Electronics Lab

Reports
Teacher:
Sir Muhammad Arif

Student:
Muhammad Sadiq

Roll number:
BSM-P-18-73

Class:
BS (Physics) Semester-4 Morning (2018-2022)

Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan

Electronics Lab Reports
List of Experiments

Serial Experiment Page

Number number

01 Determination of ionization potential of Mercury 03

02 Determination of the ratio of charge-to-mass (e/m) of an 05

electron

03 To construct a two-input OR gate using digital logic and verify its 07

truth table

04 To set up a half-wave and a full-wave rectifier and study the 09

wave shape on an oscilloscope and effect of smoothing circuit on
the ripple voltage

05 To study the design and working of a bridge rectifier 11

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Electronics Lab Reports
Experiment no. 1
Determination of the ionization potential of mercury
Objective: To determine the ionization potential of mercury.
Apparatus:
• Mercury filled diode
• Voltmeter
• Microammeter
• Voltage regulated power supply
• Current limiting resistor (low wattage bulb)

Theory:
In an ordinary or vacuum filled diode the current is a function of voltage. It means current depends on
voltage according to Child’s law. When gas is filled in the diode by applying high voltage the value of
current increases, the number of electrons increases and gas molecules become ionized. This value of plate
voltage at which plate current increases excessively is known as ionization potential of the gas enclosed in
the tube.

Diagram:

−
− 3
30 𝑉 − 30 𝑉
𝜇𝐴 5 Valve 𝑉𝑝
8 884 +
+ − +
𝑉𝑔
+
2 7

Apparatus Circuit

Procedure:
1. When I went near apparatus the circuit was already set. All wires were connected.
2. Then, I started to vary the voltage and calculated with a very small difference and calculated value
of the current.
3. I gradually increased the voltage and noted the current then I noted that current suddenly shoots
up.
4. Then I plotted a graph between voltage (V) and current (I).
5. On the graph, the point where it suddenly shows shoot up of current is ionization potential.

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Observations and Calculations:
Sr. No. Plate voltage in volts (V) Plate current in mA

1 1 0.2

2 2 0.5

3 3 1.0

4 4 1.5

5 5 2.0

6 6 2.5

7 7 3.0

8 8 7.0

9 9 11.0

Graph:
12
Plate current in mA
10

0
Plate Voltage in V
0 2 4 6 8 10

Result:
The ionization potential of mercury is 11.0 volts.

Sources of error:
• Connections may be loose.
• Connections may not be in the specific order.
• The use of incorrect voltage.
• High resistance may be used.

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Electronics Lab Reports
Experiment no. 2
Determination of the ratio of charge-to-mass(e/m) of an electron
Objective: The objective of this experiment is to determine the electron’s charge to
mass ratio(e/m).

Apparatus:
• 6AF6 electronic tuning tube with socket
• High voltage DC power supply
• DC voltmeter and ammeter
• Battery eliminator
• Vernier calipers
• Connecting wires
• Meter rod

Theory:
When an electron moves with speed ‘𝑣’ perpendicular to magnetic field ⃗B,a magnetic force ⃗F acts on the
electron, whose magnitude is given as:
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣
Where,
𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
The direction of this force is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the direction of motion of electron.
Under the influence of this force, the path of electron becomes circular. The centripetal force required to
keep the electron moving in a circle of radius R is provided by the magnetic force. If ‘m’ is the mass of
electron, then:
Magnetic force = Centripetal force
2
𝐵𝑒𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 ⁄𝑅
So that:
𝑒 𝑣
=
𝑚 𝐵𝑅
To find ‘v’, electron is accelerated through a potential difference ‘V’. If the electron acquires speed ‘v’, then
the gain in its Kinetic Energy would be equal to the work done by the electric field.
1
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
2𝑉𝑒 ⁄2
𝑣=( )
𝑚
Then:
𝑒⁄ = 2𝑉
𝑚 𝐵2 𝑅 2
‘V’ is measured by DC voltmeter. Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field intensity is
𝜇𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
𝐿
Procedure:
1. Using a Vernier caliper, I measured the outer diameter of the electronic tuning tube. After
measuring the diameter, I put it back into the socket.
2. Using a meter rod, I measured the length of the solenoid and also the turns of wire on it.

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Electronics Lab Reports
3. I connected the 6AF6 tube as a wheel. I set the power source terminal voltage to the tubes.
4. I connected the solenoid. And I put the tubes within solenoid.
5. I set the accelerating potential from 0 to 100 volts. Then, I started increasing the current through
solenoid until the deflected beam of electron just touched the outer edge of the electron tube.
6. The radius of curvature of electron beam is then one quarter of the outer diameter of the tube.
7. Then, I calculated the value of ‘𝑅’ in meters and I determined the value of B by using the equation
given above.
8. Thus, I calculated the 𝑒⁄𝑚 value.
Diagram: Anode
Cathode

Grid Fluorescent Screen

Heater
Deflection Plates

Observations and Calculations:

Outer diameter of the tube= 𝐷 = 2.8 𝑚𝑚 Outer radius of the tube= 𝑅 = 1.4 𝑚𝑚
Radius of electron beam= 𝑅 = 0.35 𝑚𝑚 Length of solenoid= 𝐿 = 8.5 𝑐𝑚
Number of turns of wire= 𝑁 = 1000 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 Permeability of free space= 𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑊𝑏/𝐴𝑚
Sr. No. Accelerating Voltage in Solenoid Current in 𝝁𝑵𝑰⁄ 𝒆⁄ = 𝟐𝑽
𝑩= 𝑳 in tesla (T) 𝒎 𝑩𝟐 𝑹𝟐
Volts amperes (A)

01 100 0.8 0.11821 1.16 × 106

02 150 0.7 0.01034 1.11 × 106
03 200 0.71 0.01049 1.9 × 106
Mean Value of 𝒆⁄𝒎 = 1.39 × 106

Sources of error:
• The radius may not be measured accurately.
• The magnetic field of solenoid may not be accurate.
• The axis of the tube may not be parallel to the axis of the solenoid.

