually What is commonly referred to as self is not just a consequence of
happens in life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference inherited disposition but is substantially created and modified by our
may exist between a person's ideal self and actual experience. ... interactions with those around us.
Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self‐actualization
they must be in a state of congruence.
Unit 1 22
Understanding the Self
Self defined by social comparison (Festinger, Self defined by social comparison (Festinger,
1954) 1954)
Depending on the level of someone’s motivation, he may have the
tendency to compare himself with others either in an upward or
downward kind of comparison. Festinger’s theory states that an
upward comparison happens when the person compares himself with
others who are better than him while downward comparison
happens when he compares himself with others who are worse than
him.
There are two kinds of downward comparisons:
A highly motivated person tends to engage in upward comparisons, PASSIVE DOWNWARD COMPARISON
and usually assume himself as better or equal to the “best person”. Passive downward comparison happens when a person takes into
Studies have shown that if given a chance, people choose to make consideration the previous condition in making comparison. For example, a
low performing student comparing himself with a worse off student.
upward comparisons instead of downward ones.
ACTIVE DOWNWARD COMPARISON
Active downward comparison happens when a person compares himself
On the other hand, when someone is unhappy or is unmotivated, he with others by demeaning or causing harm to them. By derogating the
usually engages in downward comparisons in order to feel better target or causing harm to him, this person generates a situation in which
about himself. the target is worse off than him, therefore giving him the chance to make a
downward comparison.
Unit 1 23
Understanding the Self
Self‐evaluation and self‐enhancement
Self esteem
Motivation plays a role in this model and is manifested by self‐ used to describe a person's overall sense of self‐worth or personal
evaluation and self‐enhancement. Self‐evaluation occurs when value. In other words, how much you appreciate and like yourself.
someone looks for positive traits in himself based on the best person Self‐esteem is often seen as a personality trait, which means that it
he compares himself with. Self‐enhancement, on the other hand, tends to be stable and enduring.
occurs when the person questions which aspects of himself need to
be improved to reach the level of goodness of the person he is
comparing himself with.
Reference Group The Creation of Identities
a group to which an individual or another group is compared. One’s identity must balance the need to be similar to one’s reference
Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for group with the need to be a unique individual
evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.
Children become aware of the need for a group identity and are often afraid
or acting differently.
Teens often seem torn between the need to assert their own individual
identity and the need to conform to their reference group
New identities are forged in relation to work, parenthood, economic status
and ageing
Unit 1 24
Understanding the Self
Self esteem
Body image
Body reality
Body ideal THE SELF IN WESTERN
Body presentation AND EASTERN THOUGHT
Stigma Individualistic and Collective self
Social roles
Social rules
Individualism Collectivism
A human being has an A human being is an integral
individualistic nature and is an part of the universe and the
independent part of the society.
universe and the society. People are fundamentally
connected.
Duty towards all others is a very
http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/007040187x/student_view0/chapter2/self‐
important matter.
assessment_2_8.html
Kotelnikov & Bibikova, n.d.
Unit 1 25
Understanding the Self
Individualism
Being dependent
Individual rights take Independence is upon others is often
WHAT ARE center stage highly valued considered shameful
CHARACTERISTICS/BELIEFS OF or embarrassing
Collectivism
Social rules focus on
promoting selflessness Working as a group and
WHAT ARE and putting the
community needs ahead
supporting others is
essential
CHARACTERISTICS/BELIEFS OF of individual needs
Cherry, 2017
Unit 1 26
Understanding the Self
Western
WESTERN OR EASTERN?
Eastern
Analytic and
deductive Some qualities
imparted to the
Monotheistic 1 Western subjective self
THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN
THOUGHT Individualistic
The social construction of the Self in Western thought
Materialistic
Johnson, 1985
and realistic
Unit 1 27
Understanding the Self
Asian schools of thought
1 Buddhism
2 Hinduism
THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN
THOUGHT 3 Taoism
The Self as embedded in relationships and through spiritual development in
Confucian thought
4 Confucianism
Buddhism Buddhism
Buddha denies the self: no self, no individual
Buddha discovered why life is filled with suffering
and how humanity can escape from this unhappy No‐self is the nature of an intuitive and subjective
existence perception toward oneself beyond the ordinary range
of human experience that is full of the anxieties and
defensiveness
Experience in the transformations of
consciousness and stages of meditation To study the self is to deny the self
When self becomes anxiety‐free, one can act spontaneously
Jun, 2005 Jun, 2005
Unit 1 28
Understanding the Self
Buddhism Hinduism
Everything is impermanent in the continuous
Hindus believe that an individual’s action
becoming of lived experience
(Karma) – the bad or good actions that
the individual performed in a previous
Implies emphasis on compassion for others and life determines his or her caste
conduct ourselves with restraint out of a sense of
responsibility
Jun, 2005 Jun, 2005
Taoism
Relativity of opposites i.e. yin and yang
Self does not exist without the existence of the
other
Self as a separate identity is supported by the equal and
opposite sensation of otherness
Jun, 2005
Unit 1 29
Understanding the Self
Confucianism Who am I?
Confucianism
The self in Confucianism is the starting point of a
constructive process
For western philosophers, the concept of the self is the end of their searches.
Where am I Who will I
from? be?
Yao, 1996 Yao, 1996
Confucianism Confucianism
First, there is the mere love of morality: that alone,
without culture, degenerates into fatuity. Secondly, It is only through the continuous opening up of the
there is the mere love of knowledge: that alone self to others that the self can maintain its
without culture, tends to dilettantism. Thirdly, there wholesome personal identity.
is the mere love of honesty: that alone without
culture, produces heartlessness. Fourthly, there is A person who is not responsive to others is self‐centered.
the mere love of uprightness: that alone, without The Analects of
culture, produces recklessness. Sixthly, there is the Confucius
mere love of strength of character, that alone
without culture, produces eccentricity. Jun, 2005 Wei‐ming, 1985
Unit 1 30
Understanding the Self
Recognize
Confucianism presence of
parents in every
dimension of
Son must lived reality
Confucian self is relational and interdependent
learn to
suppress his Filial Piety
own desires
unquestioned obedience
Belief that certain sets of human relationships are of the son to the
basis for moral community authority of the father
Father
should act
Elder and Friend fatherly
Ruler and Father Husband
younger and
minister and son and wife
brother friend Filiality and
brotherliness
are bases of
humanity
Wei‐ming, 1985 Wei‐ming, 1985
Confucianism
Selfhood is endowed by heaven
How can I realize My relationships are
my selfhood as vitally important, if
ignored, I can longer
the heaven‐ face up to the reality
endowed of who I am in a
humanity? holistic sense.
Wei‐ming, 1985
Unit 1 31