UNIT – V

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION:
 The measurement of given quantity is the result of comparison between the quantity to be
measured and a defined standard.
 The instruments which is used to measure electrical quantities are known as electrical measuring
instruments.
 The instruments which is used to measure current, voltage, power, energy and frequency are
known as ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter and frequency meter respectively.

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

 Absolute instruments
 Secondary instruments
o Indicating instruments - which indicates the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the
time when it is being measured.
o Recording instruments - which keep a continuous record of the variations of the
magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed over a definite time period.
o Integrating instruments - which measure the total amount of either quantity of electricity
or electrical energy supplied over a period of time.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

 The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
o Static characteristics
o Dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics:
 The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which
are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called ‘static
characteristics’.
 The different types of static characteristics are:
o Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value
of the quantity to be measured.
o Precision: It is a measure of the consistency or repeatability of a series of measurements.
The precision of given measurement as
_
Xi  X
Pr ecision  1 
Xi

where, Xi –value of ith measurement

Ẍ - average value of ‘n’ measurement
o Sensitivity: It is a measure of the change in reading of an instrument for a given change
in the measured quantity. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an
instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured.
o Linearity: The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics
symmetrically and linearly.
o Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
o Resolution: The input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again
be found that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This
increment is called resolution.

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 o Threshold: The instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some
minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value
defines the threshold of the instrument.
o Drift: It is the variation of the measured value with time. Drift is an undesirable quantity
in industrial instruments because it is rarely appearance and cannot easily compensate.
o Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is
specified operating life.
o Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of
some value which is called tolerance.
o Range or span: The minimum and maximum value of a quantity for which an instrument
is designed to measure is called its range or span.

Dynamic characteristics:
 The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time is called
dynamic characteristics.
 The various static characteristics are:
o Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system
responds to changes in the measured quantity.
o Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to
changes in the measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:
 Retardation Lag: The response of the system begins immediately after a change in
the variable has occurred.
 Time Delay: The response begins after some time (called dead time) the
application of input.
o Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in
the measured quantity without dynamic error.
o Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with
time and the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is
also called measurement error.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT:
 The physical measurement involves some degree of uncertainty.
 Whenever the measurements are taken, a degree of error must always be assumed.
 To understand the concept of errors in measurement, the two terms that define the error i.e., true
value and measured value.
 The true value is impossible to find out the truth of quantity by experimental means. It may be
defined as the average value of an infinite number of measured values.
 The measured value can be defined as the estimated value of true value that can be found by
taking several measured values during an experiment.
 The major three types of errors in measurement as
o Gross error
o Systematic error
o Random error
Gross Error:
 Gross errors are caused by mistake in using instruments or meters, calculating measurement and
recording data results. 
 As long as some careless human beings are involved, some gross errors will occur.
 The best example of these errors is a person or operator reading wattmeter value 100.5W as
10.05W.
 This may be the reason for gross errors in the reported data, and such errors may end up in
calculation of the final results, thus deviating results.

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Systematic Error:
 The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in the measuring device are known as systematic
errors.
 Usually they are called as Zero Error – a positive or negative error. These errors can be detached
by correcting the measurement device. 
 These errors may be classified into different categories as
o Instrumental Errors

o Environmental Errors

o Observational Errors

Instrumental Errors:
 Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction of the measuring instruments.
 These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction.
 These types of errors include loading effect and misuse of the instruments.
 In order to reduce the gross errors in measurement, different correction factors must be applied
and in the extreme condition instrument must be recalibrated carefully.
Environmental Errors:
 The environmental errors occur due to some external conditions of the instrument. External
conditions mainly include pressure, temperature, humidity or due to magnetic fields.
 In order to reduce the environmental errors
o Using the proper correction factors and following the information given by the
manufacturer of the instrument.
o Try to maintain the humidity and temperature constant in the laboratory by making some
arrangements.
o Ensure that there shall not be any external electrostatic or magnetic field around the
instrument.
o Reducing the effect of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically sealing the
components in the instruments.
Observational Errors
 These types of errors occur due to wrong observations or reading in the instruments particularly
in case of energy meter reading.
 The wrong observations may be due to parallax. In order to reduce the parallax error highly
accurate meters are needed with mirror scales, knife edged pointers.
 With the help of digital display meters observational errors can be eliminate.
Random error:
 Random errors are caused by the sudden change in experimental conditions, noise and tiredness
in the working persons.
 When readings are between scale graduation and the reading is rounded up or down to the
nearest graduation.
 These errors are either positive or negative.
 An example of the random errors is during changes in humidity, unexpected change in
temperature and fluctuation in voltage.
 These errors may be reduced by taking the average of a large number of readings.

