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OVERVIEW OF WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR -------------------------------------- 1

WATER RESOURCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Groundwater ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Surface Water -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Treated Waste Water ----------------------------------------------------------------- 5
WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND ------------------------------------------------------------ 5
Households------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5
Non-agriculture (Industries) --------------------------------------------------------- 9
Agriculture ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
WATER BALANCE---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Water Balance 1993 & 2000 ------------------------------------------------------ 12
Water Balance 2020 ---------------------------------------------------------------- 12
TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE ---------------------------------------------------------- 16
Water Supply Systems ------------------------------------------------------------- 16
Waste Water Systems-------------------------------------------------------------- 17
Storm Water Systems -------------------------------------------------------------- 17
WATER QUALITY --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
SANITATION -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

LIST OF TABLES --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

LIST OF FIGURES-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

The National Land Use and Development Master Plan is referred to as the Plan in the text.

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Overview of water and sanitation sector
The water and sanitation sector in Rwanda is organized under three core sub-
sectors:
Water and sanitation: This sub sector comprises of the rural water and sanitation
supply as well as urban water and sanitation services. This subsector houses the
responsibility of the construction of safe water facilities such as gravity flow
schemes, boreholes, and rain water harvesting systems. It also promotes
adequate sanitation and hygiene and behavioural change in the local communities.
The urban water and sanitation component is responsible for water and sanitation
supply in urban areas. In the city of Kigali and other urban centres, water supply
services are the responsibility of RWASCO.
Water for production: This sub sector provides water for agriculture irrigation,
livestock production and fisheries, as well as for urban/rural industrialization and
recreation. Water for production is increasingly becoming important for the future
development of the agricultural sector in Rwanda in line with the EDPRS. Contrary
to sector indications on water for economic use, there are no specific definition of
its scope and objectives.
Integrated water resources management: Ongoing WRM programmes focus on
strategic investment in the development and protection of the country’s water
resources which are critical elements in the economic and social developments.
The sector does face several challenges which include the following:
Weakness in sector coordination and collaboration at the national and local
levels; given the multi-stakeholder arrangement of the water and sanitation
sector in Rwanda. The formation of the Water and Sanitation Sector
Working group is a great opportunity towards beginning to address this
problem.
Limited capacity of sector at all levels; in terms of numbers, required skills
and resources. This is even worse at the newly created decentralized
levels who are now struggling to take on this new mandate. A proposal for
sector wide capacity building program is underway.
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It is estimated that over 30% of the existing water systems need
rehabilitation. This has been caused by weak community
management systems and capacities, lack of spares and
chemicals.
Poor access to updated baseline information and absence of a
system for collection, managing and dissemination of pertinent
information on water sources and sanitation to guide decision
making.
Water Resources
Water is an abundant resource in Rwanda with a lot of potential for
development. The water resources mainly constitute lakes, rivers,
marshlands and ground water with the main source of water being
rainfall. In comparison the lakes cover more area than rivers for the
surface water resources. The national hydrological system is divided into
two main drainage basins the Nile to the east covering 67 per cent and
delivering 90 per cent of the national waters and the Congo to the west
which covers 33 per cent and delivers the rest of the national waters
(MINITERE 2005).
The surface freshwater covers 8.6% of the total national surface area
with lakes covering 128,190 Ha; rivers and streams covering 7,260 Ha;
and valley and marshland water resources covering 77,000 Ha
(MINITERE 2005).
The major perennial rivers with considerable volume include
Nyabarongo, Mukungwa, Muvumba, Akanyaru, Akagera, Ruvubu, and
Base all of which are in the Nile Basin. Some have been selected for
hydro electric power production such as the Nyabarongo with several
potential locations; and the largest to be constructed at Rusumo falls on
the Akagera River. The Nyabarongo and Akagera rivers in the east have
potential for irrigation that is yet to be developed.
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Figure 1: The Water Cycle Over time the country’s water needs and utilisation have increased as
intensification in the agricultural and industrial sectors has increased thus
raising the water demand. Other competing sectors that contribute to
increased water utilisation include domestic and hydro-power generation
water requirements that have increased without the corresponding raise
in the national water stock development. The increasing population has
raised pressure on water resource resulting in reduced per capita volume
of water per year, with respect to the current production capacities and
utilisation levels of the country’s stock.

Most interventions in water resources management so far, both local and

international have addressed the development of urban and rural water
supply with various projects as compared to the minimal efforts financed
that specifically target protecting the quantity and quality of water as a
resource. These interventions have been hosted by several departments
which have changed through different institutions through the
restructuring of ministries that have seen the merging and relocation of
portfolios from one ministry to another.

Surface water today is the main source of water in the country, and is to
a large extent under-developed. In 2000 the proportion of renewable
water resources withdrawn was 2%.of the available10km3 (AQUASTAT).
The above water use was equivalent to 815m3/person in that year.
Furthermore, the water resource sector in Rwanda has witnessed
continuous administrative changes. Plans are underway to establish a
body with overall responsibility of the management of water resources.

The most productive lakes so far have been Ruhondo and Bulera in the North that
are used for hydro electricity production. The largest lake, L. Kivu has high natural
gas reserves and is under prospection to establish its potential for the generation of
electricity. Preliminary testing has proven that theses resources can be used for
electricity generation.
The water and sanitation sector as well as part of rural water supply is
under the Ministry of infrastructure whereas RWASCO covers urban as
well as rural water supply. RWACO enters into contract with Private
Water Suppliers who manage water points in the rural areas.

