CURRENT PRACTICE NOTE
33
Compaction of Concrete Using
Immersion and Surface Vibrators
1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is compacted for two main reasons:
■ To remove any voids in the concrete and to
obtain the maximum strength and density of
the concrete in place.
■ To obtain complete contact between the
concrete with the formwork and the surface of
the reinforcing steel.
It is generally accepted that 5% voids in the concrete
can lower the concrete strength by as much as 30%.
This publication is based on a Note on
Current Practice, 'Compacting Concrete
on Building Sites' by R J Potter, Cement
and Concrete Association of Australia.
The committee of the Concrete Institute
of Australia that prepared this document,
'Compaction of Concrete Using Immersion
and Surface Vibrators', comprised:
John Ashby, Concrete Challenges Pty Ltd
(Committee Convenor)
Geoff Ayton, RTA (Roads and Traffic
Authority), Pavements Branch
Peter Paras, Flextool (Aust) and
Don Raffin, Raffin and Co.
The Institute acknowledges the following
organsations for their contribution towards
the costs of this publication
■ Adelaide Brighton Cement Limited
■ CSR Construction Materials
■ Pioneer Construction Materials
CPN 33 December 2002
ISBN 0 909 375 59 3
CONCRETE
INSTITUTE f
AUSTRALIA
2 METHODS OF COMPACTION
Two methods of compaction are common on
building sites.
2.1 Immersion Vibrators
General
These are frequently referred to as 'poker' or 'spud'
vibrators. They consist of a tubular housing
containing a rotating eccentric weight. There are
three basic types:
■ flexible shaft (powered by petrol, diesel or
electric motors)
■ electric motor-in-head
■ air vibrators.
Flexible-shaft vibrators can be either of pendulum
action where the end of the rotating weight runs
around the inside of the tip casing like an epicyclic
gear, or have a straight rotating eccentric weight.
The former permits thinner heads, have higher
amplitudes at the tip than further up the barrel of the
vibrator and have to be tapped to commence
vibration. The latter enables larger forces to be
developed and gives uniform amplitudes over the
length of the barrel.
Those of the former type will, as they are withdrawn
from the concrete, compact the less-well-vibrated
concrete around the top of the vibrator into the
impression left by the vibrator. A further advantage
of the pendulum action is that the frequency is
multiplied by the epicyclic action and thus the speed
of rotation of the drive shaft can be reduced.
Electric motor-in-head vibrators have a rotating
eccentric weight. This weight is not driven by a
flexible shaft but powered by the electric motor in
the head. The protective hose from switch to
vibrator head contains only cables. The lead to the
vibrator is lighter than in the flexible shaft types and
the switch may be located near to the operator. A
suitable electricity supply is required for operation.
Table 1 Characteristics and applications of internal vibrators (after Table 5.1.5 ACI Committee 309 1)

Rate of
concrete
Diameter Recommended Average Radius of placement(4,5)
of head frequency(1) amplitude(2) action(3,5) (m3/h per
(mm) (Hz) (mm) (mm) vibrator) Application

20–40 150–200 0.4–0.8 80–150 0.8–4 High-slump concrete in very

thin members and confined
places. May be used to
supplement larger vibrators
where reinforcement or ducts
cause congestion in forms.

30–60 140–210 0.5–1.0 130–250 2.3–8 Concrete of 100–150 mm

slump in thin walls, columns,
beams, precast piles, thin slabs,
and along construction joints.
May be used to supplement
larger vibrators in confined
areas.

50–90 130–200 0.6–1.3 180–360 4.6–15 Concrete of less than 80 mm

slump in normal construction,
eg walls, floors, beams and
columns in residential,
commercial and industrial
buildings.

80–150 120–180 0.8–1.5 300–510 11–31 Mass and structural concrete of

0 to 50 mm slump deposited in
quantities up to 3 m3 in
relatively open forms of heavy
construction.

130–150 90–140 1.0–2.0 400–610 19–38 Mass concrete in gravity damns,

large piers, massive walls etc.

(1) While vibrator is operating in concrete.

(2) Computed or measured. This is peak amplitude (half the peak-to-peak value), operating in air.
Reduced by 15–20% when operating in concrete.
(3) Distance over which concrete is fully consolidated.
1
(4) Assumes insertion spacing is 1 ⁄2 times the radius of action, and that vibrator operates two-thirds of time
concrete is being placed.
(5) These ranges reflect not only the capability of the vibrator but also differences in workability of the
mix, degree of de-aeration desired, and other conditions experienced in construction.

