PART 2: WRITING

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 PART 1: SENTENCES
Lesson 1: SENTENCE TYPES
1. CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. The relation of a
clause to the rest of the sentence is shown by the position of the clause or by a
conjunction. There are two kinds of clauses (1) subordinate or dependent clauses, and
(2) main or independent clauses.

Clauses Not clauses

ecology is a science to protect the environment

because pollution causes cancer after working hard

Independent clauses
An independent clause contains a S and a V and expresses a complete thought. It can
stand alone by itself.
E.g. Students normally spend four years in college.
Dependent clauses
A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, while, if, that …
followed by (at least) a subject and a verb. It does not express a complete thought, so it
can not stand by itself.
E.g. …when the semester was over…

PRACTICE 1: Are these groups of words clauses? Put a tick (v) into the correct cell .
 
yes no
   
1. I love to eat Montréal bagels
   
2. the big, bad wolf
   
3. rode the bus to Halifax
   
4. they were thinking about the language issue

2
    
5. the student considering everything written on this subject
   
6. stay on the Trans-Canada highway through British Columbia
   
7. after the morning rush hour
   
8. they hate politics
   
9. because of the coat which I bought in the West Edmonton Mall
   
10. when the train arrived at the station

2. SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, often contains a subject and a
verb, and it expresses a complete thought.
A. Some students like to study in the mornings.
S V
B. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.
S V1 V2
C. Alicia and John goes to the library every day.
S1 S2 V
Note: - Sentence B contains a compound verb. Sentence C contains a compound subject.

PRACTICE 2: Put a tick (V) next to the independent clauses and a period (.) after
them to make complete sentences.
1. Jet lag affects most long-distance travelers
 2. Which is simply the urge to sleep at inappropriate times
 3. During long journeys through several time zones, the body’s inner clock is disrupted
 4. For some reasons, travel from west to east causes greater jet lag than travel from east to west
 5. Also, changes in work can cause jet lag
 6. When hospital nurses change from a day shift to a night shift, for example
 7. Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag
 8. There are some ways to minimize it

3. COMPOUND SENTENCE

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 A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined by a
coordinator, a semicolon or a conjunctive adverb.

Example:

A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.  (a coordinator)

S V , S V

B. Alejandro played football; Marie went shopping.  (a semi colon)

C. I spared no effort to make her happy; however, she dumped me yesterday. (a

conjunctive adverb)

4. COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent
clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after,
although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.
A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page. 
Sub S V , S V
B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. 
S V sub S V
Note: - When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator, a comma is
required at the end of the dependent clause.
- When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the
middle, no comma is required.

5. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
A compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses.
E.g. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I
haven't found anyone to go with.
 independent clause: "I haven't had the time to go lately"
 independent clause: "I haven't found anyone to go with"
 dependent clause: "Although I like to go camping... "

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PRACTICE 3: Read the following sentences and label them simple, compound,
complex, or compound-complex.
1. Since it rained all weekend, the group decided to stay home.
2. Apples are great for improving your health.
3. The war has taken a toll on morale, but the devastation is coupled with improved
living conditions for many.
4. After the wreck, John decided to turn his life around, and he promptly made some
great investments and gave back to the community from which he had taken for so
long.
5. The weekend was filled with walking in the park, shopping at the local market,
swimming and skiing in the bay, and spending time with loved ones.
6. Greg is articulate, but he is very immature.
7. I don’t care what you say; this sentence is boring.
8. If you cannot send the program to the mainframe, all your hard work will be
wasted.
9. Evangeline was hard at work in her garden while her husband was taking a nap on
the couch.
10. While we are waiting, let’s play cards until he returns; it will help pass the time.

PRACTICE 4: Complete the following sentences then identify the types of sentences
here.
1. I was disappointed by my failure in the entrance exam to the university this year,
but …....................................................................................................................
2. The Japanese have the longest life expectancy in the world because ...................
..............................................................................................................................
3. My friends do not like going out at night, nor.......................................................
..............................................................................................................................
4. My sister laid .......................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
5. His impoliteness in the party made.......................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
6. The tour guide introduced some famous traditional dishes to all of us, which......
..............................................................................................................................
7. My husband didn’t come home until.....................................................................
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 ..............................................................................................................................
8. My sister became pregnant, so..............................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
9. You should leave now, or.....................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
10. No one will be allowed in that class unless...........................................................
..............................................................................................................................
PRACTICE 5: Make all the changes and additions necessary to produce, from the
following eight sets of words and phrases, eight sentences together make a complete
letter.
Example: I / wonder / why you / not reply / last letter.
-> I was wondering why you had not replied to my last letter.
Dear Mr. David,
1. I be happy / get / letter / offer / job / your company.
..............................................................................................................................................
2. You / not tell / when / want me / start work / for you.
..............................................................................................................................................
3. My present employer / expect me / stay him / end month.
..............................................................................................................................................
4. We think / about buy / house / the office.
..............................................................................................................................................
5. My wife / be anxious / find / good school / children / attend.
..............................................................................................................................................
6. She worry / not be able / continue / same subjects.
..............................................................................................................................................
7. Let hope / problems / not take / long solve.
..............................................................................................................................................
8. I look forward / start work / you.
............................................................................................................................................................
PRACTICE 6: The word in capitals at the end of the following sentences can be used
to form a word that fits suitably in the blank space. Fill each blank in this way.
EXAMPLE: He said “Good morning” in almost ……………… way. FRIEND
ANSWER: friendly
a. This coffee is too …………………… to drink. HEAT
b. I really don’t think he has the …………………… to do this job. ABLE

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c. The professor explained his ideas with great …………………… CLEAR
d. Do you know what the …………………… of the river is? DEEP
e. He is a very …………………… carpenter. SKILL
f. He …………………… to hit me if I didn’t hand over my money. THREAT
g. He drives so …………………… that he is sure to have an accident. CARE
h. I am …………………… he will succeed in his chosen career. CONFIDENCE

PRACTICE 7: Write about 100 words about your hobby

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
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.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................

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 Lesson 2: SIMPLE SENTENCES
1. SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence contains one independent clause. It expresses a complete thought.
Example:
I don’t like dogs.

 The simple sentence may have a compound subject:

The dog and the cat howled.
 It may have a compound verb:
The dog howled and barked.
 It may have a compound subject and a compound verb:
The dog and the cat howled and yowled, respectively.

2. SENTENCE PARTS

He had given the girl an apple.

Had he given the girl an apple?

PRACTICE 1: Identify the subject and the predicate in these different types of simple
sentences. Circle the noun (or compound nouns) in the subject and underline the verb
(or compound verbs) in the predicate.
1. Will you go to the store with me to buy some groceries?
2. According to the nutrition magazine, watermelon and tomatoes contain major amounts
of a chemical called lycopene and are good for you.
3. Because of the wind and the rain, the trees danced back and forth, threw up their leafy
arms, and sang to the sky above.
4. Don’t forget to take your vitamins in the morning with a full glass of water.

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 5. The tennis ball was served across the net, hit back and forth several times, and then
dropped in the mud puddle at the back of the court.
6. Have you brushed your teeth, combed your hair, and eaten your breakfast yet?
7. Marianne laughed heartily, crossed her eyes like a crazy person, and stuck her
tongue out at me.
8. Place the pens, pencils, erasers, and pads of paper in the top drawer of your desk.
9. His favorite rock group had a new CD for sale at the record store on Main Street.
10. Didn’t she love to eat pizza, ice cream, and brownies as a little girl?

Simple sentence elements (or Clause elements)

3. SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT, OBJECT, ADVERBIAL (S, V, C, O, A)

 Subjects are normally at the first place of a sentence. They can be either the
personal pronouns or nouns.
 Verbs, complements, objects and adverbials belong to the Predicate of a sentence.
 The position of auxiliary as operator can be changed to the beginning of a sentence
in the question form.
 C can be of objects (Co) or of subjects (Cs).
 O can be either direct or indirect. When there is only one object, it normally the
direct object. When there are two objects and more, they are normally both direct
and indirect.
 A is either obligatory or optional. The optional adverbials are often the types of
process, place and time. They can be also either simple or complex.

E.g. : - John (S) carefully (A) searched (V) the room (O).
- The girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C) at a large university (A).
- The girl (S) gives (V) me (O) a chocolate pie (O).

4. SIMPLE SENTENCE PATTERNS (OR CLAUSE PATTERNS)

 There are seven types of simple sentence patterns in English. They are SV, SVO,
SVC, SVOO, SVOC, SVA, and SVOA. (The sentence parts which appear in the
structures are compulsory/ obligatory parts of a sentence, except for optional
parts such as adverbials A.)

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 SENTENCE PATTERN 1: SVA
The be patterns (type 1)
S V A
Subject Be Verb Adverbial (Time or Place)
California Is in the West U.S.

Test Your Knowledge

In the sentences below, label each part of the sentence based on the terms used above:
1. The performance will be next month.
2. Your teacher is on this campus.
3. For a short respite was Michael’s only hope.

SENTENCE PATTERN 2: SVC

- The be patterns (type 2)

S V C

Subject Be Verb Subject Complement

Michael was an Olympic gold medalist. (Noun phrase)

That dog is silly. (Adjective)
Your duty is to learn well. (Inf functioning as a noun
phrase)

Test Your Knowledge

Use the cues to finish each sentence with the specified type of subject complement:
1. Will you be (noun phrase)…………………?
2. Shakespeare’s writing was (adjective)…………………..!
3. Joshua isn’t (noun phrase)…………………...