TORQUE IN INDICATING INSTRUMENTS:

 An indicating instrument essentially consists of a moving system pivoted in jewel bearings.
 A pointer is attached to the moving system which indicates the electrical quantity to be
measured, on a graduated scale.
 In order to ensure the proper operation of the indicating instruments, the following three torques
are required.
o Deflecting (or operating) torque

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 o Controlling (or restoring) torque
o Damping torque

Deflecting Torque (Td):

 The deflecting torque is produced by utilising the various effects (magnetic effect, induction
effect, thermal effect, hall effect) of electric current or voltage, and causes the moving system
and hence the pointer to move from  zero position.
 The deflecting torque causes the moving system to move from zero position to indicate the value
of the electrical quantity being measured on a graduated scale.
 The actual method of producing the deflecting torque depends upon the type of instrument.

Controlling Torque (Tc):

 The controlling torque is produced by spring or gravity and opposes the deflecting torque.
 The pointer comes to rest at a position, where these two opposing torques are equal.
 If the deflecting torque were acting alone, the pointer will continue to move indefenitely and
would swing over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of the
electrical quantity to be measured.
 This necessitates providing some form of controlling or opposing torque.
 This controlling torque should increase with the deflection of the moving system. The pointer
will be brought to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are equal. ie, Td = Tc .
 The controlling torque performs two functions.
o It increases with the deflection of the moving system so that, the final position of the
pointer on the scale will be according to the magnitude of the electrical quantity to be
measured.
o It brings the pointer back to zero position, when the deflecting torque is removed. If it
were not provided, the pointer once deflected would not return to zero position on
removing the deflecting torque.
 The controlling torque can be provided,
o by using one or more springs
o by the weight of moving parts.
              Damping torque (Tdamp):
 Damping torque is provided by air friction or eddy currents.
 It ensures that, the pointer comes to the final position without oscillations, thus enabling accurate
and quick readings to be taken.
 If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and controlling torques alone, then due to
inertia, the pointer will oscillate about its final deflected position for some time before coming to
rest.
 This oscillation makes it difficult to obtain quick and accurate reading.
 Inorder to avoid these oscillations of the pointer and to bring it quickly to its final deflected
position, a damping torque is provided in the indicating instruments.
 The damping do not affect the stationary pointer, as the damping torque acts only when the
pointer is in motion and always opposes the motion.
 The damping torque in indicating instruments can be provided by,
o Air- friction
o Fluid friction
o Eddy currents
 The behaviour of the moving system is decided by the degree of damping. The below waveform
shows the graph for under damping, over damping, and critical damping.

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  Under damped moving system: The pointer will oscillate about the final position for some time,
before coming to rest.
 Over damped:  The pointer will become slow and lethargic.
 Critically damped/ dead beat: The degree of damping is so that, the pointer comes up to the
correct reading quickly without passing beyond it or oscillating about it.

MOVING COIL AND MOVING IRON METERS: (types of analog meters)

 All type of ammeters and voltmeters work on the same operating principle i.e., deflecting torque
is produced by the electric current.
 Ammeter: the deflecting torque is produced by the current to be measured. It is connected in
series with circuit whose current is measured. It has low electrical resistance, small voltage drop
and absorb small power.
 Voltmeter: the deflecting torque is produced by the current which is proportional to the voltage
to be measured. It is connected in parallel with circuit whose voltage is measured. It has high
electrical resistance, current drawn is small and absorb small power.
 Different types of analog instruments used as ammeter and voltmeter as
o Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) type instrument - (DC measurement only)
o Moving iron type instrument - (AC&DC measurements)
o Electro dynamometer type instrument
o Hot wire type instrument
o Thermocouple type instrument
o Induction type instrument (AC measurement only)
o Electrostatic type instrument
o Rectifier type instrument

Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) type instrument:

Working:
 The PMMC instruments are used to give accurate reading in DC measurements.
 It works based on motoring principle i.e., When a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet, the coil experiences a force and hence moves.

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  The basic principle as D’Arsonval principle which is the main principle of operation of
galvanometer. The amount of force experienced by the coil is proportional to the current passing
through the coil.
 The deflecting torque is produced by the electromagnetic action of the current in the coil and the
magnetic field.
 When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stop and its angular deflection represents the
amount of electrical current to be measured against a fixed reference called a scale.
 If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, then the pointer deflection is also
linear.
 The controlling torque is provided by two phosphorous bronze flat coiled helical springs. These
springs serve as a flexible connection to the coil conductors.
 Damping is caused by the eddy current set up in the aluminum coil which prevents the
oscillation of the coil.