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Figure 2: Water Hyacinth on Kagera R. Figure 4: Rusumo Falls

Figure 3: Kagera R. Figure 5: Mukungwa R.

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Groundwater Table 1: Classification of the Major Lakes in Rwanda

Groundwater is one of fresh water resources in Rwanda although it has not been Lakes Area (Ha) Characteristics
utilized due to the population’s reliance on surface water resources for domestic,
Ruhondo & Ruhondo – 2,800 High altitude lakes
industrial and to a lesser extent agricultural use. Ground water production in
Bulera Bulera – 5,500 Relatively acidic
Rwanda is estimated at 7km3/year. Overlap between surface water and Deep lakes
groundwater is 100% of groundwater recharge; most of the groundwater is drained Low biodiversity and
by the rivers (equivalent to the low flow of water courses), as Rwanda is a humid phytoplankton
landlocked country. (AQUASTAT 2010) Kivu 102,000 Depth: 478 – 480 m
Low oxygen content
Information about ground water extraction is still low since most the exploited water Muhazi 3,400 Av. Depth: 3 – 5m
in the country is surface water. A survey by the ministry of natural resources Bugesera Sake – 1,430 Av. Depth: 3-5m
indicates that ground water resources are made up of about 22,300 small water district Mugesera – 3,920 High PH
sources that feed the rivers, streams and lakes. Studies conducted on ground complex Rweru – 1,868 High turbidity
Cyohoha North High Phosphorous and
water aquifers indicate an annual recharge rate of 0.53 billion m³. (MINITERE
and South – organic content.
2004) 1,230
Surface Water Birira – 540
Akagera Rwampanga – 900 Av. Depth: 4 – 5m
In the country surface water resources are made up of collected rainfall and park Nasho – 1,300
reservoirs such as streams, rivers, lakes and marshlands. In some districts where complex Ihema – 7,190
the access to fresh water through the district or privately managed sources is low, Kivumba – 920
unprotected streams and rivers constitute an important water resource; however, Hago – 1,610
surface water is not at all used to its full capacity. Rwanyakizinga –
2,000
Mihindi – 1,080
The major lakes in Rwanda are normally classified (see table below) according to
their general characteristics such as altitude and depth. Source: MINITERE 2005 and NTEAP 2005

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Figure 6: Annual Rainfall the individual and institutional waste water treatment systems is mostly
discharged into the ground or directed to wetlands and surface water
resources. Insignificant amounts are recycled for re-use in the industrial
sector.
Water Supply and Demand

Households
A survey of the status of water supply services and facilities, conducted
by the Ministry of infrastructure in 2008 shows an increase in water
supply services and infrastructure, notably the involvement of the private
sector in the management of rural water supply infrastructure. The
proceeding tables show a summary of the survey results of water
production and accessibility by provinces and districts.

Treated Waste Water

Treated waste water constitutes a potential water resource since about 32% of the
water withdrawn in 2000 is attributed to industrial and domestic water use and most
is generated into waste water without treatment. There is currently no centralised
wastewater treatment systems except a few that serve individual industries and
some high end housing estates. Only small amounts of treated waste water from
working waste water treatment plants are being used. This is a waste of valuable
water resources and efforts should be made to increase the use of treated waste
water for irrigation purposes.

FAO statistics (AQUASTAT) indicate that treated waste water contribution to the
national renewable water resources is zero. This is so because the effluent from

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Table 2: Water Production and Accessibility to Water Provinces' Summary Table 3: Water Production and Accessibility to Water-Districts'
Summary
Kigali
Province City South West North East TOTAL Average water
Total water supply
National Indicators Production Average water (litre/capita
District Total population (m3) accessibility (%) /day)
Total population 892036 2266110 2250086 1610831 2038107 9057170
Total water
GASABO 398282 34258 96.71 86.01
production(m3
) 72632 145478 114312 99984 63034 495441
KICUKIRO 246664 19090 96.64 77.39
Average water
NYARUGENG
accessibility
E 247090 19285 96.67 78.05
(%) 96.68 67.44 75.4 68.91 73.01 73.81
Average water GISAGARA 278367 21213 51.32 76.2
supply
(litre/capita/da HUYE 288203 18557 74.16 64.39
y) 81.42 64.2 50.8 62.07 30.93 54.7
KAMONYI 287881 11417 53.23 39.66
Source: MININFRA 2009 MUHANGA 299658 25690 94.41 85.73

NYAMAGABE 311808 25856 48.29 82.92

NYANZA 262713 10216 88.35 38.89

NYARUGURU 256855 20858 58.46 81.21

RUHANGO 280625 11672 72.22 41.59

KARONGI 293816 20425 88.67 69.52

NGORORER
O 311834 15677 84.7 50.27

NYABIHU 298163 12950 59.55 43.43

NYAMASHEK
E 344222 21092 50.02 61.27

RUBAVU 349224 13306 78.94 38.1

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Estimates basing on current RWASCO water production indicate that