- The linking verb pattern

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Subject complements explain or rename what the subject is.
S V C

Subject Linking Verb Subject Complement

The lake Appears calm. (Adjective)
Kara Became a teacher. (Noun Phrase)
 A linking verb is typically a verb “of the senses,”: taste, smell, feel, sound, and
look. Other common linking verbs include become, remain, seem, appear, and
prove.
Test Your Knowledge
Select a linking verb for each of the following sentences (as opposed to a be verb):
1. Making a gourmet meal (is, seems) too time-consuming.
2. The mark (looked, was) distinct, like a fingerprint.
3. Don’t (become, be) a cynic; they’re no fun.

SENTENCE PATTERN 3: SV
The intransitive verb pattern
An intransitive verb is an action verb that requires no complement.
S V
Subject Intransitive Verb
The camera battery died.
Audiences laugh.

Note:
- The action verbs in the examples, died and laugh can stand alone.
- They could certainly be accompanied by modifiers, too.
For instance, the battery could have died suddenly or audiences could laugh at the
joke. The adverb suddenly and the prepositional phrase at the joke both function as
adverbials modifying the verbs they follow.
Test Your Knowledge
State whether the verbs below are intransitive. Determine whether or not they can stand
alone by inserting a subject and asking if any more information is necessary to complete
the sentence.
walk play depart respect
select stand give scream
SENTENCE PATTERN 4: SVO
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The basic transitive verb pattern
S V O
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object
Joey spoiled his niece Rachel.
Our secretary distributes our weekly timesheets.

 One useful characteristic of transitive verb patterns is that sentences with transitive
verbs can be turned into passive sentences.

Ex. His niece Rachel was spoiled by Joey.

Ex. Our weekly timesheets were distributed by our secretary.
Test Your Knowledge
Determine whether the verbs below are transitive or intransitive. If a verb is intransitive,
complete the sentence with a period. If a verb is transitive, complete the sentence by
adding on a direct object.
1. Maggie contacted
2. That novel completes
3. The ground shook

SENTENCE PATTERN 5: SVOO

The transitive verb + two complements, (type 1)
S V O O
Subject Transitive Verb Indirect Object (Oi) Direct Object (Od)
The sight of Big Ben gave me goosebumps.
Nurse Baggins handed the child a turquoise crayon.

 How do you distinguish between a direct and an indirect object? If you can
reconstruct the sentence so that there is an object being transferred to or for
someone, then that someone is the indirect object.
For example
Vince did us a huge favor. = Vince did a favor for us.
I read Charlotte a story. =I read a story to Charlotte.
Test Your Knowledge
In the sentences below, identify the indirect objects (IO) and direct objects (DO):
1. David handed Terrance the ball when they were done playing catch.
2. Give Cindy the notice once she leaves the meeting.

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 3. Do scientists really administer animals human medicines for official testing?

SENTENCE PATTERN 6: SVOC

The transitive verb + two complements, (type 2)
S V O C
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Object Complement
My mom calls me a klutz. (Noun phrase)
Darcy considered Jane indifferent. (Adjective)

Test Your Knowledge

In the sentences below, identify the direct object (DO) and object complement (OC) of
each verb and state whether it is a noun that renames or adjective that modifies the object.
1. The baker made the bread too chewy.
2. We elected him class president because of his speech.
3. The jury found him “not guilty” of murder in the first degree.

SENTENCE PATTERN 7: SVOA

The transitive verb + two complements, (type 3)
S V O A
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Adverbial
My mom Placed the vase on the table.
Darcy Took Jane to the park.

PRACTICE 2. Define the sentence elements and sentence pattern of each sentence
below. Pay attention to the complex elements.
1. She is in London now.
Answer: Sentence elements: She: S, is: V, in London: A, now: A
Sentence pattern: SVA
2. She is a student in London now.

3. John heard an explosion from his office when he was locking the door.

4. Universities gradually became famous in Europe during the Middle Ages.

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 
5. They ate meat hungrily in their hut last night.

6. He offered her some chocolates politely outside the hall before the concert.

7. They elected him chairman without argument in Washington this morning.

8. The train had arrived quietly at the station before we noticed it.

9. He had been challenged rudely, and having been challenged he was angry.

10. That she answered the questions correctly pleased him.

11. The new gas stove in the kitchen which I bought last month operates very well.

12. He grew happier when his close friend arrived.

13. Seeing a large crowd, John stopped his car.

14. Gold is prized for two important characteristics.

15. For many years, gold has been used in hundreds of industrial applications.


PRACTICE 3: Use the given sets of words here to make complete sentences.
1. My best friends / whole world / coming / my house / visit me / this afternoon.
..............................................................................................................................
2. I / not remember / name / that tall, thin actor / sparkling blue eyes.
..............................................................................................................................
3. Who / tell me / answer / question / Civil War?
..............................................................................................................................
4. Mary / have / time / call / brother / this morning?
..............................................................................................................................
5. Three years / my baby sister / born / first day / January.
..............................................................................................................................

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 6. She / wonder / that idea / quite a while now.
..............................................................................................................................
7. violinists / cellists / ready / begin / play / nocturne / yet?
....................................................................................................................................
PRACTICE 4: Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Đừng để cái áo mưa ướt của con nằm trên ghế phòng khách.
..................................................................................................................................
2. Vào năm 2010, lãnh đạo các quốc gia trên hành tinh này sẽ phải đối mặt với rất
nhiều vấn đề môi trường quan trọng.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
3. Cô ấy đã dành cả buổi chiều làm chiếc bánh sinh nhật cho anh ấy.
..................................................................................................................................
4. Cơn bão đã ảnh hưởng nặng nề đến dân cư địa phương.
..................................................................................................................................
5. Thi đỗ vào trường ĐH là mơ ước bấy lâu nay của tôi.
..................................................................................................................................
6. Ông ấy được coi là một trong những nhà văn vĩ đại nhất mọi thời đại.
..................................................................................................................................
7. Sau cơn mưa, bầu trời trởi trở nên trong và sáng hơn.
..................................................................................................................................
8. Người quản lí cửa hàng thậm chí còn chẳng xin lỗi chúng ta vì hành động thô lỗ
của nhân viên ông ấy.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................

PRACTICE 5: Finish each of the following sentences in such a way that it means
exactly the same as the sentence printed before it.
EXAMPLE: I haven’t enjoy myself so much for years.
ANSWER: It’s years since I enjoyed myself so much.
a. “I don’t think John will come”, said Bill.
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Bill doubted .....................................................................................................................
b. The postman was bitten by our dog.
 Our dog ..........................................................................................................................
c. We couldn’t drive because of the fog.
The fog prevented ............................................................................................................
d. Although his leg was broken he managed to get out of the car.
In spite .............................................................................................................................
e. The cake was so hard that I could not eat it.
It was …………………………………………………………………………………….
f. We didn’t go, because it rained.
If it hadn’t ………………………………………………………………………………
g. I can’t cook as well as my mother does.
My mother ………………………………………………………………………………
h. I don’t suppose you have change for a pound, do you?
Do you happen …………………………………………………………………………
i. He failed to win the race.
He didn’t ………………………………………………………………………………
j. Mary rang hours and hours ago.
It’s hours ………………………………………………………………………………

PRACTICE 6: Complete the following sentences by writing in the space provided a

suitable word meaning the opposite of the word in capital letters.
EXAMPLE: Cinderella was very BEAUTIFUL, but both her sisters were very……
ANSWER: ugly
1. Although the earlier scientific experiments had been FAILURES this one was a
complete………………….
2. The first eight battles fought by the General resulted in his DEFEAT, so his final ……
surprised everyone.
3. He was not sure if turning the screw to the left would TIGHTEN it or ………….it.
4. Make sure the bread you buy is …………... not STALE.
5. The water in the tank always FREEZES at night but the ice soon ……… when the sun
comes up.

PRACTICE 7: Write 100 words about your dream

………………………………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 Lesson 3: COMPOUND SENTENCES

What is a compound sentence?

A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. There are three
ways to join independent clauses to form a compound sentence.

With a coordinator:
I enjoy playing tennis, but I hate playing golf.
With a conjunctive adverb:
I enjoy playing tennis; however, I hate playing golf.
With a semicolon:
I enjoy playing tennis; I hate playing golf.

1. COMPOUND SENTENCES WITH COORDINATORS

A compound sentence can be formed with:
Independent Clause, + Coordinator + Independent Clause
 The Japanese have the longest life expectancy of any other people, for their diet is
extremely healthful. (The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)
 The Japanese consume a lot of rice, and they eat more fish than red meat. (Both
clauses express equal related ideas.)
 Many Americans, on the other hand, do not eat a healthy diet, nor do they get
enough exercise. (nor means ‘and not’. It is used to join equal negative
independent clauses. Notice that the ‘nor’ clause uses question word order.)
 In the last twenty years, Americans have reduced their smoking, but Europeans
seem to be smoking more than ever. (The two clauses express contrasting ideas.)
 Europeans should change their smoking habits, or they will risk developing lung
cancer. (The two clauses express alternative or possibilities.)
 Many Japanese men smoke, yet the Japanese have long life expectancies. (The
second clause is an expected contrast to the information in the first clause.)
 The Japanese diet is becoming more westernized, so their life expectancy will
probably decrease in the future. (The second clause is a result of the first clause.)