Construction:
 It consists of a moving coil which is either rectangular or circular in shape, which has number of
turns of fine wire.
 The coil is suspended so that it is free to turn about its vertical axis.
 A coil is mounted on an aluminum frame (spindle) positioned between the poles of a U shaped
permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys like alnico.

Fig.5.1 Internal diagram of PMMC instruments

 The coil is pivoted on the jewel bearing and thus the coil is free to rotate.
 The current is fed to the coil through spiral springs which are two in numbers.
 The coil which carries a current, which is to be measured, moves in a strong magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet and a pointer is attached to the spindle which shows the
measured value.

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 Fig.5.1 Top view of PMMC instruments
.Torque Equation:
 Deflecting Torque, Td=NBAI
Where, N – number of turns of the coil.
A – effective coil area in m2.
B – flux density in air gap in Wb/m2.
I – current passing through the moving coil in Amps
 Controlling Torque, TC=KSθ
Where, KS – spring constant in Nm/rad.
θ – angular deflection in rad.
Advantages:
 The PMMC consumes less power and has great accuracy.
 It has a uniformly divided scale and can cover an arc of 270 degrees.
 The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
 It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with suitable resistance.
 It has efficient damping characteristics and is not affected by stray magnetic field.
 It produces no losses due to hysteresis.

Disadvantage:
 The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C supply as the reversal of current produces a
reversal of torque on the coil.
 It’s very delicate and sometimes uses AC circuit with a rectifier.
 It’s costly as compared to moving iron instruments.
 It may show an error due to loss of magnetism of permanent magnet.

Applications:
 The PMMC instruments used as ammeter, voltmeter, galvanometer and ohm meter.

Moving Iron (MI) type instrument:

 Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure alternating voltages and currents.
 In moving-iron instruments the movable system consists of one or more pieces of specially-
shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the
current in coil.
 MI type instruments can be used for measuring DC source also, because the direction of the
current through the coil in the instrument, the iron vanes get magnetised and there will be a force

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 attraction in the attraction type instrument and there will be force repulsion in the repulsion type
instruments.
 Thus moving iron instruments are unpolarised instruments i.e., they are independent of the
direction in which the current passes.
 There are two general types of moving-iron instruments as
o Attraction (or single iron) type moving-iron instruments
o Repulsion (or double iron) type moving-iron instruments
 Radial vane type
 Co-axial vane type

Attraction type moving-iron instruments:

Working:
 The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like opening.
 The moving iron is a flat disc or a sector eccentrically mounted.
 When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced and the moving iron
moves from the weaker field outside the coil to the stronger field inside it or in other words the
moving iron is attracted in.
 The controlling torque is provide by springs hut gravity control can be used for panel type of
instruments which are vertically mounted.

Coil

Fig. 5.3 Attraction type moving-iron instruments

 Damping is provided by air friction with the help of a light aluminium piston (attached to the
moving system) which move in a fixed chamber closed at one end as shown in Fig.5.3 or with
the help of a vane (attached to the moving system) which moves in a fixed sector shaped
chamber.

Torque Equation:
 The deflecting torque in moving iron instruments is
1  dL 
Td    I 2  
2  d 
 The controlling torque,
TC=Kθ

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Repulsion type moving-iron instruments:
 In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil one fixed and other movable.
 These are similarly magnetized when the current flows through the coil and there is a force of
repulsion between the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane.
 Two types of repulsion type moving iron instruments as

Radial vane Repulsion type moving-iron instruments:

 It consists of two vanes that are radial strips of iron.
 The strips are placed within the coil.
 The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable vane is attached to the spindle of the
instrument which is attached to the pointer.

Fig. 5.4 Radial Vane Repulsion type moving-iron instruments

Co-axial vane Repulsion type moving-iron instruments:

 In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of co-axial cylinders as
shown in Fig.5.5.
 The controlling torque is provided by springs. Gravity control can also be used in vertically
mounted instruments.

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 Fig. 5.5 Co-axial Vane Repulsion type moving-iron instruments

Advantages:
 It’s suitable for use in AC and DC circuits.
 The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the moving parts.
 The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
 Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
 Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.

Disadvantages:
 Error due to variation in temperature.
 Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current due to non-linear
characteristics of iron material.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER WATTMETER:
Construction:
 Electrodynamometer Wattmeter are used for the measurement of power consumption.
 It consists of two types of coils. One coil is fixed and another coil is moving.
 The fixed coil is connected in series to the circuit whose power consumption is to be calculated.
 Therefore this fixed coil is often called Current Coil (CC).
 Moving coil is connected across the supply voltage. Due to this current proportional to supply
voltage flows through the moving coil.
 To limit the current through this coil, a resistor is connected in series with the moving coil.
Moving coil is called Pressure Coil (PC).