RUSIZI 356823 16330 84.31 45.76
average annual production from all the station is 16,676,299m3/year (see
RUTSIRO 296004 14532 82.99 49.09 table below). The estimates also indicate the average water loss through
leakages.
BURERA 320123 15849 49.1 49.51
Table 4: The average Water Loss through Leakages
GAKENKE 334236 26443 69.41 79.11
Billed
GICUMBI 360237 19609 86.41 54.43 Supplied Efficiency Leakage Total Network
No. Station Water
Water (m3/year) (%) (m3/year) Length (m)
MUSANZE 331254 22172 83.24 66.93 (m3/year)
1 Kigali 9 975 522 7 326 795 73.45 682 1 179 476
RULINDO 264981 15912 50.49 60.05
2 Huye 1 102 689 706 869 64.10 156 212 171
BUGESERA 294013 6349 51.46 21.59 3 Rwamagana 360 700 281 939 78.16 94 93 787
4 Ngoma 262 065 166 663 63.60 104 69 264
GATSIBO 350403 14279 56.25 40.75 5 Gicumbi 315 139 226 258 71.80 134 61 697
6 Rusizi 360 793 231 134 64.06 127 93 391
KAYONZA 255119 6624 89.42 25.96 7 Karongi 211 875 104 256 49.21 173 41 340
8 Nyanza 243 366 175 459 72.10 137 89 926
KIREHE 278708 7669 60.96 27.52
9 Rubavu 1 635 684 1 048 548 64.10 219 268 136
NGOMA 277129 9358 80.49 33.77 10 Musanze 1 316 392 864 680 65.69 110 168 759
11 Muhanga 493 886 312 098 63.19 146 172 509
NYAGATARE 326588 10041 89.07 30.75 12 Nyamagabe 225 479 165 887 73.57 135 59 057
RWAMAGAN 13 Nyagatare 172 709 89 802 51.99 300 3 805
A 256147 8713 88.86 34.02 TOTAL 16 676 299 11 700 388 70.16 2 517 2 513 318
Source: MININFRA 2009
Statistics from RWASCO, the main urban water supply utility, indicate that the
water demand in Kigali city is 55,080 m3 /day, whereas nominal production is
30,525m3 / day, thus creating a deficit in the fresh water requirements for Kigali.
The table below show the estimated consumption of water in 2005 and the
projected water demand for 2020. The demand for water in Kigali and the rural
areas will double as compared to the demand in rural areas which will be much
higher for the semi-urban settlements as the population increases and urban areas
expand.

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Table 5: Overview of RWASCO Production in 2006, 2007 and 2008.

No Station Av. Water Av. Water Av. Water

Production Production Production
(m3/day) (m3/day) (m3/day)
2006 2007 2008
1 Kigali 24,078 27,330 35,412
2 Huye 2,632 3,021 3,113
3 Rwamagana 890 988 1,121
4 Ngoma 729 718 770
5 Gicumbi 785 863 844
6 Rusizi 1,253 988 1,039
7 Karongi 473 580 532
8 Nyanza 281 617 749
9 Rubavu 4,092 4,481 4,879
10 Musanze 2,269 3,607 3,083
11 Muhanga 952 1,353 1,494
12 Nyamagabe 583 618 620
13 Nyagatare 558 473 582
TOTAL 39,576 45,688 54,236
Source: RWASCO

However, RWASCO production of water is far from sufficient to cover the demand
in all districts and it is not evenly distributed in the country, see Table above.
Pipeline leakages, estimated to cause an average water loss of ranging between
50% (Karongi station) and 22% (Rwamagana station) reduce the amount of fresh
water reaching the populations.

In the households, hotels and restaurants water saving techniques in toilets,

kitchens and other facilities are hardly used. Public awareness on the scarcity of
water is low and awareness on the need to use water wisely needs strengthening.
Efforts have however been made by the national water and sanitation programme
in raising awareness on the need for protecting water infrastructure in rural areas.

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Demand for water will increase in the country as the standard of living is rising. Table 6: Industries that Contribute to Water Withdrawal
Future water consumption is therefore to a large extent dependent on the
improvement of putting in place new water supply infrastructure that will sufficiently Industry types Number
satisfy the water demands. Agro-processing 40
Chemical industries 29
Non-agriculture (Industries) Printeries and paper industries 14
Compared to household and agricultural consumption, the water demand by Metal works 10
industries is still the lowest registering only 8% of the total water consumed in Mining 7
2000. Most of the industries are located in Kigali city province and their main Non metals & fabrication 6
leather and tanning 3
access to water is through RWASCO. Textile 2
There is not enough information on industrial water extraction and this could be Electricity, gas and water supply 1
attributed to the reason that water produced by RECO-
MINITERE 2005
RWASCO is supplied to both households and industries in the same network and is
represented as a single production figure. Some industries however supplement Agriculture
this supply with sources developed individually and industrial water re-use is not a Information on the exact agricultural water extraction is not easily
common practice. A study on the Knowledge and Management of Water data done determined because all the agriculture in Rwanda is rain fed, although
under PGNRE in June 2005 projects that coffee washing stations will consume this is supplemented by water collected in dams in the case of rice
130.000 m ³/yr by the year 2010 in the rural areas. Agro processing and chemical growing. Some of the statistics provided by organisations such as FAO
industries are the largest contributors to water withdrawals. The following table are based on the annual rainfall averages and soil infiltration rates.
provides an indication of actual number of industry in each sub sector. The agricultural sector is the main consumer of water in the country. The
use of groundwater in this sector has not been explored yet. With
agricultural intensification and enforcing strategies that ensure food
security in the country, the water withdrawal by the agriculture will
increase. Although this increase in demand is dependent .
Water Balance
The pressures on water resources primarily result from man utilising the
natural resources to address his basic needs of sustenance and those of
social-economic development of a society. The effects of mans
interaction with the water resources is demonstrated in the change in the
quantity and quality of water. All aspects of human activities in Rwanda

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have produced varying impacts and degrees of modification to the available water
resources.
The most recent survey undertaken by Ministry of infrastructure in 2008 to establish
the baseline situation of the water and sanitation sector does not put emphasis on
the actual freshwater consumption in the domestic, agriculture and industry
sectors. Therefore the figures used to show the water balance for the country, in
this section are sourced from the AQUASTAT (FAO information system on water
and agriculture) country water profiles and country water balance data bases. The
water balance for 1993 and 2000 shows the estimates for available fresh water
resources and the water consumption through domestic, industrial and agricultural
uses.