PRACTICE 1:

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A. Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses to form
compound sentences.
Example: The college campus is located in the center of the city, so it is very easy to do
my shopping.
1. Students can attend day classes, and ………………………….............................
2. Students can live in dormitories, or ……………………………………………...
3. I have finished my math homework, but ………………………………………...
4. I have studied English for six years, yet…………………………………………..
5. Some students do not like to write term papers, nor……………………………...
6. The instructor gave us eight weeks to write our term papers, yet………………...
7. The instructor was very upset, for………………………………………………..
8. My roommate scored very high on the English placement test, so……………….
B. Write 7 compound sentences using different coordinators.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCES WITH CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

A compound sentence can be formed with:
Independent Clause; + Conjunctive Adverbs, + Independent Clause

Coordinating Conjunctions Conjunctive Adverbs Meaning

And furthermore, besides, additional idea
moreover, also
But, yet however, nevertheless, opposite idea
still, nonetheless
Or Otherwise choice, ‘or else’
So consequently, therefore, Result
thus, accordingly, hence

The following sentences show how these conjunctive adverbs are used.
 Junior colleges offer preparation for the profession, business, and industry;
moreover, they prepare students to transfer to a four- year college or university.
(equal related idea)
 Many junior colleges do not provide dormitories; however, they provide housing
referral service. (opposite ideas)
 Students must take the final exam; otherwise, they will receive a grade of
Incomplete.(‘or else’)

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  Native and non-native English speakers have different needs; therefore, most
schools provide separate English classes for each group. (result)

PRACTICE 2:
A. Form compound sentences by adding a second independent clause to each
independent clause. Be sure to add a complete clause containing a subject and a verb.
Circle the conjunctive adverb and add punctuation. The first one has been done for you
as an example.

2. Students must pay their tuition and fees before they register for classes otherwise…
........................................................................................................................................
3. My roommate scored high on the English placement test as a result………………...
........................................................................................................................................
4. Tuition and fees increase every year for example……………………………………
........................................................................................................................................
5. The class thought the teacher would give a test last Friday instead………………….
........................................................................................................................................
B. Write compound sentences using the coordinating conjunctions you’ve learned.
Follow the directions given.
1. Write a sentence that tells one thing that you like to do and one thing you don’t like
to do. (Use but)
........................................................................................................................................
2. Write a sentence that tells two things you do every morning after you get up. (Use
and)
........................................................................................................................................
3. Write a sentence that tells two things you might do this weekend. (Use or)
........................................................................................................................................
4. Write a sentence that tells the result of each phrase. Begin the sentence with I am/I
was…(Use so)

a. Being born in your country: I was born in __________, so _________________

..................................................................................................................................
b. Being the oldest/youngest/middle/only child in your family: I am …, so

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 ..................................................................................................................................
5. Write a sentence that tells two different careers you might have in the future (Use
or)
........................................................................................................................................
C. Write 5 compound sentences using different conjunctive adverbs.

3. COMPOUND SENTENCES WITH SEMICOLONS

This kind of sentence occurs when the two independent clauses are closely related. If they
weren’t closely related, they would be written as two simple sentences, separated by a
period.
 My older brother studies law; my younger brother studies medicine.
 Poland was the first Eastern block country to turn away from communism; others
soon followed.
 The Berlin Wall’s construction in 1961 surprised the world; its destruction in 1989
stunned it.

PRACTICE 3:
A. Add a semicolon and a second independent clause to each independent clause below
to make compound sentences.
1. At 2 a.m, I stumbled toward the ringing telephone………………………………
..................................................................................................................................
2. People magazine published my letter to the editor………………………………
..................................................................................................................................
3. None of my friends can polka…………………………………………………….
..................................................................................................................................
4. During the Great Depression, millions of workers were unemployed……………
..................................................................................................................................
5. Bill’s waiter recommended the vegetable soup…………………………………..
..................................................................................................................................

B. Write 7 compound sentences using semicolons.

PRACTICE 4: Correct the following compound sentences. (The errors can be in

punctuation, vocabulary or grammar)

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 1. You are wrong! John does like jogging and playing tennis, what’s more, he’s also a
keen supporter of our local football club.
2. Did you know that John was interesting in stamp collecting and he had lots of old
coins?
3. I am not quite sure but I guess Ted is a law student for three years now.
4. Ted is a classical example of laziness; he hardly ever does anything at home.
5. Mary’s never been a good cooker; in fact, she doesn’t even know how to make a
pancake.
6. In the exam he was asked five different questions, but he didn’t answer none of
them.
7. To go to the USA and travel for more than a month you should have at last four
thousand dollars; otherwise they will not even let you into the country.
8. This place isn’t safe anymore and I’d prefer not be here without a gun.

PRACTICE 5: The word in capitals at the end of each of the following sentences can
be used to form a word that fits suitably in the blank space. Fill each blank in this way.
EXAMPLE: He said “Good morning” in almost …………. way. FRIEND
ANSWER: friendly
1. I had to check the wages in ……… to my normal work. ADD
2. During his …….. the family lived in Cornwall. CHILD
3. This matter is very …….. Don’t discuss it outside this office. CONFIDENCE
4. Those berries are ……….... Don’t eat them! POISON
5. He was very ……. of the work he had done. PRIDE
6. There has been a ………... of 10% in the amount of money available REDUCE
for buying new books.
7. He is interested the …….. of old building. PRESERVE
8. The manager handed in his ............ after being accused of RESIGN
dishonesty.
9. All the newspapers praised the …….. of the firemen. BRAVE
10. Saucepans are sold in the ………. goods department. HOUSE
11. The group called “Friends of the Earth” is concerned about the CONSERVE
……of the natural environment.
12. The thief replaced the diamond with a ………stone. WORTH
13. ……….about the company’s future meant that few people wanted CERTAIN
to invest money in it.
22
14. Simon admitted that his cruel joke was ……………. INTEND
15. People with very ………. skin shouldn’t go sunbathing for long SENSE
periods.
16. Thousands of people have been made ……….by the war. HOME

PRACTICE 6: Write 100 words about your best friend

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

COMPLEX SENTENCES

23
 Lesson 4: ADJECTIVE (RELATIVE) CLAUSES

1. Definition

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adjective. It  is

a subordinate clause that modifies a noun phrase, most commonly a noun.


For example: the man who wasn't there

 A relative clause can also modify

- a pronoun, as in "he to whom I have written", or
- a noun phrase which already contains a modifier, as in "the black panther in the
tree, which is about to pounce".

 The complete phrases "he to whom I have written" and "the black panther in the
tree, which is about to pounce" are also noun phrases.

 Relative clauses are introduced by a special class of pronouns called relative

pronouns and relative adverbs
- Relative pronouns are WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHICH, THAT.
- Relative adverbs are WHEN, WHERE and WHY
2. Defining relative clause

 These describe the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it from other
nouns of the same class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear
understanding of the noun.
 In the sentence:
The man who told me this refused to give me his name
“who told me this” is the relative clause. If we omit this, it is not clear what man
we are talking about. Notice that there is no comma between a noun and a defining
clause.
 Defining clause usually follow the + noun, but they can also be used with a/an +
noun.

24
  Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses

Subject Object Possessive

For persons Who Whom/who Whose
That That
For things Which Which Whose/of which
That that

3. Non-defining relative clause

 Non-defining relative clauses do not define the noun, but merely add something to
it by giving some more information about it.
 Unlike defining relative clauses, they are not essential in the sentence and can be
omitted without casing confusion.
 Also unlike defining relatives, they are separated from their noun by commas. The
pronoun can never be omitted in a non-defining relative clause. The construction is
fairly formal and more common in written than in spoken English.
Example: My neighbour, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples
this year.

 Relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses

Subject Object Possessive

For persons Who Who/whom Whose
For things Which Which Whose/ of which

NOTES: The relative pronoun can be omitted in a defining relative clause if the relative
pronoun is the object of the relative clause.
e.g. The book (that) I want is on the table.
  There’s something (that) you don’t know.
PRACTICE 1:

25
4. KINDS OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

4.1. Relative Pronouns as Subjects

A relative pronoun can be the subject of its own clause.

In this pattern, who, which, and that can be either singular or plural. Make the verb agree
with the antecedent.
I have not read the magazine that is lying on the coffee table.
(The verb is lying is singular to agree with the singular antecedent magazine.)
I have not read the magazines that are lying on the coffee table.
(The verb are lying is plural to agree with the plural antecedent magazines.)

26
The following examples show you how to combine two sentences to make a new sentence
containing a subject pattern adjective clause.

4.2. Relative Pronouns as Objects

A relative pronoun can be an object in its own clause.

Note: You can omit that in object pattern clauses only.

The address he gave me was incorrect.
The following examples show you how to combine two sentences to make a new sentence
containing an object pattern adjective clause.

27
4.3. Possessive Adjective Clauses
 In possessive adjective clauses, the relative pronoun whose replaces a possessive
word such as Mary's, his, our, their, the company's, or its. Possessive adjective
clauses can follow the subject or the object pattern.
 In the subject pattern, the whose + noun phrase is the subject of the adjective
clause. In the object pattern, the whose + noun phrase is the object in the adjective
clause.
Notes
1. Some writers feel that whose should be used to refer only to people. For animals
and things, they recommend using of which. Compare:
I returned the book whose cover was torn.
I returned the book, the cover of which was torn.
Other writers use whose in all but the most formal writing (such as legal
documents).
2. You have learned that the verb in an adjective clause agrees with the antecedent.
The student who is working alone is a friend of mine.
The students who are working together are also friends of mine.
Now learn the exception: When whose + noun is the subject of an adjective clause,
the verb agrees with that noun.