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 Fig. 5.6 Electrodynamometer wattmeter

Working:
 Due to the current in the flow in both coils, mechanical force exists between them.
 The result is that the moving coil, moves the pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to rest at
a position where deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque.
 Reversing the current, reverses the field due to fixed coil as well as the current in the moving
coil so that the direction of the deflection torque remains unchanged.
 Therefore, such instruments can be used for the measurement of AC as well as DC power.

Fig. 5.7 connection diagram of Electrodynamometer wattmeter

Control Torque: Control torque is provided by springs, as it is a electrodynamometer type instruments.
Damping: Air friction damping used.
Pointer and scale: This type of meter has mirror type scales and knife edge pointers to avoid parallax
error while reading.

Errors in Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter:

 Errors in the pressure coil inductance.
 Errors may be due to pressure coil capacitance.
 Errors may be due to mutual inductance effects.
 Errors may be due connections.(i.e. pressure coil is connected after current coil)

Advantages:
 The scale of the meter is uniform (because deflecting torque is proportional to the true power in
both DC as well as AC and the instrument is spring controlled.)
 High degree of accuracy can be obtained by careful design; hence these are used for calibration
purposes.

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Disadvantages:
 The error due to the inductance of the pressure coil at low power factor is very serious (unless
special features are incorporated to reduce its effect)
 In dynamometer type wattmeter, stray field may affect the reading of the instrument. To reduce
it, magnetic shielding is provided by enclosing the instrument in an iron case.
Applications:
 It can be used in industries to check the power rating and consumption of electrical appliances.
 These types of meter are used with refrigerators, electric heaters and other equipment to measure
their power ratings.
INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER:
 The meter which is used for measuring the energy utilises by the electric load is known as the
energy meter.
 The energy is the total power consumed and utilised by the load at a particular interval of time.
 It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for measuring the power consumption.
 The meter is less expensive and accurate.
Construction:
The energy meter has four main parts. They are the
 Driving System
 Moving System
 Braking System
 Registering System
Driving System:
 The electromagnet is the main component of the driving system.
 It is the temporary magnet which is excited by the current flow through their coil. The core of
the electromagnet is made up of silicon steel lamination. The driving system has two
electromagnets. The upper one is called the shunt electromagnet, and the lower one is called
series electromagnet.
 The series electromagnet is excited by the load current flow through the current coil. The coil of
the shunt electromagnet is directly connected with the supply and hence carries the current
proportional to the shunt voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil.
 The centre limb of the magnet has the copper band. These bands are adjustable. The main
function of the copper band is to align the flux produced by the shunt magnet in such a way that
it is exactly perpendicular to the supplied voltage.

Fig. 5.8 Single phase Energy meter

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Moving System:
 The moving system is the aluminium disc mounted on the shaft of the alloy. The disc is placed
in the air gap of the two electromagnets. The eddy current is induced in the disc because of the
change of the magnetic field. This eddy current is cut by the magnetic flux. The interaction of
the flux and the disc induces the deflecting torque.
 When the devices consume power, the aluminium disc starts rotating, and after some number of
rotations, the disc displays the unit used by the load. The number of rotations of the disc is
counted at particular interval of time. The disc measured the power consumption in kilowatt
hours.
Braking system:
 The permanent magnet is used for reducing the rotation of the aluminium disc. The aluminium
disc induces the eddy current because of their rotation. The eddy current cut the magnetic flux
of the permanent magnet and hence produces the braking torque.
 This braking torque opposes the movement of the disc, thus reduces their speed. The permanent
magnet is adjustable due to which the braking torque is also adjusted by shifting the magnet to
the other radial position.
Registration (Counting Mechanism):
 The main function of the registration or counting mechanism is to record the number of
rotations of the aluminium disc. Their rotation is directly proportional to the energy consumed
by the loads in the kilowatt hour.
 The rotation of the disc is transmitted to the pointers of the different dial for recording the
different readings. The reading in kWh is obtained by multiply the number of rotations of the
disc with the meter constant.