Figure 7: Water Production per District 2009 (next page)

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production increase of 1000% in 2020 from the situation in 2000 in

Water Balance 1993 & 2000
order to demonstrate the potential of developing the water resources
The water balance is calculated using data acquired for the years 1993 and 2000 in for economic development. All the calculations are based on the
Rwanda, see table below annual renewable water resources being 6,300 Mm3/yr. In addition to
the natural water resources an assumption is made that by 2020
Table 7: Water Balance, 1993 and 2000
there will be a significant increase in amount recycled water from treat
Year 1993 2000
waste water as compared to zero supply in 2000.
Consumption/Supply Million m3/year Million m3/year
The result in the table below show that both scenarios i.e. low and
Consumption Household 31 36
high production increase, are feasible and still within the national
Non-agriculture 12 water resources sustainable utilization limits.
(industry) 15
Table 8: Water balance 2020, balance for 2000 inserted for
Agriculture 722 102 comparison, in Mm2 (million cubic meters) per year
Sub Total 768 150
2000 Low High
Supply Total Water 6300
5000 Production Production
Resources
Increase Increase
Treated Waste 0 (200%) (1000%)
Water 0
Million Million m3/year Million m3/year
Water Balance /Deficit 4232 6150 Consumption/Supply m3/year

The results above show that there is a large deficit and that country is underutilising its Consumption Household 36 108 396
fresh water resources. It should however be noted that amount of water consumed Non-agriculture 12 36 132
does not reflect that actual demand in the respective sectors and that the supply is (industry)
estimates of total annual renewable water resources. Therefore the resulting deficit is
an indication of the potential for expansion and development of water resources for Agriculture 102 306 1122
economic development. Sub Total 150 450 1650
Water Balance 2020 Supply Total Water 6300 6300 6300
Resources
The water balance calculation for 2020 is based on the assumption that water
consumption will increase tremendously due to improved infrastructure development, Treated Waste 0 4 15
Water
efficient service delivery resulting in expanded water utilisation in the domestic,
industrial and agricultural sector. The water balance assumes an ambitious high Water Balance /Deficit 6150 5854 4665

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It should be noted that total exploitable or manageable water resources, sometimes

referred to as water development potential, are smaller than the natural water
resources (in the case above 6,300 Mm3/yr). They comprise that part of the water
resources which is considered to be available for development taking into
consideration the economic and environmental feasibility of exploiting these resources
in a sustainable manner.

Figure 8: Water Supply per District

Figure 9: Water Accessibility per District

(See next 2 pages)

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Rural areas have four kinds of infrastructure types for providing

Technical Infrastructure
Technical infrastructure for water consists of water supply systems, waste water
systems, and storm water systems. The existing technical infrastructure needs a lot of
improvement to support the needed increase in water production. Investments and
maintenance to reach reliability are cornerstones in the technical infrastructure.
access to drinking water i.e. small developed water sources, simple
gravity supply systems, complex water supply systems and boreholes
with hand pumps. The system of developed small water sources is
the most common source and method by which rural populations
access drinking water.

Water Supply Systems Figure 10: Protected Water Sources

Water supply systems are comprised of reservoirs, treatment plants, network
infrastructure for water distribution, and auxiliary technical systems such as pumping
stations. Functioning water supply systems distribute quality potable water to
households and industries. In Rwanda the bulk of the water treatment stations is in the
urban areas and is managed by RWASCO whereas the rural areas are supplied by
simpler systems. Rwanda has embarked on a programme to improve access and
coverage of water supply to 100% by 2020. The proposed technical solutions and
investment calculations are provided in strategic action plan of the national policy and
strategy for water supply and sanitation services.

According to the national inventory in 2008 access to improved sources of drinking

water reached about 74% (rural: 71%, urban: 88%). The inventory also indicated that
national water supply coverage (at 500 m for rural areas and 200 m for urban areas) is
73.8% (70.8% rural, 87.5% urban); and the lowest district average reported being
48%. (MININFRA 2010).

Drinking water supply in urban areas has been entrusted to the public utility RWASCO
operating on a commercial basis. RWASCO has many water supply sources in Kigali
and around the country. These include surface water sources that provides a daily
supply of 24,000 m³, ground water sources providing 3,500 m³ . The company  
manages 15 water supply systems with 286 public standpipes and 22,806 private
connections (MINITERE 2004). Currently RWASCO covers thirteen towns including MININFRA 2009
the city of Kigali.