Precautions:
• All electrical connections should be tight.
• The axis of the tube should be parallel to the axis of the solenoid.
• The radius of the tube should be measured carefully.

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Electronics Lab Reports
Experiment no. 3
Construction of a two-input OR gate using digital logic and
verifying its truth table
Objective: The main objective of this experiment is to understand how it is used at
bread board.
Apparatus:
• A bread-board
• One 10 kilo ohm resistor,
• Two 1 kilo ohm resistors,
• Two 1N914 diodes or equivalent
• Two switches S1 and S2
• Hook up wire
• 5V power supply
• An LED

Procedure:

1. I arranged the circuit on the bread board as shown in figure Using two 1 kilo ohms resistors at A
and B. I connected the positive end of the power supply at the common junction point of the two
1-kΩ resistors. I grounded the negative terminal of the power supply. To display the output, I
connected the P side of the LED at Y and grounded the N side of the LED.
2. I switched ON the power supply and kept S1 and S2 open. Thus, the input at both A and B will be0.
Output Y also be 0 as LED will not flash.
3. With S2 open switch ON S1. Now the LED at Y will flash indicating 𝑌 = 1
4. Now, I switched OFF S1 and switch ON S2. 𝐴 = 0 and 𝐵 = 1. Now LED will again glow indicating
𝑌 = 1.
5. Now, I switched ON both S1 and S2. 𝐴 = 𝐵 = 1. The LED will also be ON indicating that 𝑌 = 1.
6. Then, I removed the circuit component carefully after disconnecting the power supply.

Diagram:

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Electronics Lab Reports

Observations:

A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

Precautions:

• Carefully makes all connections.

• Connect the P ends of the two diodes with positive terminal of the power supply.
• Do not use power supply with more than +5V output.
• Carefully connect LED at the output with its P side at Y.
• Use ¼ watt resistors.

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Electronics Lab Reports
Experiment no. 4
To set up a half-wave and a full-wave rectifier and study the wave shape
on an oscilloscope and effect of smoothing circuit on the ripple voltage.
Objective: To study the diode application in half wave and full wave rectifier.
Apparatus:
• Different Diodes
• Transformer
• Resistor
• Capacitors
• Oscilloscope
• High Impedance DC Voltmeter
• High Impedance AC Voltmeter
• Key
Theory:
A rectifier is an electrical device composed of one or more diodes that converts alternating current to
direct current. The process of AC to DC conversion is called rectification. Rectifier circuits may be single
phase or multiphase. Single phase rectifier contains:

• Half-wave rectifier
• Full-wave center taped rectifier
• Full-wave bridge rectifier
Basically, a ripple in electronics is the residual periodic variation of the DC voltage within a power supply
which has been derived from an alternating current source. This ripple is due to incomplete suppression
of the alternating waveform after rectification.
Circuit Diagrams:

Half-wave rectifier Full-wave rectifier

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Electronics Lab Reports
Half-wave Rectifier Procedure:
1- I Made the connections.
2- I connected the oscilloscope between points A and B and plot the waveform and noted its peak
voltage. Then, I measured AC voltage between A and B.
3- Then, I connected the oscilloscope between the points C and D, and plotted the waveform. I
noted its peak voltage and measured DC voltage between the points C and D.
4- I connected the capacitor and oscilloscope between the points C and D and plotted the
waveform. And noted peak to peak value of ripple voltage and measure DC voltage.
5- Then, I removed small capacitor and connected large capacitor and connected oscilloscope
between the points C and D and plotted the waveform and noted the peak to peak voltage and
measured the DC voltage.

Full-wave Rectifier Procedure:

1- I made all the connections.
2- And I performed all the steps as done in half-wave rectifier.

Results’ Images:
There are three images given. And the work being done in image is written below it.

1- Half-wave Rectification and graph 2- Full-wave Rectification and graph

3. Smoothed ripples of Voltage

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Electronics Lab Reports
Experiment no. 5
To study the design and working of Bridge Rectifier
Objective: To know the working and designing of bridge rectifier.
Apparatus:
• Different Diodes
• Transformer
• Resistor
• Capacitors
• Oscilloscope
• High Impedance DC Voltmeter
• High Impedance AC Voltmeter
• Key
Theory:
Bridge rectifiers are the circuits which convert alternating current into direct current using the diodes
arranged in the bridge circuit configuration. They usually comprise of four or more number of diodes which
cause the output generated to be of the same polarity irrespective of the polarity at the input. Bridge
rectifiers are in the same class of electronics as half-wave rectifiers and full-wave rectifiers.
Diagram:

Bridge Rectifier
Procedure:
1- I connected four diodes on the bread board in such a way that they form a bridge as shown above.
2- Then, I connected a transformer in a way that the secondary coils of the transformer are
connected with the circuit while primary wires are connected with the AC supply.
3- A wire was connected between points M and L and a resistor with M-L section by me as shown.
4- Then, I measured the voltage by multimeter.
Precautions and Sources of error:
• It should be concerned that the cathode end of the diode becomes positive output terminal when
its connected with a transformer.
• Connect the anodes and cathodes of diodes after checking as they are marked on their bodies.

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