Working:
 The energy meter has the aluminium disc whose rotation determines the power consumption of
the load. The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt electromagnet.
 The shunt magnet has the pressure coil, and the series magnet has the current coil.
 The pressure coil creates the magnetic field because of the supply voltage, and the current coil
produces it because of the current.
 The field induces by the voltage coil is lagging by 90º on the magnetic field of the current coil
because of which eddy current induced in the disc.
 The interaction of the eddy current and the magnetic field causes torque, which exerts a force on
the disc. Thus, the disc starts rotating.
 The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of the coil. The permanent
magnet controls their rotation.
 The permanent magnet opposes the movement of the disc and equalises it on the power
consumption. The cyclometer counts the rotation of the disc.

Advantages:
 Simple in operation.
 High torque/weight ratio.
 Inexpensive.
 Unaffected by temperature variations.

TRANSDUCERS:
 It is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to another, often in
a different form.
 In otherwords, is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity or a physical condition
into electrical signal.
 The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency.
 A transducer uses many effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal
from one form to other is called transduction.

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  A transducer is also called pick up. The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor
to an electrical output, as shown in the Fig.5.9.

Non-electrical Sensing Sensor Transduction Electrical

quantity Element Element
response signal
Fig.5.9 Block diagram of transducer

 A transducer will have basically two main components as

o Sensing Element: The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to
by this part of the transistor.
o Transduction Element: The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction
element. This element is responsible for converting the non-electrical signal into its
proportional electrical signal. There may be cases when the transdu
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS:
 Based on the physical phenomenon, e.g. LVDT
o Primary transducer
o Secondary transducer

 Based on the power type

o Active transducer
o Passive transducer
 Based on the type of output
o Analog transducer, e.g. Strain Gauge, LVDT, Thermocouple & Thermistor
o Digital transducer
 Based on the electrical phenomenon
o Resistive transducer
o Capacitive transducer
o Inductive transducer
o Photoelectric transducer
o Photovoltaic transducer
 Based on the non-electrical phenomenon
o Linear displacement
o Rotary displacement
 Based on the transduction phenomenon
o Transducer
o Inverse transducer.

THERMOELECTRIC:
 When two conductors of two different metals are joined together at one end to form a junction is
heated to a higher temperature with respect to the free ends.
 Voltage is developed at the free ends and if these two conductors of metals at the free end are
connected.
 Then the emf set up will establish a flow of current. The constructional arrangement of
thermoelectric transducers as shown in fig.5.10

Fig.5.10 Thermoelectric Transducer

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  The magnitude of the net emf will depend upon the magnitude between the temperature of the
two junction and the materials used for the conductors.
Construction:
 The temperature can be measured with the help of thermocouple arrangement.
 The main parts of a thermocouple arrangement as
o Thermocouple hot junction JH which will be introduced into the place where temperature
is to be measured.
o Thermocouple cold junction JC which is maintained at a constant reference temperature.
o Voltage measuring instrument is connected to the free ends of the thermocouple.

Fig. 5.11 Thermocouple arrangement

Working:
 When hot and cold junctions are at different temperature, a voltage is set up at the free ends.
 The free ends are connected to milli-voltmeter.
 The emf set up will establish a flow of current which can be directly measured using the
voltmeter.
Advantages:
 It indicates the rms value directly.
 It not affected by stray magnetic fields.
 It has good sensitivity.

Disadvantages:
 The over load capacity is very limited.
 Power losses will occur due to the poor efficiency of thermal conversions.
 Low accuracy of measurement.

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD):

 The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed, it can be used for
measuring of temperature.
 The resistance thermometer or RTD is an instruments used to measure electrical resistance in
terms of temperature.
 The main part RTD is sensing element.
 The sensing element determines the sensitivity and operating temperature range of the
instrument.
 The requirement for resistance material used in RTD as
o The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should be as large
as possible.
o The material should have high value of resistivity so that minimum volume of material
is used for construction.
o The resistance of material should have a continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
 The metals used for measuring temperature as platinum, nickel and copper.

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 Fig.5.12 Platinum resistance thermometer
 RTD does not generate its own voltage corresponding to temperate, it incorporated into
measuring circuit.
 Wheatstone bridges are usually employed for measurement of variations in resistance
corresponding to change in temperature.
 RTD is used for measuring small temperature as well as for wide range of temperature.

Advantages:
 The measurement is very accurate.
 It is best suited for remote indication.
 It can be used to measure the temperature range as -2000C to +6500C.
 Stability of performance over long periods of time.

Disadvantages:
 High cost.
 Need of bridge circuit and power source.
 Possibility of self heating.
 Large size.

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT):

 LVDT is used for converting a linear motion into an electrical signal.
 The basic construction of an LVDT as shown in the fig.5.13

Fig. 5.13 constructional arrangement of LVDT

 The device consists of a primary winding (P) and two secondary windings named S1 and S2.
 Both of them are wound on one cylindrical former, side by side, and they have equal number of
turns.
 Their arrangement is such that they maintain symmetry with either side of the primary winding
(P).