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The water supply infrastructure in the rural areas was until recently the sole
responsibility of government without the active participation in management by the
beneficiary communities. This led to the deterioration of the installations and reduction
in drinking water produced. The government has put in place a mechanism where
responsibility of management and maintenance is delegated to the districts. Despite
this, the needs for rehabilitating existing water supply facilities and establishing new
ones in the rural areas are still high. (MINITERE 2004).
Figure 11: Chart of the Distribution of Drinking Water Supply Sources in
Rwanda.
Ordinairy Well 2%
Elctrogaz Customers
Borehole 6% 3%
Waste water treatment facilities are few in urban areas and virtually
nonexistent in the rural areas in Rwanda. Disposal of industrial
effluents is problematic since there is no treatment plant for this type
of waste and such the new industries have installed individual waste
water treatment systems, which is a prerequisite before they get
approval to begin operation. Waste water systems in the urban areas
are still deficient
Storm Water Systems
Storm water systems are designed to collect and dispose of
rainwater. Well functioning storm water systems limit flooding and are
needed when rainwater is utilized as a resource.

The storm water drainage systems in most urban areas are

Streams /Rivers 19% Others 0%
inadequate. The existing infrastructure was installed for a smaller
population but as the urban centres increase the infrastructure is
stretched beyond capacity. This is exacerbated by the construction of
new settlements without effective storm water systems. The runoff
Public Standpipe(free impact of unmanaged storm water on people and environment is
of Charge) 37%
manifold. Missing or badly maintained infrastructure causes erosion of
Developed water Tap Purchases 8%
usable land, increases flooding, and endangers private and public
Sources 16% infrastructure. Combined with poor liquid and solid waste collection in
Undeveloped Water
urban settlements, runoff also carries pollutants such as
Sources 9%
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, bacteria, sediment, pesticides and
fertilizers into streams or groundwater threatening environmental
Source MININFRA 2009 health. The ongoing urban growth in Kigali and other centres
Waste Water Systems increases storm water volumes, erosion risks and the danger of
flooding. (MININFRA 2010)
Waste water systems include waste water treatment plants, sewerage pipeline
networks, and auxiliary technical systems like pumping stations. Functioning waste Water quality
water systems guarantee the proper collection and treatment of waste wasters, and
Pressure, over the recent years, has been exerted on the water
allow for appropriately treated waste water to be used as a product.
resources through emerging and increased water use, with
subsequent demands without matching increments or considerable

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maintenance of the existing water stock. This change has not only affected the water
quantity but also the quality as well thus rendering the resources unusable without the
necessary treatment. In addition increasing demand for agricultural land and urban
expansion has contributed to watershed and catchment destruction.
Population increase coupled with urban growth has directly contributed to water
demand and annual fresh water withdrawals in Rwanda. The increase in population
and use of water resources has also contributed to the decline of water quality
resulting in the water resources at both surface and groundwater levels being
degraded.
Agricultural intensification mainly demonstrated through wetland conversion for rice
growing has affected both the quality and quantity of the Water resources. The
destruction of the wetland function of water recharge directly reduces the water
amount available to other users and leaves the lowlands and downstream areas more
susceptible to floods.
The use of chemical fertilisers, fungicides and insecticides in order to increase yields
has modified the chemical composition of some of these hydrologically connected
water resources. These chemicals are filtered and later join other water sources most
of which form the rural domestic water supply points such as wells and streams.
Increased housing developments associated with urbanisation, directly affects the
soils’ physical characteristics thus lowering water infiltration and increasing runoff and
soil erosion. This has happened in Kigali and to a lesser extent in the provincial
capitals in the country. Roofing of housing complexes and paving of roads and other
access routes has reduced the surface area available for soil infiltration. During the
rainy season much of the run-off flows to the valleys below with minimal infiltration
which is one of the main ground water recharge pathways. In cases of the existence of
open sewers and exposed drainage canals, the rain water carries along with it the
domestic waste directly into the marshlands below as is the case for the Gikondo and
Nyabugogo wetlands for Kigali city. The direct impact of reduced soil infiltration is
08_WaterSanitation_SteeringCommitteDraft 18
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increased run-off; soil erosion on bare soils and siltation of water
ways in the lower slopes or marshlands.
Domestic waste water
Most of the buildings in the urban areas are not connected to a
centralised waste water treatment systems or facilities, with the
exceptions of high standing residential areas in Kigali namely
Nyarutarama and the “Caisse Sociale” housing estates in Kacyiru and
Kagugu.
The rest of the buildings have individual sewage treatment systems
that allow for the percolation of the treated effluent into the ground
through leaching pits. This kind of localised handling of waste raises
risk of ground water contamination through malfunctioning and/or
inefficient waste treatment systems.
The main cause for this situation is the absence of centralised or
sewage treatment networks for urban and peri-urban settlements.
Agriculture based chemical pollution
The use of agricultural inputs such as industrial fertilisers, pesticides
or herbicides is still low and is mainly used in the commercial crops
like rice and Irish potatoes which are grown at a large scale.
The most common fertiliser used in Irish potato farming is
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) whereas MANCOZEB is the mostly
used fungicide. Rice growing mainly uses NPK (17-17-17) resulting in
heavy deposition of Phosphorous and Nitrogen in the marshland
waters (MNITERE 2005). The rice growing is done in reclaimed
marshlands that still have hydrological connections to other
marshlands that form sources of water for some rivers and lakes.
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Coffee growing also contributes to water pollution both during the growing phase and
processing (washing) stage. The fungicides and pesticides contaminate the ground
water through soil infiltration and the surface through surface run-off and soil erosion.
Other effects associated with agricultural intensification have been observed to
include:
Physical destruction of the ecological habitats through severe soil erosion
Chemical destruction of the aquatic habitats through pesticides and fertilisers
application and consequently seeping into water resources.
Industrial pollution
Most of the industries lack efficient waste treatment facilities and the resulting poorly
treated effluent ends up in streams and marshlands. In some cases the effluent is
directed to lakes. Even with a small number of operational industries as compared to
other cities in the region, this unchecked pollution has considerably contributed to the
deterioration of water resources in the Gikondo, Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo
marshlands in Kigali. Industries are the main contributors to water pollution mainly
through the deposition of untreated effluent in streams, rivers and marshlands.
In addition to the main stream industries, factories and other processing plants, the
mining industry though largely done at small artisanal scales is done in several
locations and has contributed the following effects (MINITERE 2005):
Sand and clay mining done in marshlands in response to increased demand for
construction material contributes to siltation of downstream rivers and lakes.
Gold and tungsten mining increases soil erosion and landslide risk and
introduction of chemical pollutants in the water resources. Due to the
uncontrolled chemical use in the mining industry. Traces of arsenic were found
in L. Bulera in 1987.
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Sanitation
Kigali city does not have an adequate sanitation system except for a
few affluent neighbourhoods with wastewater collection networks and
collective wastewater treatment systems. Just as in Kigali, the other
towns lack a centrallised sanitation system. The wastewater is
generally discharged into traditional septic tanks or directly into
watercourses resulting in the pollution of the ground and surface
water resources (MINITERE 2004).
Open defecation has practically been eradicated and most of
Rwandan households have already built their on-site private
sanitation facilities. Although only about half comply with the
international standard definitions of an improved sanitation facility.
Very few Rwandan households have installed flush toilets.
The country has not yet invested in collective (water-borne) sanitation
systems for urban areas, except 3 small sewerage systems in Kigali
for about 700 households. Major hotels, hospitals and some
industries have installed their own treatment systems. A conventional
sewerage and treatment system for Kigali is in the planning process.
Sanitation, coverage is estimated at 45% (rural: 44%, urban: 54%) for
2008 (MININFRA 2010).
The ministry of infrastructure has already started awareness raising
campaigns stressing the importance of good sanitation facilities and
how they impact on the lives of people.
The table below provides an overview of sanitation coverage in rural
and urban areas in Rwanda, in a survey conducted by the Ministry of
infrastructure in 2008.
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Table 9: Sanitation Facilities-Provinces' Summary