28
 She takes care of two children whose mother works at night.
(The verb works is singular to agree with mother.)
She takes care of two children whose parents work at night.
(The verb work is plural to agree with parents.)

The following examples show you how to combine two sentences to make a new sentence
containing a subject pattern possessive adjective clause.

The following examples show you how to combine two sentences to make a new sentence
containing an object pattern possessive adjective clause.

4.4. Relative Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions

A relative pronoun can be the object of a preposition in its own clause.

These adjective clauses are formed in two ways: the formal way and the informal way.
(a) In the formal way, the preposition and relative pronoun are together at the
beginning of the clause:
for whom I did a favor

29
 with whom I shared a secret
to which I sent my application
in which the gift was wrapped
(b) In the informal way, the pronoun comes at the beginning and the preposition at the
end of the clause:
whom I did a favor for
whom I shared a secret with
which I sent my application to
that the gift was wrapped in
The following examples show you how to combine two sentences to make a new sentence
containing an adjective clause. Sentence (a) is formal; all of the (b) sentences are
informal.

PRACTICE 2:

30
4.5. Relative Pronouns in Phrases of Quantity and Quality
A relative pronoun can occur in phrases of quantity and quality.

31
  These adjective clauses can follow either the subject or the object pattern, and they
are always nonrestrictive; that is, they are always used with commas.
 The following examples show you how to combine two sentences to make a new
sentence containing an adjective clause with an expression of quantity or quality.
 Notice that the relative pronoun is always of whom or of which.

PRACTICE 3:

32
4.6. Adjective Clauses of Time and Place
Adjective clauses can also be introduced by the relative adverbs when and where.

 These clauses refer to a time or a place, and they can be restrictive or

nonrestrictive. In the following examples, notice how when and where replace
entire prepositional phrases such as during that night and in Berlin.

 It is also possible to write time and place clauses with the relative pronoun which,
that, or zero and a preposition. The following patterns are possible.

when I was born.

on which I was born.
which I was born.
March 31, 1980, was the day that I was born on.
I was born.

33
 where I grew up.
in which I grew up.
Cody, Wyoming, is the town which I grew in.
that I grew in
I grew in

PRACTICE 4:

34
PRACTICE 5: Fill in the blanks to make relative clause.
1. Alexander Flemming ______ discovered penicillin received the Nobel Prize in
1945.
2. The book _______ I need can’t be found in the library.
3. Here is the beach ________ is the safest for swimmers.
4. Do you know the American woman ________ name is Margaret Mitchell?
5. Jim ________ I have known for ten years is one of my closest friends.
6. John found a cat _______ leg was broken.
7. Don’t sit on the chair the leg ________ is broken.
8. This tree _________ branches are dry should be cut down.
9. The child smiled at the woman ________ he didn’t know.
10. That woman _______ name I don’t remember is a doctor.
PRACTICE 6: Use a relative pronoun to combine each pair of the sentences below.
1. You sent me a present. Thank you very much for it.
..................................................................................................................................
2. Romeo and Juliet were lovers. Their parents hated each other.
..................................................................................................................................
3. This is Mrs. Jones. Her son won the championship last year.
..................................................................................................................................
4. I was sitting in a chair. It suddenly collapsed.
..................................................................................................................................
5. This is the story of a man. His wife suddenly loses her memory.
..................................................................................................................................
6. Charlie Chaplin died in 1977. His films amused millions of people in the world.
..................................................................................................................................
7. Please post these letters. I wrote them this morning.
..................................................................................................................................
35
 8. The building is the church. Its tower can be seen from afar.
..................................................................................................................................
9. Mary and Margaret are twins. You met them yesterday.
..................................................................................................................................
10. I’ll introduce you to the man. His support is necessary for your project.
..................................................................................................................................
PRACTICE 7: Rewrite each of the following sentences in such a way that it means
exactly the same as the one printed before it.
1. The man that we are talking about is a famous scientist.
 The man about..........................................................................................................
2. The tree that we picked these fruits from is in front of the house.
 The tree from............................................................................................................
3. The city that we were born in is very large.
 The city in................................................................................................................
4. Do you remember the day? We first met on that day.
 Do you remember the day on...................................................................................
5. The dog was very frightened. The boys threw stones at it.
 The dog at.................................................................................................................
6. The road was built in 1980. We are driving on it.
 The road on..............................................................................................................
7. Did you see the letter? It came yesterday morning.
 Did you.....................................................................................................................
8. This is Rex Hotel, and it is the biggest hotel in the city.
 This is Rex Hotel, which..........................................................................................
PRACTICE 8: Complete the following sentences, using Relative Clauses:
1. I don’t know the reason.............................................................................................
2. They have found the handbag....................................................................................
3. He doesn’t like people...............................................................................................
4. The police arrested the man.......................................................................................
5. Do you know the country..........................................................................................
6. I don’t like the women..............................................................................................
7. The woman…………………………………………………………...is my mother.
8. The man............................................................................................ is my father.
9. She has lost the bicycle.............................................................................................
10. This is the house........................................................................................................
36
 COMPLEX SENTENCES

Lesson 5: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

1. Definition
 An adverb clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb. It can tell
when, where, why, how, how long, how far, how often, and for what purpose
something happened.
 An adverb clause can also express a contrast. An adverb clause always begins with
a subordinating conjunction that expresses the relationship between the adverb
clause and the independent clause.

Relationship Adverb Clause Independent Clause

Time Subordinator
As soon as a baby opens its eyes, it begins to observe its
surroundings.
Contrast Subordinator
Although some people are more
productive in the morning, others work better at night.

2. Kinds of Adverb Clauses

• Time clauses answer the question "When?"
• Place clauses answer the question "Where?"
• Clauses of manner answer the question "How?"
• Distance clauses answer the question "How far?"
• Frequency clauses answer the question "How often?"
• Purpose clauses answer the question "For what intention?"
• Result clauses answer the question "For what effect?"
• Conditional clauses answer the question "Under what circumstance?"
• Contrast clauses of direct opposition show how one thing differs from another.
• Contrast clauses of concession show an unexpected result.

37
Punctuation of Adverb Clauses
The punctuation of an adverb clause depends on the order of the clauses. When an
adverb clause comes first in a sentence, put a comma after it. When an adverb clause
follows an independent clause, do not separate the clauses with a comma.
Because humans are curious animals, they constantly explore their world.
Humans constantly explore their world because they are curious animals.
2.1. Clauses of time

- Finite adverbial clause of time are introduced by such subordinator as after, before, since,
until, when, as soon as …

Time subordinators

when: a specific time When people had to hunt for food, they moved from
place to place.

whenever: at any time Whenever food became scarce in one area, they moved
to another area.

while: at the same time The men hunted game while the women gathered
plants.

as soon as: soon after Eating habits changed as soon as people stopped
moving from place to place in search of food.

after: later After people learned how to grow their own food, they
settled in villages.

since: from that time Since the United States changed form an agricultural
to an industrial society, eating habits there have
changed.

as: at the same time People in the United States started eating more
processed convenience foods as their lives became
busier.

before: earlier Before people in the United Stated moved to cities, they
grew most of their own food.

until: up to the time Women had time to cook meals “from scratch” until
they went to work in factories and offices.

- The –ing clause may be introduced by after, before, since, until, when(ever), while

38
 E.g., He wrote his greatest novel while working on of freighter.
Before working here, I had worked in Japan.
- The –ed clause may be introduced by once, until, when(ever), and while
E.g., Once published, the book caused remarkable stir.

2.2. Clauses of place

An adverb place clause tells where the action described by the main verb took place.
The subordinators wherevel; everywhere, and anywhere are similar in meaning and are
interchangeable. You can begin a sentence with wherever, everywhere, and anywhere
clauses, but usually not with a where clause.
Note: (Expressions such as the following are exceptions: Where there is lightning,
there is thunder. Where there is smoke, there is fire.)

Place subordinator

where: a specific place Most people shop where they get the lowest prices.

wherever: any place I pay by credit card wherever I can.

everywhere: everyplace Can you use an ATM card everywhere you shop?

anywhere: anyplace Anywhere you go, you hear people talking on their cell phones.

2.3. Distance, Frequency, and Manner Clauses

Adverb clauses of distance answer the question "How far?" Adverb clauses of frequency
answer the question "How often?" Adverb clauses of manner answer the question "How?"
Distance, frequency, and most (but not all) manner clauses follow the independent clause.

Distance, Frequency, and Manner Subordinators

as + adverb + as: distance Fire had destroyed the trees in the forest as far as the eye
could see.
as + adverb + as: frequency I do not visit my parents as often as they would like me to.
as: manner We mixed the chemicals exactly as the lab instructor had
told us to.
as + adverb + as: manner Our instructor asked us to fill out the questionnaire as
carefully as we could.
as if, as though: manner The bus’s engine sounds as if / as though it is going to stall
at any moment.