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  A movable soft iron core is placed parallel to the axis of the cylindrical former.
 An arm is connected to the other end of the soft iron core and it moves according to the
displacement produced.

Working:
 An AC voltage with a frequency between (50-400) Hz is supplied to the primary winding as
shown in fig.5.13.
 Thus, two voltages VS1 and VS2 are obtained at the two secondary windings S1 and S2
respectively.
 The output voltage will be the difference between the two voltages (V S1-VS2) as they are
combined in series.
 Let us consider three different positions of the soft iron core inside the former.
o Null Position: This is also called the central position as the soft iron core will remain in
the exact centre of the former. Thus the linking magnetic flux produced in the two
secondary windings will be equal. The voltage induced because of them will also be
equal. Thus the resulting voltage VS1-VS2 = 0.
o Right of Null Position: In this position, the linking flux at the winding S2 has a value
more than the linking flux at the winding S 1. Thus, the resulting voltage VS1-VS2 will be
in phase with VS2.
o Left of Null Position: In this position, the linking flux at the winding S2 has a value less
than the linking flux at the winding S1. Thus, the resulting voltage VS1-VS2 will be in
phase with VS1.

Fig.5.14 circuit connection arrangement of LVDT

 The magnitude and displacement can be easily calculated or plotted by calculating the magnitude
and phase of the resulting voltage.
 The curve is practically linear for small displacement, after that start deviate.
 In practice, the output voltage is not zero at null position.

Fig.5.15 Output voltage Vs displacement curve

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Advantages:
 Maintains a linear relationship between the output voltage difference and displacement from
each position of the core for a displacement of about 4 millimeter.
 Produces a high resolution of more than 10 millimeter.
 Produces a high sensitivity of more than 40 volts/millimeter.
 Small in size and weighs less. It is rugged in design and can also be assigned easily.
 Produces low hysteresis and thus has easy repeatability.
 LVDT can be used on high frequencies upto 20kHz.
 It consumes less than 1 W of power.
Disadvantages:
 The whole circuit is to be shielded as the accuracy can be affected by external magnetic field.
 The displacement may produce vibrations which may affect the performance of the device.
 Produces output with less power.
 The efficiency of the device is easily affected by temperature. An increase in temperature causes
a phase shift. This can be decreased to a certain extent by placing a capacitor across either one of
the secondary windings.
 A demodulator will be needed to obtain a DC output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.

Applications:
 LVDTs are used to measure displacement, force, weight, pressure and position.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR):

 LDR is also called a photoresistor or a cadmium sulphide (CdS) cell.
 It is also called a photoconductor.
 It is basically a photocell that works on the principle of photoconductivity.
 The passive component is basically a resistor whose resistance value changes when the intensity
of light changes.
 The appropriate relationship between the resistance and illumination as
R=AE-α.
Where, E – illumination in Lumens/m2.
R – resistance in ohms
A, α – constants
 Usage of cadmium sulphide and the manufacturing process determine the value of α as 0.7 to
0.9.
Construction:
 Fig. 5.16 shows the Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) film which also passes through the sides.
 On the top and bottom are metal films which are connected to the terminal leads.
 It is designed in such a way as to provide maximum possible contact area with the two metal
films.
 The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to external light

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 Fig. 5.16 Basic structure and symbol of LDR
Working:
 The absence of light it is designed to have a high resistance in the range of megaohms.
 As soon as light falls on the sensor, the electrons are liberated and the conductivity of the
material increases.
 When the light intensity exceeds a certain frequency, the photons absorbed by the semiconductor
give band electrons the energy required to jump into the conduction band.
 This causes the free electrons or holes to conduct electricity and thus dropping the resistance
dramatically (< 1 Kiloohm).
Advantages:
 LDR’s are cheap and are readily available in many sizes and shapes.
 Practical LDRs are available in a variety of sizes and package styles, the most popular size
having a face diameter of roughly 10 mm.
 It needs very small power and voltage for its operation.
Disadvantages:
 They are fairly low acting, taking tens or hundreds of milli-seconds to respond of sudden change
in light level.
Applications:
 Light and dark – activated switches and alarms.
 Reflective smoke alarms.