District GASABO KICUKIRO NYARUGENGE TOTAL

Sanitation facilities Indicators
Number of individual
sanitation facilities1 40 31 13 84
Number of collective
sanitation facilities2 83 59 13 155
Number of persons per
sanitation facility 3238 2741 9503 3732
Good collective
sanitation facilities (%) 90.36 81.36 69.23 85.16
Source: MININFRA 2009

Figure 12: Persons per Sanitation Facility by District 2009 (next page)

1 Individual sanitation facility, is a sewerage system that serves individual households in an area,
this is usually an open sewerage network.
2 Collective sanitation facility is a sewerage system that serves compounds, i.e hospitals, hotels,
institutions …etc, this is usually a covered sewage network.

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Table 10: Sanitation Facilities-Districts’ Summary

Number of Number of Number of

individual collective persons per Good collective
sanitation sanitation sanitation sanitation
District facilities facilities facility facilities (%)

GASABO 40 83 3238 90.36

KICUKIRO 31 59 2741 81.36

NYARUGENGE 13 13 9503 69.23

GISAGARA 41 129 1637 42.64

HUYE 64 79 2015 53.16

KAMONYI 40 26 4362 73.08

MUHANGA 53 90 2096 63.33

NYAMAGABE 80 127 1506 56.69

NYANZA 45 56 2601 71.43

NYARUGURU 72 115 1374 33.91

RUHANGO 51 102 1834 67.65

KARONGI 50 38 3339 47.37

NGORORERO 61 84 2151 45.24

NYABIHU 52 51 2895 72.55

NYAMASHEKE 51 78 2668 58.97

RUBAVU 38 58 3638 74.14

RUSIZI 67 124 1868 70.97

RUTSIRO 43 33 3895 69.7

BURERA 52 108 2001 50

GAKENKE 93 148 1387 52.7

GICUMBI 89 84 2082 65.48

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MUSANZE 69 0 4801 NaN

RULINDO 4 91 2789 56.04

BUGESERA 64 69 2211 76.81

GATSIBO 65 83 2368 65.06

KAYONZA 43 52 2685 76.92

KIREHE 44 45 3132 68.89

NGOMA 55 57 2474 36.84

NYAGATARE 85 82 1956 73.17

RWAMAGANA 77 47 2066 57.45

Source: MININFRA 2009

Figure 13: Quality Collective Sanitation Facilities by District 2009 (next page)