39
Notes
1. In informal spoken English, people often use like in place of as if and as though.
Like is not correct in formal written English, so use only as if and as though in
your writing.
It looks as if it is going to rain.
It looks like it is going to rain.
2. In very formal written English, the verb takes the same form as it does in
conditional clauses when the information in the as if/as though clause is untrue (or
probably untrue). However, many English speakers use normal verb forms in this
situation.
John acts as if he were the Prince of Wales.
John acts as if he is the Prince of Wales.
2.4. Clauses of condition
A conditional clause states a condition for a result to happen or not happen. In the
sentence If it rains tomorrow, we will not go to the beach, the condition is the weather.
The result is going or not going to the beach. A conditional clause can come before or
after an independent clause.
Conditional subordinators
If If you study, you will get good grades.
The mayor would have lost the election if the labour unions had not
supported him.
Unless Unless you study, you will not get good marks.
The mayor cannot govern unless the labour unions support him.

2.5. Clauses of reason or cause

An adverb reason clause answers the question "Why?" A reason clause can come
before or after the independent clause in a sentence.

Reason Subordinators
Because Europeans are in some ways better environmentalists than North
Americans because they are more used to conserving energy.
Since Since many Europeans live, work, and shop in the same locale, they are
quite accustomed to riding bicycles, trains and streetcars to get around.
As As the price of gasoline has always been quite high in Europe,
most Europeans drive high-mileage automobiles that use less fuel.
2.6. Clauses of purpose
40
An adverb purpose clause states the purpose of the action in the independent clause. A
purpose normally follows the independent clause, but you may put it at the beginning of a
sentence if you want to especially emphasize it.

Purpose Subordinators
so that Farmers use chemical pesticides so that they can get higher crop yields.
in order that In order that consumers can enjoy unblemished fruits and
vegetables, farmers also spray their fields.

Notes
1. In order that is formal.
2. The modals may/might, can/could, will/would, or have to usually occur in a purpose
clause.
3. We often use the phrase in order to + a base verb or simply to + a base verb when
the subjects of both the independent clause and the purpose clause are the same person
or thing. We prefer to + verb over in order to + verb because it is shorter. The first
example above could be written as follows because the two subjects (farmers and they)
refer to the same people.
Farmers use chemical pesticides in order to get higher crop yields.
Farmers use chemical pesticides to get higher crop yields.
In the second example, the two subjects (farmers and consumers) are different, so it
is not possible to use an in order to + verb or a to + verb phrase.

2.7. Clauses of result

An adverb result clause expresses the effect or consequence of the information in the
independent clause. A result clause follows the independent clause in a sentence.

so + adjective/adverb + that
such a(n) + noun + that
Result Subordinators
Joanna’s cookie business is so successful that she
hired three new employees last week.
New orders are coming so rapidly that she has
expanded her production facilities.
Joanna’s cookie business is such a success that
she is considering franchising the business.

41
so much/many + noun +
that
so little/few + noun + that
Running the business takes so much time now that
Joanna no longer does the baking herself.
There were so many orders for her holiday cookies
that her workers were baking 24 hours a day.
Now Joanna has so little free time that she has not
taken a vacation for months.
Her cookies contain so few calories that even
people on diets an enjoy them.

2.8. Contrast Clauses

Direct Opposition Clauses
In this type, the information in the adverb clause and the information in the independent
clause are in direct contrast.

Direct Opposition Subordinators

Whereas San Francisco is cool during the summer, whereas Los Angeles is
generally hot.
While While most homes in San Francisco do not have air conditioning, it is
a necessity in Los Angeles.

Notes
1. While and whereas have the same meaning and are interchangeable.
2. Use a comma between the two clauses no matter which order they are in. (This is an
exception to the comma rule for adverb clauses.)
3. Since the two ideas are exact opposites, you can put the subordinator with either
clause, and the clauses can be in either order. Thus, the examples can be written in four
ways with no change in meaning:
San Francisco is cool during the summer, whereas Los Angeles is generally hot.
Whereas Los Angeles is generally hot during the summer, San Francisco is cool.
Whereas San Francisco is cool during the summer, Los Angeles is generally hot.
Los Angeles is generally hot during the summer, whereas San Francisco is cool.
Concession (Unexpected Result) Clauses
 A concession clause means "This idea is true, but the idea in the independent
clause is more important."

42
  These clauses are sometimes called "unexpected result" clauses because the
information in the independent clause is surprising or unexpected based on the
information given in the concession clause.

Concession Subordinators

Although Although I had studied all night, I failed the test.

even though Our house is quite comfortable even though it is small.

Though Though the citizens had despised the old regime, they dislike the
new government even more.

Notes
1. Although, even though, and though have almost the same meaning. Though is less
formal. Even though is a little stronger than although.
2. Some writers follow the normal comma rule for adverb clauses: Use a comma only
when the concession clause comes before the independent clause. Other writers use a
comma between the two clauses no matter
which order they are in.
3. Be careful about which clause you use the subordinator with. Sometimes you can
use it with either clause, but not always.
He loves sports cars, although he drives a sedan. (Correct)
Although he loves sports cars, he drives a sedan. (Correct)
I went swimming, even though the water was freezing. (Correct)
Even though I went swimming, the water was freezing. (Impossible)

II. Practice
PRACTICE 1: Combine each pair of sentences below so as to form a single sentence
containing a conditional or concessive clause.
1. Stand up here. Then you can see the mountain clearly.
.............................................................................................................................................
2. Stand up. Otherwise you won’t be able to see anything.

3. Stand up here. That is the only way you can see any thing.
.............................................................................................................................................

43
4. We strained our eyes, but we couldn’t see anything.
.............................................................................................................................................
5. You can strain your eyes, but still you won’t be able to see anything.
.............................................................................................................................................
6. You could have the best binoculars in the world. But still you won’t be able to see
anything more.
.............................................................................................................................................
7. I will let you come with me on one condition. You must do exactly what I tell you.
.............................................................................................................................................
8. I am sure this story is untrue. Otherwise, it would be an absolute scandal.
.............................................................................................................................................
9. I am sure that never really happened. Otherwise, we would all be dead now.
.............................................................................................................................................
10. You might need some help at some time. Then you must let me know.
.............................................................................................................................................
12. It doesn’t matter what I say. He always does something different.
.............................................................................................................................................
13. You can tell me or not. But any case I will find out the truth.
.............................................................................................................................................
14. I have no idea what the solution is. But we shall certainly find it.
.............................................................................................................................................
15. His difficulties was very great indeed. But he always overcame them in the end.
.............................................................................................................................................
PRACTICE 2: Use the following sets of words and phrases to form complete sentences.
1. When/ you/ live/ Washington/ you/ meet/ Robert H. Davidson?
.............................................................................................................................................
2. Since/ I/ meet/ you/ I / have/ be/ read/ your book.
.............................................................................................................................................
3. Once/ your book/ publish/ it/ will / sell/ very rapidly.
.............................................................................................................................................
4. When/ you/ be/ Rome/ do/ as/ Rome/ do.
.............................................................................................................................................
5. Until/ you/ ask/ speak/ you/ would/ well/ advise/ remain/ silent.
.............................................................................................................................................
6. Before/ he /serve/ army/ he/ be/ student.
44
.............................................................................................................................................
7. While/ he/ be/ army/ he/ learn/ a great deal/ electricity.
.............................................................................................................................................
8. When/ you/ enter/town/ you/ will/ see/ monument/ straight/ in front of you.
.............................................................................................................................................
9. After/ he/ travel/ around/ world/ Forbes/ settle/ down/ peacefully/ in/ native village.
.............................................................................................................................................
10. When/ I/ last/ see/ you/ you/ live/ Washington.
.............................................................................................................................................
11. If/ you/ phone/ me/ I/ come/ at once/
.............................................................................................................................................
12. They/ come/ wherever/ they/ could/ find/ work.
.............................................................................................................................................
13. Although/ he/ ill/ he/ go/ school/ yesterday.
.............................................................................................................................................
14. I/ be/ glad/ go/ home/ although/ I/ enjoy/ myself.
.............................................................................................................................................
PRACTICE 3. Rewrite the following sentences using the given words without changing
the meaning.
1. It rained a lot but we enjoyed our holiday. (although)
.............................................................................................................................................
2. Though we had planned carefully, a lot of things went wrong. (in spite of)
.............................................................................................................................................
3. I managed to sleep despite the fact that there was a lot of noise. (although)
.............................................................................................................................................
4. I was feeling well but I went home early. (though)
.............................................................................................................................................
5. I had an umbrella but I got very wet in the rain. (even though)
.............................................................................................................................................
6. Although my foot was injured, I managed to walk to the nearest village. (in spite of)
.............................................................................................................................................
7. He was very tired. He couldn’t go to school. (so)
.............................................................................................................................................
8. She was very lazy. She failed the exam. (because)
.............................................................................................................................................
45
9. She was very industrious. She passed the exam. (because of)
.............................................................................................................................................
10. He was very busy. He couldn’t go to the concert. (therefore)
.............................................................................................................................................
11. He drove so fast. He had an accident. (because of)
.............................................................................................................................................
12. He was lazy. He failed the exam. (if)
.............................................................................................................................................
13. Alan is beautiful. Many boys flirt her. (so)
.............................................................................................................................................
PRACTICE 4: Fill in the gap in the following sentences with until or by the time that
1. Please wait ………..I return.
2. Don’t wait………… I come back.
3. ……….. I come back, I want you to be on your way.
4. They had left……….we returned.
5. It was dark ………they arrived.
6. They did not arrive………it was dark.
7. We rode hard……it was dark.
8. Don’t pour the water in………..it’s boiling.
9. The waiter was boiling……….the electricity failed.
10. The electricity was not cut off…….the water boiled.