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER:
 The main principle of a piezoelectric transducer is that a force, when applied on the quartz
crystal produces electric charges on the crystal surface.  
 The charge thus produced can be called as piezoelectricity.
 Piezoelectricity can be defined as the electrical polarization produced by mechanical strain on
certain class of crystals.
 The rate of charge produced will be proportional to the rate of change of force applied as input.
 As the charge produced is very small, a charge amplifier is needed so as to produce an output
voltage large enough to be measured.
 The device is also known to be mechanically stiff. For example, if a force of 15 kiloN is given to
the transducer, it may only deflect to a maximum of 0.002mm. But the output response may be
as high as 100KiloHz. This proves that the device is best applicable for dynamic measurement.
 The figure 5.7 shows a conventional piezoelectric transducer with a piezoelectric crystal inserted
between a solid base and the force summing member.
 If a force is applied on the pressure port, the same force will fall on the force summing member.
Thus a potential difference will be generated on the crystal due to its property.
 The voltage produced will be proportional to the magnitude of the applied force.

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 Fig. 5.17 structure of piezoelectric transducer

Materials for piezoelectric transducers:

 Common materials include Rochelle salt, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, quartz and ceramics
made with barium titanate, dipotassium tatrate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate and lithium
sulphate.
Different modes of mechanical deformation:
 Mechanical deformation generates a charge and it appears as a voltage across the electrode. The
piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force and compressive force produced
opposite polarity of voltage. The output voltage, E0=Q/C.
 Different modes of mechanical deformation as
o Thickness expansion
o Thickness shear
o Transverse expansion
o Face shear

Fig. 5.18 modes of operation of piezoelectric crystal

Advantages:
 Very high frequency response.
 Self generating, so no need of external source.

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 Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring range.
 Barium titanate and quartz can be made in any desired shape and form. It also has a large dielectric
constant. The crystal axis is selectable by orienting the direction of orientation.
Disadvantages:
 It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.
 Since the device operates with the small electric charge, they need high impedance cable for
electrical interface.
 The output may vary according to the temperature variation of the crystal.
 The relative humidity rises above 85% or falls below 35%, its output will be affected. If so, it has to
be coated with wax or polymer material.
Applications:
 Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an accelerometer, where the output is
in the order of (1-30) mV per gravity of acceleration.
 The device is usually designed for use as a pre-tensional bolt so that both tensional and compression
force measurements can be made.
 It can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacement in terms of voltage.
 It commonly used in residential products like motion detectors, object detectors and home security
alarms. 
 It is also used for automatic door opening used in shops. When a person steps near the door and the
door opens automatically.

OSCILLOSCOPE:
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO):.
 The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used to obtain waveforms when
the different input signals (graph an electrical signal as it varies over time) are given.
 In the early days, it is called as an Oscillograph.
 The oscilloscope observes the changes in the electrical signals over time, thus the voltage and time
describe a shape and it is continuously graphed beside a scale.
 By seeing the waveform, we can analyze some properties like amplitude, frequency, rise time,
distortion, time interval and etc.
 Most scopes produce a two-dimensional graph with time on the x-axis and voltage on the y-axis.
 The recording devices such as pen and strip chart recorders have excited for a long time. However,
the oscilloscope is capable of much operation since it is completely electronics in nature.
 The oscilloscope is useful in a variety of troubleshooting and research applications, including:
o To determining the frequency and amplitude of a signal, which can be critical in debugging a
circuit’s input, output, or internal systems.
o Identifying how much noise in the circuit.
o Identifying the shape of a waveforms – sine, square, triangle, saw-tooth, complex, etc.
o Quantifying phase differences between two different signals.
 Storage oscilloscope can be employed for capturing transient signal and then display them for
periods varying from a few minutes to several years.
 The digital storage oscilloscope converts the analog signal into digital form and stores it in digital
memory. These signals can be recalled for display when needed.

Block diagram of CRO:

 The main blocks of CRO as
o CRT(cathode Ray Tube)
o Vertical amplifier
o Delay time
o Horizontal amplifier
o Time base generator
o Trigger circuit

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 o Power supply

Fig. 5.19 block diagram of CRO

 The CRT acts as a heart of the oscilloscope.
 In an oscilloscope, the CRT produces the electron beam which is accelerated to a high velocity and
brings to the focal point on a fluorescent screen.
 Thus, the screen produces a visible spot where the electron beam strikes with it.
 By detecting the beam above the screen in reply to the electrical signal, the electrons can act as an
electrical pencil of light which produces a light where it strikes.
 The oscilloscope contains low voltage and high voltage circuits.
 The low voltage is used for the heater of the electron gun to generate the electron beam.
 The high voltage is required for the cathode ray tube to speed up the beam.
 The normal voltage supply is necessary for other control units of the oscilloscope.
 The horizontal and vertical plates are placed between the electron gun and the screen, thus it can
detect the beam according to the input signal.
 Just before detecting the electron beam on the screen in the horizontal direction which is in X-axis a
constant time-dependent rate, a time base generator is given by the oscillator.
 The signals are passed from the vertical deflection plate through the vertical amplifier. Thus, it can
amplify the signal to a level will be provided the deflection of the electron beam.
 If the electron beam is detected in the X-axis and the Y- axis a trigger circuit is given for the
synchronizing these two types detections. Hence the horizontal deflection starts at the same point of
the input signal.