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 Calculations
Definitions: For each sector in Rwanda
No of individual sanitations = Count of individual sanitations
Domestic = Individual sanitation facility: a sewerage system that serves No of collective sanitations = Count of collective sanitations
individual households in an area, this is usually an open sewerage network. Average number of people per sanitation
Collective sanitation facility: a sewerage system that serves compounds, i.e.
hospitals, hotels, institutions …etc, this is usually a covered sewage network.
Sanitary water treatment plant: small plant that treat sanitary wastewater before
being discharged into a collective sewerage network, usually found in some For each district in Rwanda
affluent areas. No of individual sanitations
Septic tank: a ditch of various sizes, where untreated sanitary waste water is =
discharged from individual or collective sewerage network. Oxidation of sewage
No of collective sanitations
takes place in these tanks.
Public latrine: it is a type of public toilets service, usually in transportation =
stations, main roads, and heavily populated service areas. 1.1. Average number of people per sanitation
Sanitations report internal calculation methodology:
Assumptions:  
Average number of persons per house hold is 6
Parameters:
Population of each sector
Individual sanitations in each sector
Collective sanitations in each sector
Outputs:
Number of individual sanitations in each sector, district , province and for Rwanda
Number of collective sanitations in each sector, district , province and for Rwanda
Average number of people per sanitation for each sector, district, province and for
Rwanda

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Lack of data
To make situation analysis and assessment for future land use development certain
key indicators have to be defined. Due to lack of data some issues for the Baseline
Studies, Needs Assessment, Risk & Suitability Analysis cannot be analyzed in an
optimal way. Data to use for important comparative indicators showing distribution,
quality, performance, etc have not been found.
Data to use for calculating the national water balance for various years using
calculations involving actual water production (supply) and actual water demand
with respect to the main water consumption sectors i.e. domestic, industrial and
agricultural, could not be found.
Consequently it is not possible to compare water balance for a series of
consecutive years and to make accurate projections for the year 2020 basing on
these calculations or any calculations for that matter.
It is therefore recommended that the relevant government agencies provide the
information necessary to perform water balance calculations for future planning of
water resources management
. be capital intensive and their aim should be to reduce the use
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M A S T E R P L A N - W A T E R A N D S A N I T A T I O N
Guidelines
There is a great need to better manage water supply in the
country, to protect the water resources and to reach long-term
sustainable development.
Farmers should be educated to use drip irrigation systems and
such equipment should be locally manufactured. Modern
irrigation systems and improved management of irrigation
projects should be introduced. There should be a focus on
increasing production per unit of used water. Economic
incentives could be used to enforce desired changes in
irrigation and cultivation methods.
The existing network and treatment plants should be restored
to full functionality and all households with access to the
networks should be connected.
Considering the high investment costs of conventional water
system infrastructures in low density and mixed urban areas
and those settlements’ dependency on scarce water
resources, new approaches to waste water collection and
treatment should be investigated and tested. Alternative
sanitation systems should be tested in mixed and low density
urban and rural settings in Rwanda. The solutions should not
of water
Plans for the utilization of treated waste water should be kept
updated for all waste water treatment plants in all districts.
Treated waste water should be regarded as a resource.
Networks should be built for the distribution of treated waste
waters to agriculture and green areas.
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Guidelines - Water Resources and Supply
General
A General Water Authority (GWA) should be established and mandated with
the overall responsibility for the water resources management in Rwanda.
Planning and monitoring of water supply, water demand, and water resources
should be a continuous process.
The implementation process of the national policy and strategy for water supply
and sanitation services should emphasise the participation of the districts and
private sector, with a goal of attaining lasting outcomes as outlined in the key
performance indicators of the policy.
Raise rural water supply coverage by assisting the Districts to plan, design,
finance and implement infrastructure projects.
Ensure sustainable functionality of rural water supply infrastructure by
developing effective management structures and well-regulated public-private
partnership (PPP) arrangements.
Increase district participation in the management of water supply facilities and
services.
Develop and implement district sanitation water supply plans.
Ensure safe, reliable and affordable urban water supply services for all while
strengthening the financial viability of the Utility.
Water resources should be protected from pollution resulting from agricultural,
industrial and domestic uses.
Increasing efforts towards capacity building in the water and sanitation sector,
at all levels.
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Mapping fresh water resources and various usages, i.e. water
for irrigation, water for industry, water for domestic usage; and
apply economic management of such resources.
Groundwater
Efforts should be made to explore the potential of ground
water extraction to supplement existing water supply
capacities and to improve access to water wherever these
resources are available.
Surface Water
Efforts should be made to protect watersheds and catchment
areas as a management tool for water resources conservation
and protection.
Treated Waste Water
Waste water should, as far as possible, be treated in waste
water treatment plants. The treatment should guarantee a
water quality sufficient for reuse in agricultural and industrial
sectors.
Discharges of untreated waste water to the water bodies or the
ground should be forbidden. Waste water should either be
discharged into sewerage networks or be collected in
watertight reservoirs (cess-pools), and it should be treated
before discharge.
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 R W A N D A N A T I O N A L L A N D U S E D E V E L O P M E N T
Guidelines - Water Demand
Residential Areas
Plans should be realized for rebuilding existing networks and for construction of
new network systems for water and waste water systems in the districts.
The urban water supply and distribution systems should be upgraded, properly
maintained and managed in order to minimize leakage and improve the overall
efficiency and cost recovery of the water supply system.
Industries (Non-Agriculture)
Relevant authorities should advocate and facilitate the adoption of water
efficient methods and techniques in industrial production processes. Authorities
should demand recycling of water in industrial processes.
Industrial waste water should be treated before disposal.
Agriculture
An intense program for agricultural productivity enforcing efficient water use
should be adopted.
Guidelines - Technical Infrastructure
Efforts should be taken to reduce pollution of all water resources.
Water Supply Systems
The existing systems for supply of water should be updated and repaired to full
functionality.
Secure funding for the implementation of the Strategic Action Plan of the
National Policy and Strategy for Water Supply and Sanitation services.
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A water balance model should be used to calculate and ensure
a long term sustainable production of water when planning
new urban areas and densification of existing urban areas.
Waste Water Systems
The existing network should be repaired to full functionality
and priority should be given to establishing more waste water
treatment systems to address the current need.
The National Policy and Strategy for Water Supply and
Sanitation services should be implemented and both urban
and rural areas should be provided with appropriate and well
functioning waste water management systems.
Storm Water Systems
Enhance storm water management to mitigate impacts on
properties, infrastructure, human health and the environment.
Existing storm water systems should be upgraded and
maintained. New storm water systems should be built in areas
prone to flooding.
Proper draining systems should be designed for new built
areas and for transportation routes.
Storm water should be used as a resource in Rwanda, and
rain water harvesting by households should be promoted.
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Guidelines – Sanitation facilities and services