PRACTICE 5: The word in capitals at the end of each of following sentences can be
used to form a word that fits suitably in the blank space. Fill each blank in this way.
EXAMPLE: He said “Good morning” in almost ………way. FRIEND
ANSWER: friendly
1. He cycled …………and had an accident. CARE
2. Could you …………the picture over the sofa. STRAIGHT
3. It’s hard to buy meat on the island but fish is …….. PLENTY
4. My car is much too………. to take on a long journey. RELY
5. In …………, I’d like to thank the many people who have helped me CONCLUDE
while I have been working here.

46
 Lesson 6: PARALLELISM AND SENTENCE
PROBLEMS
I. Parallelism
Parallelism means that the sentence structures should be grammatically balanced. It is the
repetition of grammatical patterns within a sentence or a series of sentences. By using
similar grammatical forms to express equal ideas, your sentences will flow smoothly, and
your writing style will improve.
Here are some examples of parallel elements.

These elements, on the other hand, are not parallel.

Example:
Words and Phrases
With the -ing form (gerund):
Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.
Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
With infinitive phrases:
Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
Not Parallel: Mary likes to hike, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
With adverbial phrases:
Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
thoroughly.
Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately,
and in a detailed manner.
Clauses
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
— Or —

47
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do
some warm-up exercises before the game.
Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they
should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Lists After a Colon
Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.
Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Conjunctions- and, or, but
Parallel: I enjoy biking and walking down by the pier
Not Parallel: I enjoy biking and to walk down by the pier.
Parallel: Boy Scouts at the camp can learn cooking, canoeing, swimming, or rope-
making. 
Not Parallel: Boy Scouts at the camp can learn cooking, canoeing, swimming, or how to
make ropes.
Parallel: The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial
aircraft.
Not Parallel: The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not commercial
aircraft.
Correlative Conjunctions: both………..and, either…..or, neither…….nor, not
only……but also.
 We were told to either reduce the staff or find new customers.
 Agnes was neither going to classes nor doing her assignments.
 I would like to buy both a new house and a new car.
 As young recruits, we were told not only what to do but also what to think.
PRACTICE 1: Rewrite each of the following sentences, using parallel structure.
1. The summer in Louisiana is very hot and has high humidity.
..................................................................................................................................
2. Teresa is a gifted woman- a chemist, does the carpentry, and she can cook.
..................................................................................................................................
3. The shape of the rock, how big it was, and its colors reminded me of a small turtle.
..................................................................................................................................
4. He is an affectionate husband, a thoughtful son, and kind to his kids.

48
 ..................................................................................................................................
5. Joe would rather work on a farm than spending time in an office.
..................................................................................................................................
6. Every afternoon in the mountains, it either rains or there is hail.
..................................................................................................................................
7. Sesame Street teaches children nursery rhymes, songs, how to be courteous, and
being kind.
..................................................................................................................................
PRACTICE 2: Write one sentence that is parallel to each sentence below.
E.g.:
 On Friday night, she dressed in silk and sipped in champagne.
 On Monday morning, she put on her jeans and crammed for the history test.
1. When he was twenty, he worked seven days a week in a fruit store.
..................................................................................................................................
2. The child in me wants to run away from problems.
..................................................................................................................................
3. ‘Work hard and keep your mouth shut’ is my mother’s formula for success.
..................................................................................................................................
4. The men thought the movie was amusing.
..................................................................................................................................
II. Sentence Problems
1. Sentence Fragments
Fragment sentences are unfinished sentences, i.e. they don't contain a complete idea. A
common fragment sentence is a dependent clause standing alone without an independent
clause.
 I don't think I'm going to get a good grade. Because I didn't study.
 She got angry and shouted at the teacher. Which wasn't a very good idea.
 She got up and ran out of the library. Slamming the door behind her.
 I have to write a report on Albert Einstein. The famous scientist who left Europe to
live in the USA.

Study the following four examples of sentence fragments and the suggested methods for
correcting them.

49
Fragment 1: Because some students have part-time jobs in addition to going to school.
Problem: This is a subordinate clause (an adverb clause of reason).
To correct: Attach it to an independent clause.
Complete Sentence: Because some students have part-time jobs in addition to going to
school, they have very little free time.
Fragment 2: For example, the increase in the cost of renting an apartment.
Problem: No main verb
To correct: Rewrite the sentence so that it has a subject and a verb.
Complete Sentence: For example, the cost of renting an apartment has increased.
Fragment 3: Having no money and being lonely in the big city.
Problem: This is a participial phrase. It has no subject or verb.
To correct: (a) Rewrite the phrase to include a subject and a verb.
(b) Attach the phrase to an independent clause.
Complete Sentences:
(a) She had no money and was lonely in the big city.
(b) Having no money and being lonely in the big city, the woman committed suicide.
Fragment 4: Many people who get married before they are mature enough.
Problem: This is a noun followed by a dependent (adjective) clause.
To correct: Rewrite the clause by eliminating the adjective clause aspect.
Complete Sentence: Many people get married before they are mature enough.

PRACTICE 3: Read the following sentences. Mark them F if they are sentence
fragments or S if they are complete sentences. On a separate piece of paper, rewrite
each fragment to make a complete sentence.
1. Looking at the yellow leaves on the path.
2. The desire of all mankind to live in peace and freedom, for example.
3. Second, the fact that men are physically stronger than women.
4. The best movie that I saw last year.
5. For example, many students have part-time jobs.
6. Although people want to believe that all men are created equal.
7. Finding a suitable marriage partner is a challenging task.
8. Many of my friends who didn’t have the opportunity to go to college.
9. Working during the morning and attending classes during the afternoons.
10. Because I don’t feel that grades in college have any value.

50
11. The nuclear accident that occurred in Russia in 1968, the worst nuclear accident in
history.
12. The first hint of the tragedy came two days after the accident occurred.
13. I often wonder about the road not taken.
14. Eyes beaming and tears of joy streaming down her cheeks.
15. The aroma of home-made bread always makes me think of my dad.

2. Choppy Sentences
Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. They are the result of using too many
simple sentences, like those that follow. Although simple sentences are quite effective
sometimes, overuse of them is considered poor style in academic writing.
Example:
a.Choppy: I sewed a set of buttons onto my coat. The buttons were shiny. The
buttons were black. The coat was old. The coat was green.
Correct: I sewed a set of shiny black buttons onto my old green coat.
b.Choppy: Martha moved in the desk chair. Her moving was uneasy. The chair was
hard. She worked at her assignment. The assignment was for her English class.
Correct:
 Martha moved uneasily in the hard desk chair, working at the assignment
for her English class.
 Moving uneasily in the desk chair, Martha worked at her assignment for her
English class.
 Martha moved uneasily in the hard desk chair as she worked at her
assignment for her English class.
 While she worked at the assignment for her English class, Martha moved
uneasily in the hard desk chair.
Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine two or three simple sentences to make
one compound or complex sentence. Your decision to make one compound or a complex
sentence should be based on whether the ideas in the simple sentences are equal or
whether one sentence is dependent on the other.
- If the simple sentences are equal, make a compound sentence, using a coordinating
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or a conjunctive adverb (moreover,
however, otherwise, therefore, etc.)
- If one sentence depends on the other, make a complex sentence, using a
subordinating conjunction (who, which, when, although, because, since, if, etc.)
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PRACTICE 4: Improve the following choppy sentences by combining them to make
either compound or complex sentences:
1. Gasoline is becoming expensive. Automobile manufacturers are producing smaller
cars. Smaller cars use less gasoline.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. The computer has undoubtedly benefited humanity. The computer has also created
problems for humanity.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
3. Government and private agencies have spent billions of dollars advertising the dangers
of smoking. The number of smokers is still increasing.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
4. Some students go to a vocational school to learn a trade. Some students go to college to
get a degree.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
5. There is no time to make a pot roast. There is no time to cook a chicken. There is no
time to prepare a stew.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
6. The grading system at our college should be abolished. The students don’t like getting
grades. The instructors don’t enjoy giving grades.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
3. Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices
A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are written
one after another with no punctuation.
 I went to Paris in the vacation it is the most beautiful place I have ever visited.
 Getting married is easy staying married is a different matter.
A comma splice is a sentence in which two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by
a comma without a coordinating conjunction.
 I like our new math teacher, she always explains the work very clearly.
52
  He was late to school again, his bus got caught in heavy traffic.
A run-on/ comma splice can be corrected by adding:
A period
 Getting married is easy. Staying married is a different matter.
A semicolon
 Getting married is easy; staying married is a different matter.
A coordinating conjunction
 Getting married is easy, but staying married is a different matter.
A subordinating conjunction
 Although getting married is easy, staying married is a different matter.

PRACTICE 5: Correct the following run-on / comma splice sentences.

1. A foreign student faces many problems, for example, he has to cope with a new culture.
2. San Francisco is a very cosmopolitan city, there are people many cultures and ethnic
groups living there.
3. Learning a new language is like learning to swim it takes a lot of time.
4. Ask for assistance at the reference desk in the library, there is always a librarian there.
5. Hang-gliding is a dangerous sport you can easily break your leg.
6. You can’t come into this room we are having a lesson.
7. I need a hammer, I am going to repair the shed.
8. My husband is very upright if I hazard receiving the bribe and he knows he will blame
me.
9. I do not like the registration process, I know that at this point I have no choice but to go
through with it.
10. He even quit his summer job this year he did not want to get up early each morning.