Applications:
 It is used to measure AC/DC voltage/current signals.
 To measure frequency and time period.
 To measure phase shift, rise time and pulse width of waveforms.

STRAIN GAUGE:
 A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an object.
 When an external force is applied on an object, due to which there is a deformation occurs in the
shape of the object.
 This deformation in the shape is both compressive or tensile is called strain, and it is measured by
the strain gauge.
 When an object deforms within the limit of elasticity, either it becomes narrower and longer or it
become shorter and broadens. As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end-to-end.
 The strain gauge is sensitive to that small changes occur in the geometry of an object.
 By measuring the change in resistance of an object, the amount of induced stress can be calculated.

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 The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense that small change, strain gauge
has a long thin metallic strip arrange in a zig-zag pattern on a non-conducting material called the
carrier.
 So that it can enlarge the small amount of stress in the group of parallel lines and could be measured
with high accuracy.

Fig. 5.20 Strain Gauge Bridge Circuit

 When there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained, this property is
called as piezoresistive effect. So strain gauges are also called as piezoresistive gauge.
 Poisson’s Ratio: It is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the transverse direction to the
strain in the axial direction.
 Gauge Factor: It is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length.

Types of strain Gauge:

 The strain gauges are classified as four types as
o Wire strain gauge
o Foil strain gauge
o Thin film strain gauge
o Semiconductor strain gauge

Wire strain gauge:

 Wire strain gauges are normally of smaller size and are subject to minimal leakage.
 It can be employed in high temperature applications.
 Wire strain gauge are of two types as
o Unbounded wire strain gauge
o Bounded wire strain gauge

Unbounded wire strain gauge:

 It consists of wire stretched between two points in an insulating medium as air.
 The diameter of the wire used is about 25μm. The wires are kept under tension to avoid sag and
free vibration.

Fig. 5.21 Unbounded wire strain gauge

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  When an external load is applied, the resistance of the strain gauge changes causing an
unbalance of the bridge circuit resulting in an output voltage.
 A displacement of the order of 50μm can be detected with this type.

Bounded wire strain gauge:

 A metallic bonded strain gauge made with a fine wire element of 25μm or less in diameter is
looped back and forth on a carrier (base) or mounting plate which is usually cemented to the
member undergoing stress.

Fig. 5.22 Bounded wire strain gauge

Foil strain gauge:

 Foil strain gauge is the extension of the wire strain gauge.
 The strain is sensed with the help of a metal foil.
 The metals and alloys used for the foil and wire are nichrome, canstantan(Ni+Cu),
isoelastic(Ni+Cr+Mo), nickel and platinum.
 Foil gauge have a much greater dissipation capacity than wire gauge.
 Foil gauge can be used for a higher operating temperature range.
 The large surface area of foil gauge leads to better bonding.
 The etched foil strain gauges can be made thinner than comparable wire units and more flexible.
 It can be mounted in remote and restricted place even on curved surface also.

Fig. 5.23 Foil strain gauge

Thin film strain gauge:

 A thin film strain gauge is produced by depositing a thin layer of metal alloy on an elastic metal
specimen by means of vacuum deposition or sputtering process.
 This technique relatively new and extensively used to produces a strain gauge that is molecularly
bonded to the specimen under test and so the drawbacks of the epoxy adhesive bond are
eliminated.
 It is most widely used for transducers application as diaphragm type pressure gauges.
 The thin film strain gauges are rugged and have very low hysteresis.
 The sensitivity is high because of a high gauge factor and high resistance.

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Semiconductor strain gauge:
 Semiconductor strain gauges are used when a high value of gauge factor is required.
 It has a gauge factor of 50 times greater than wire strain gauge.
 The resistance of the semiconductor changes with change in applied strain.
 Semiconductor materials used are germanium and silicon.
 This type of gauge consists of a strain material and leads that are placed in a protective box.
 Semiconductor wafers or filament which have a thickness of 0.05mm are used.
 They are bonded on suitable insulating substances as teflon.
 Gold leads are used for making contacts and special soldering materials as cadmium or tin is
used for joining the leads to the circuit.

Fig. 5.24 Semiconductor strain gauge

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