General
Raise household sanitation coverage to 65% by 2012 and 100% by 2020 and
promote hygiene behaviour change.
Alternative sanitation systems should be considered where traditional waste
water systems are expensive solutions in low density and mixed urban areas.
Adopt low cost sanitary wastewater treatment technologies in small and
medium sized communities in both rural and urban settlements.
Implement improved sanitation for schools, health facilities and other public
institutions and locations.
Develop safe, well-regulated and affordable off-site sanitation services for
densely populated areas.
Develop and implement district sanitation development plans.

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REFERENCES
• AQUASTAT. (2005) “L’irrigation en Afrique en Chiffres”– Enquête
• AQUASTAT. (2005)-“ Systèmes d’information de la FAO sur l’eau et l’agriculture
(Rwanda)”
• Baligira Robert. (2007). “Examen critique et enquête de l’état de la gestion des
données de la qualité de l’eau au Rwanda ainsi que les recommandations pour
son amelioration”
• http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/171831430166 /
• http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/wbsheets/aquastat_water_balance_she
et_rwa.pdf
• http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/worldguide/html/1003_map.html#data
• MINITERE. (2004). “National Rural Water Supply And Sanitation Programme”
• MINITERE. (2005). “Rapport du Projet de Gestion Nationale des Ressources en
Eau. Composantes D : Etudes Techniques”
• MININFRA. (2002) “Inventaire National des Infrastructures d’AEP”
• MININFRA. (2003) “Stratégie nationale en matière de la qualité des ressources en
eau au Rwanda (SNAQUE).”Appui technique et financier de l’OMS Kigali
• MININFRA. (2005) “Stratégies Sectorielles 2005-2010”
• MININFRA. (2009). “Establishment Of A Monitoring / Evaluation And Management
System Of Water And Sanitation Sector And National Inventory Of Potable Water
Supply And Sanitation Infrastructure”
• MININFRA. (2010) “National Policy and Strategy for Water Supply and Sanitation
Services”. Policy Final Draft.
• NBI. (2005). “Regional Nile baseline water quality report for Burundi, DRC, Egypt,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda”
• NTEAP. (2005). “National Nile Basin Water Quality Monitoring Report for Rwanda”
• REMA. (2009). “Rwanda State of Environment and Outlook.”
• UNR. (2002). “Les polluants des eaux du Rwanda et leur impact sur
l’environnement sous régional.”
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAJOR LAKES IN RWANDA............................................. 4
TABLE 2: WATER PRODUCTION AND ACCESSIBILITY TO WATER
PROVINCES' ............................................................................................................ 6
TABLE 3: WATER PRODUCTION AND ACCESSIBILITY TO WATER-
DISTRICTS' .............................................................................................................. 6
TABLE 4: THE AVERAGE WATER LOSS THROUGH LEAKAGES .............................................. 7
TABLE 5: OVERVIEW OF RWASCO PRODUCTION IN 2006, 2007 AND
2008........................................................................................................................ 8
TABLE 6: INDUSTRIES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO WATER WITHDRAWAL .................................... 9
TABLE 7: WATER BALANCE, 1993 AND 2000.................................................................... 12
TABLE 8: WATER BALANCE 2020, BALANCE FOR 2000 ..................................................... 12
TABLE 9: SANITATION FACILITIES-PROVINCES' SUMMARY ................................................ 20
TABLE 10: SANITATION FACILITIES-DISTRICTS’ SUMMARY ................................................ 22
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: THE WATER CYCLE ........................................................................................... 2
FIGURE 2: WATER HYACINTH ON KAGERA R. ..................................................................... 3
FIGURE 3: KAGERA R......................................................................................................... 3
FIGURE 4: RUSUMO FALLS ............................................................................................. 3
FIGURE 5: MUKUNGWA R................................................................................................... 3
FIGURE 6: ANNUAL RAINFALL ............................................................................................. 5
FIGURE 7: WATER PRODUCTION PER DISTRICT 2009 ...................................................... 10
FIGURE 8: WATER SUPPLY PER DISTRICT ........................................................................ 13
FIGURE 9: WATER ACCESSIBILITY PER DISTRICT .............................................................. 13
FIGURE 10: PROTECTED WATER SOURCES...................................................................... 16
FIGURE 11: CHART OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
SOURCES. ............................................................................................................. 17
FIGURE 12: PERSONS PER SANITATION FACILITY BY DISTRICT 2009 ............................... 20
FIGURE 13: QUALITY COLLECTIVE SANITATION FACILITIES BY
DISTRICT 2009 ..................................................................................................... 23
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