PRACTICE 6: Some of the following sentences are run-ons or comma splices, and
some are correct. Check each sentence. If it is incorrect, write RO or CS in the space at
the left. If the sentence is correct, leave the space blank. Then on a separate sheet of
paper, rewrite the incorrect sentences correctly.
Example:
..RO..Two letters arrived on Monday a third came on Wednesday.
..........An encyclopedia is a valuable source of information, it contains summaries of every
area of knowledge.

53
....... Because of the rapid expansion of human knowledge, it is difficult to keep
encyclopedia current.
....... ..Almost as soon as an encyclopedia is published, it becomes obsolete.
..........Home editions encyclopedias are shorter and more concise than library editions,
they don’t contain as much detailed information.
..........Articles in encyclopedias are written by experts in each subject, who are often
university professors.
..........An editor of an encyclopedia doesn’t write articles he only collects and edits
articles written by other experts.
..........To find a book on a certain subject, you should look in the card catalog but to find a
magazine article on a subject, you should look in a periodical index.
..........A periodical index, which is also called a periodical guide, does not contain any
articles, it merely gives a list of articles and tell you where to find them.
.........The reference room of the library has several periodical indexes one is the Reader’s
Guide to Periodical Literature.
......... If you can’t find any information on a subject, you can always ask a librarian to
help you, they are paid to assist students.

4. Stringy Sentences
A stringy sentence is a sentence made up of many clauses, often connected by a
coordinating conjunction such as and, or, so, and because, forming one very long
sentence.
 John usually gets up before 7 o'clock, but yesterday his alarm clock did not ring, so
he was still asleep when his boss called him at 10.30 to ask where he was and tell
him that he would lose his job if he was late again.
 Although the blue whale has been protected for over 30 years and its numbers are
increasing, especially in the North Pacific, where whale hunting has been banned,
it is still at risk of extinction as its habitat is being polluted by waste from oil
tankers and its main food, the plankton, is being killed off by harmful rays from the
sun, which can penetrate the earth's atmosphere because there is a huge hole in the
ozone layer over Antarctica.
PRACTICE 7: Improve these stringy sentences.
1. He enrolled in an advanced calculus class, but he found it too difficult, so he
dropped it.
..................................................................................................................................
54
2. The tidal wave ruined the crops, and it destroyed several villages, and it caused
many deaths, so it was a real disaster.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
3. The analysts worked many hours on the computer program, but they couldn’t find
the cause of the problem, so they finally gave up, and they went home.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
4. Junk food is bad for your health, and it also contains no vitamins, and it damages
your stomach, so people shouldn’t eat it.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
5. The lack of rainfall has caused a severe water shortage, so people have to conserve
water everyday, and they also have to think of new ways to reuse water, but the
situation is improving.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................

55
 Lesson 7: PUNCTUATION
I. End punctuation
Periods, question marks, and exclamation points signal the end of a sentence.
 Use a period to terminate plain assertions or commands;
 Use a question mark to terminate interrogative statements;
 Use an exclamation point to terminate strongly emotional assertions or
ejaculations.
Ordinarily, the character of the sentence dictates the proper end punctuation.
Occasionally, however, you must determine for yourself just what you intend the
character of a sentence to be. Notice the different intentions behind the three sentences:
He struck out with the bases loaded.
He struck out with the bases loaded?
He struck out with the bases loaded!

II. Internal punctuation

Internal punctuation indicates the relations and relative importance of elements within
the sentence. Five punctuation marks are used for this purpose: commas, semicolons,
colons, dashes, and parentheses.
The most important uses of these marks are indispensable to clarity, and like the uses
of end punctuation are repeated over and over again. But a skillful use of internal
punctuation serves not only basic clarity; it can also help writers communicate the precise
shade of balance and emphasis they wish the reader to get.

MAIN CLAUSES
Use a Comma to Separate Main Clauses Joined by a Coordinating Conjunction
(and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and so)
The patrol planes were delayed by a heavy rain, and they barely had enough fuel
to get back to the carrier.
The patrol planes were delayed by a heavy rain, but they succeeded in making safe
landings on the earner deck.

56
 The patrol planes could land near the enemy lines, or they could risk night
landings on the carrier deck.
The return of the patrol planes must have been delayed, for they made night
landings on the carrier deck.

Exceptions:
1. In compound sentences, when one or both main clauses are very short you may
omit the comma.
Ask no questions and you'll be told no lies.
The scene changes but the inspiration of men of good will persists.
2. You may use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction, especially when you have already used commas within the clauses
themselves.
Babe Ruth, the greatest of home run hitters, was the most colorful figure in
baseball; but many people think Ty Cobb was a better player.
The life of every man is a diary in which he means to write one story, and
writes another; and his humblest hour is when he compares the volume as it is
with what he vowed to make it. (SIR JAMES BARRIE)
3. You may use a semicolon in place of a comma to separate long coordinated clauses
or to indicate a stronger pause between clauses.
We haven't all had the good fortune to be ladies; we haven't all been generals, or
poets, or statesmen; but when the toast works down to the babies, we stand on
common ground. (MARK TWAIN)

Use a Semicolon to Separate Main Clauses Not Joined by a Coordinating Conjunction

Children begin by loving their parents; as they grow older they judge them;
sometimes they forgive them. (OSCAR WIDE)
To educate a man is to educate an individual; to educate a woman is to
educate a family.
Exception:
You may use a comma to separate very short main clauses not joined by
coordinating conjunctions.
I stopped, I aimed, I fired.

57
Use a Semicolon to Separate Main Clauses Joined by a Conjunctive Adverb
Americans spend million of dollars for road-building; however, our roads are
rapidly deteriorating.
Note that when the conjunctive adverb comes within the second main clause instead
of at the beginning, the clauses still must be separated by a semicolon, and the
conjunctive adverb set off by commas.
Americans spend millions of dollars for road building; our roads, however, are
rapidly deteriorating.
Conjunctive adverbs are different from subordinating conjunctions. A conjunctive
adverb is primarily a transitional word carrying the thought from one main clause to the
next. Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses.

This list, though incomplete, will aid you in distinguishing between the two:

Conjunctive Adverbs Subordinating Conjunctions

however when
nevertheless although
moreover though
there fore since
consequently if
hence because
indeed so that
likewise after
furthermore in order that
namely while
still unless
then

ITEMS IN A SERIES
Use Commas to Separate Three or More Words, Phrases, or Clauses That Form a
Coordinate Series
He talked fluently, wittily, and penetratingly4.
58
 He is honest, he is courageous, and he is experienced.
Informal practice permits the omission of the comma before the ‘and’, unless it is
required for clarity.
I’ll have roast beef, potatoes and salad.
A comma before the last item in a series, however, is sometimes necessary to prevent
an illogical grouping.
Our resort is equipped with comfortable cabins, a large lake with boating
facilities, and a nine-hole golf course.
I am interested in a modern, furnished apartment with two bedrooms, kitchenette5,
living room, bathroom with shower, and garage.
If we omit the comma after facilities in the first sentence, the sentence seems to
suggest that the resort has a lake with a golf course in it. If we omit it after the shower in
the second sentence, the writer seems to be expressing a wish for an apartment with a
garage in the bathroom.

Use Commas to Separate Coordinate Adjectives In a Series; Do Not Use Commas to

Separate Adjectives That Are Not Coordinate
Adjectives in a series are coordinate if each adjective modifies the noun separately.
They are not coordinate if each adjective in the series modifies the total concept that
follows it.
Coordinate You are a greedy, thoughtless, insensitive prig.
Not coordinate The boys are planning an exciting holiday canoe trip.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MARKS

1. Quotation Marks: We usually put punctuation inside the quotation marks
Example:
“Say something to me,” whispered Lola to Tony.
Mark Twain once wrote, “The more I know about human being, the more I like my
dog.”
“The only dumb question,” the instructor said, “is the one you don’t ask.”

59
Mini-task 1: Place quotation marks around the exact words of a speaker or writer in
the sentences that follow.
1. The health-food store clerk said, Sucking on zinc lozenges can help you get over a cold.
2. How are you doing in school? my uncle always asks me.
3. Dave said, Let’s walk faster. I think the game has already started.

2. Comma: It often signals a minor break, or pause, in a sentence. It is used:

1. To separate item in a series
2. To set off introductory material
3. Before and after words the interrupt the flow of thought in a sentence
4. Before two complete thoughts connected by and, but, for, nor, or, yet, so
5. To set off a direct quotation from the rest of a sentence
6. For certain everyday material

Mini-task 2: Put a comma where necessary

1. Superman believes in truth justice and you.
2. Mary added white wine mushroom salt pepper and oregano to her spaghetti sauce
3. When the president entered the room became hushed.
4. Feeling brave and silly at the same time Tony volunteered to go on stage and help
the magician
5. At first putting extra hot pepper flakes on the pizza seemed like a good idea.
However I felt otherwise when flames seemed about to shoot out of my mouth.
3. Colon: Use the colon at the end of a complete statement to introduce a list, a long
quotation, or an explanation.
List: The following were my worst jobs: truck loader in an apple plant, assembler in a
battery factory, and attendant in a state mental hospital.
Long quotation: Thoreau explains in Walden: ‘I went to the woods because I wished
to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn
what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived.”
Explanation: There are two softball leagues: the fast-pith league and the low-pitch
league.

Mini-task 3: Place colons where needed

1. Foods that are high in cholesterol include the following eggs, butter, milk, cheese,
shrimp, and well-marbled meats
60
 2. All the signs of the flu were present hot and cold spells, heavy drainage from the
tissues, a bad cough, and an ache through the entire body.

4. Semicolon: It is used to mark the break between two complete thoughts

Mini-task 4: Place semicolons where needed:
1. The special at the restaurant today are eggplant Parmesan, for $5.95 black beans
and rice, for $4.95 and chicken potpie, for $6.95.
2. The top of the hill offered an awesome view of the military cemetery thousands of
headstones were ranged in perfect rows.

PRACTICE

PRACTICE 1: Add what you think are appropriate punctuation marks to the
sentences below. Keep in mind that often there is more than one way to punctuate a
sentence correctly.
1. When a friend dies part of yourself dies too.
2. We took photographs of the patron saint of nail-biters the Venus de Milo.
3. Picture this a Neanderthal man deep in the forest gorges on the yummies of his
time fruits berries anything sweet and pluckable.
4. Last week we read The Catbird Seat a short story by James Thurber.
5. Our three children Larry Curly and Moe have decided to enter show business.
6. When in doubt mumble when in trouble delegate.
7. An Americans devotion to McDonald's rests in part on uniformities associated with
all McDonald's restaurants setting architecture food ambience acts and utterances.
8. Some players hit the ball and stand dejected waiting for it to land others turn away
and leave it to the caddy.
9. Dynamite was lavishly used and many of San Franciscos proudest structures were
crumbled by man himself into ruins but there was no withstanding the onrush of
the flames.
10. Lila who lives in a trailer with a parakeet and some scrappy dogs and cats has been
the town fire warden for almost 30 years.

PRACTICE 2: Read the following paragraph, you'll find a number of empty paired
brackets:

61
[ ]. Replace each set of brackets with the appropriate end mark of punctuation: a
period, question mark, or exclamation point. Then capitalize the first letter of the word
that starts each new sentence.
DOWN WITH SCHOOL!
I am not against all schools[ ] I am very much in favor of schools that consist of
groups of porpoises or similar aquatic animals that swim together[ ] I only wish that I had
been to one[ ] no, I'm thinking more of school in the dictionary sense as an institution or
building at which children and young people receive education[ ] that dictionary
definition tells the story[ ] what a school of porpoises do is play[ ] school is for work[ ] it
is an institution[ ] why put children in an institution[ ] the real reason is that it gets the
brats out from under parents' feet[ ] the purported reason is that this is the best way to get
useful information into the skulls of the little darlings[ ] how absurd[ ] children are more
intelligent than adults and wiser[ ] instead of instilling into them the accepted knowledge
and wisdom of the past, what we ought to be doing is learning from them[ ] that would be
my idea of a good school: one run by children--or porpoises[ ]

62
 PART 2: SHORT NOTES
Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION TO WRITING SHORT
NOTES
I. LEAD-IN

1. What has happened to the man?

2. Why has he written a message in the
bottle?
3. What does he want?
4. Who do you think wrote the reply?

If you were the man, what would your message be?

II. THEORY

* What do I have to do?

Exercise 1: Look at the Sample task below. What do you have to write? Are the
sentences below the Sample about this Writing part 2 true or false?

Part 2
Question 6
An English friend of yours called James gave a party yesterday, which you enjoyed. Write a
card to send to James. In your card, you should
 Thank him for the party
 Say what you liked best
 Suggest when you could both meet again
Write 35-45 words on your answer sheet

63
Exercise 2:

* How do I do it?

Exercise 3:

64
III. PRACTICE
PRACTICE 1: Read the question and following extracts from students’ answer sheet
of writing Part 2. Which one is the best? Why?

65
Student A

Student B

Student C

Exercise 5:

66
PRACTICE 2:

PRACTICE 3:

67
 Lesson 2: SHORT NOTES BY PURPOSES

I. GREETINGS
Exercise 1
A. In each of the messages 1-6, one word is in the wrong place. Find the wrong
word and put in the right place.
1. Sorry to hear well about your accidents. Get soon!

2. Sorry you’re us. All the best leaving in your new job.

3. Good luck went in your new home. I hope the move well.

4. Congratulations the birth of your baby girl. I can’t wait to see on her.

5. Best wishes on your you’re birthday. I can’t believe 18 already.

6. Wishing you a Christmas. I hope to see you Merry again in the New Year.

B. Match the messages 1-6 above with the pictures a-f

68
69
Exercise 2

Exercise 3
Your friend will get married next week, but you will not be able to come to his/ her
wedding. Write an email to him/ her. In your email, you should:
 explain you why you cannot come
 congratulate him/ her
 suggest when you both could meet again

II. REQUETS AND REPLY TO REQUESTS

Exercise 4: Read the requests 1-5 and match them with a reply A-F

70
Exercise 5

Exercise 6

III. INVITATIONS
USEFUL PHRASES
Opening remarks:
- I’m writing to invite you to...
- I’d love it if you could come to...
- We’re organizing a...and would love it if you could come.
- I’m/We’re having a party on Friday 19th and I/we hope you’ll be able to come.
- Would you like to come/go to see ‘Room With a View’ with me at the weekend.
- I was wondering if you’d like to go to the theatre/come on holiday with us

71
 - Let's …

Why don't you

Can you V- bare infinitive .................?
Will you
Shall we

- Would you like to V - infinitive.....................?

Are you free

-How about V - ing.................................?

- Do you feel like
Closing remarks:
- I hope you’ll be able to make it.
- Hope you can come.
- Looking forward to seeing you then
- Please let me know as soon as possible.

Exercise 7: Fill each blank in these invitation notes with a suitable structure.
a, Dear Ann,
There's an interesting film which will be performed at 7:30 pm on Saturday
night at Odean cinema and I have two tickets. ________________ to go
with me? Let me know if you agree.
Love,
Jane

b, Dear Edward,
Next Friday, May 12 is my birthday and my parents are celebrating a party
for me at about 7: 00 pm. ________________ come and join us? Our party
will be joyful if you are here.
Lots of love,
Susan

c, Dear Kate,

72
 My brother, William, has just come back from Russia. We are holding a
buffet at 8:00 pm on Sunday night. _______________ coming and joining
us? __________ spend some time together? Please say you will come.
Yours ever,
Candy

Exercise 8

Exercise 9

IV. THANKING
General Thank You Sayings
 Thank you for…
 Thanks a ton for helping out
 You are very generous

73
  Thanks for everything
 I can't thank you enough
 Words can't describe how thankful I am
 All I can say is: Thanks!
 Thanks for being there when I needed you
 I appreciate your time
 I appreciate your generosity

Exercise 10

Exercise 11

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 Lesson 3: NOTE EDITION AND PRACTICE
Exercise 1:

A.

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B.
You have to leave school early and will miss an important lesson. Write a note for the
teacher. In your note, you should
 Apologize for missing the lesson
 Give your reason
 Explain what you will do about the work that you miss
Write 35-45 words.

Read the sample answer

Dear Mrs. Judd,
I’ll get the important notes and homework from one of my classmates tomorrow. My
mother has a doctor appointment and so I have to go home and look after my little
sister. I’m sorry, but I have to miss your lesson today.
Kitty

 What does Kitty want to tell the teacher about the lesson?
 Why does she have to look after her little sister?
 What will Kitty do about the work she has missed?

The information in Kitty’s letter is in wrong order. Using your answers to the
questions, rewrite it in the correct order.

Exercise 2:
A.
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A friend has sent you an email asking if he can come and visit you for the day. You
would like to see him, but the date he suggests is not convenient. Write a reply. In
your email, you should
 thank him for his message
 explain that the date he suggests is not convenient
 suggest an alternative date
Write 35-45 words.

Look at this sample answer. Which sentences can you cut to make it less than 45 words?

Hi Hilary,
Nice to hear from you. We haven’t seen each other since Judy’s party last Christmas. Have
you heard from her, by the way? It would great to see you again, but I’m afraid Saturday 8 th
April is not possible as I’m going to a wedding that day. I’m not the bridegroom, don’t worry.
It’s my cousin, Laura, who is marrying an airline pilot from Sri Lanka. What about Sunday 9 th
instead? I don’t have anything to do that day, and I will be able to tell you how the wedding
went. Could you let me know?
Cheers,
Andrew
(95 words excluding names and opening and closing salutations)

Work with a partner. Read each other’s messages and compare how you have cut
the text. Which version works better?

Exercise 3:
You friend has returned a DVD she borrowed from you, but the box is empty. Write a not to
her. In it you should
 thank her for returning the DVD
 point out her mistake
 ask her to look for it
Write 35-45 words.

Look at this sample answer. There are no problems with the length and content, but
there are ten grammar and spelling mistakes. Underline all the mistakes and rewrite
the corrected message.
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Susie,
Tanks for return my DVD, but I think you’ve done a mistake - the box it is empty! You could
look for my disk in home, please? I bring the empty box at school tomorow.
Hope you can to find it!
Ivan

Exercise 4
You’ve just been given a new pet. Write an email to your friend Becky. In it you should
 tell Becky the news about your new pet
 invite her to come and see it
 suggest a day and time for her to come
Write 35-45 words.

Look at this sample answer. What’s missing? Rewrite it so that it answers all three parts of
the question.

Becky,
Hi! Guess what? I’ve just been given a beautiful puppy! He’s a golden Labrador and he’s
so sweet. You’ll love him, I’m sure. I haven’t thought of a name for him yet. Oops!
Must go – he’s trying to eat one of my shoes!
Love,
Tanya

Exercise 5

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Exercise 7

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