2
Air vibrators are operated by compressed air, the
motor being inside the vibrator head which rotates
an eccentric weight. They are frequently used where
a ready supply of compressed air is available and
where there are restrictions on the use of other types.
Generally, the vibrators rely on the surrounding
concrete for cooling the bearings, so they should not
be run for prolonged periods out of the concrete.
Also, flexible-shaft vibrators should not be coiled
too tightly or the shaft may be damaged.
The effectiveness of an immersion vibrator is
dependent on the frequency and amplitude. The
amplitude is partly dependent on the size of the
head, the eccentric moment and the head weight,
ie the larger the head the larger the amplitude.
In selecting a vibrator for a given project, the
vibrator size, the specified characteristics of the
fresh concrete and the space available to operate the
vibrator must be considered. This is summarised in
Table 1. The radius of action is dependent on the
properties of the mix, ie the stiffer the mix the
smaller the radius. Larger diameters of vibrators,
ie above 100 mm, will probably require at least two
operators. A general rule would be to use the largest
size vibrator possible, bearing in mind restrictions
imposed by forms, reinforcement and element type.
To ensure uniform compaction, vibrators should be
inserted on a regular pattern with the radii of action
overlapping. As there is no vibrating action below
the tip, the vibrator should be inserted at least
150 mm into the previous layer of concrete. Where
the depth of the concrete section exceeds 175 mm
the vibrator should be inserted vertically and
maintained in a vertical position.
When compacting floors, pavements or other
elements where the concrete depth is 120–175 mm
the vibrator should be inserted at an angle to the
surface so that the maximum contact length with the
vibrator is maintained.
Immersion vibrators are not suitable for compacting
thin floors ie less than 120 mm thick or polished
concrete.
Checking the effectiveness of immersion
vibrators
The effectiveness of operation of an immersion
vibrator is mainly dependent on the diameter of the
head of the vibrator, the frequency at which the head
vibrates and the amplitude of vibration of the
vibrator.
The frequency at which the head vibrates can be
measured by the use of a vibration reed tachometer.
For practical purposes the amplitude of vibration of
the vibrator in air can be used to check this aspect of
the vibrator in the concrete.
This can be calculated from the following equation:
e
a' = w
W+w
= average amplitude, in air (mm)
Where
W = weight of shell and other non-moving
parts (kg)
w = weight of eccentric (kg)
W + w = total weight of vibrator (kg)
e = eccentricity distance from centre of
gravity of eccentric to its centre of
rotation
Practical testing of the operation of a particular
vibrator can be carried out by tests for consolidation,
density and air content on actual concrete.
2.2 Surface Vibrators
These vibrators act on the top surface of the
concrete and compact it from there down. There are
four principal types: vibrating screed, vibrating pan,
plate or grid vibrators, and vibrating roller screeds.
The first is most widely used and consists of a single
or double beam long enough to span the width of
slab with one or more vibrators mounted on it. The
beam, usually hand drawn, runs on guides or the
edge formwork and not only compacts the concrete
but also provides a surface finish.
Studies conducted by Kirkham2 identified the main
parameters governing surface compaction as: the
amplitude of vibration, the number of vibrations,
and the force transmitted to the concrete. The depth
of compaction was found to be proportional to the
weight of the beam multiplied by the amplitude and
the frequency, then divided by the forward speed of
the machine. ACI Committee 309 suggests that
3
Table 2 Summary of causes of surface defects relating to concrete, placement and compaction

Causes*

Properties of fresh
Defect concrete Placement Compaction

Honeycombing ■ Insufficient fines ■ Excessive free fall ■ Vibrator too small, too
■ Low workability ■ Excessive travel of low a frequency, too
■ Early stiffening concrete in forms small an amplitude
■ Excessive mixing ■ Too high a lift ■ Short immersion time

■ Too large an aggregate ■ Drop chute omitted or ■ Excessive spacing

for placing conditions insufficient in length between immersions

■ Too small a tremie ■ Inadequate penetration

■ Segregation

Air Surface Voids ■ Lean ■ Too slow – caused by ■ Too large an amplitude
■ Sand with a high FM inadequate pumping rate ■ External vibration
■ Low workability ■ Undersized bucket inadequate
■ Low FM sand ■ Head of vibrator partially

■ Excessive cement or immersed

pozzolan
■ Particle degradation

■ Excessive sand

■ High air content

Form Streaking ■Excessive amplitude

or frequency

Aggregate ■ Low sand content ■ Excessive or external

Transparency ■ Gapgraded vibration
■ Aggregate dry or porous ■ Over-vibration of

■ Excessive coarse aggregate lightweight concrete

■ Excessive slump with

lightweight concrete

Subsidence ■ Low sand content ■ Too rapid ■ Insufficient vibration

■ High water content

Colour Variation ■ Non-uniform colour of ■ Segregation ■ Vibrator too close to form

materials ■ Failure to decrease ■ Vibration next to forms
■ Inconsistent grading consistency near the top variable
■ Variation in proportions of deep lift
■ Incomplete mixing

■ Calcium chloride can cause

dark streaks
■ Too high a slump

■ Over-manipulation

*A full summary of causes is given by ACI Committee 309 3 from which this Table has been derived.

4
Table 2 Continued

Causes*

Properties of fresh
Defect concrete Placement Compaction

Sand Streaking ■ Lean mixture ■ Too rapid for type of mix ■ Excessive vibration
■ Over-sanded bleeding mix ■ Excessive amplitude
■ Sand deficient in fines ■ Over-manipulation

■ Low air content

Layer Lines ■ Wet mixture with tendency ■ Slow placement – lack of ■ Lack of vibration
to bleed equipment or manpower ■ Failure to penetrate into
previous layer

Form Offsets ■ Rate too high ■ Excessive amplitude

■ Non-uniform spacing of
immersion

Cold joints ■ Too dry ■ Delayed delivery ■ Failure to vibrate into

■ Early stiffening lower lift
■ Insufficient vibration

*A full summary of causes is given by ACI Committee 309 3 from which this Table has been derived.

frequencies should be in the range of 50 to 100 Hz 3 VIBRATION TECHNIQUES FOR SPECIFIC

and that the acceleration should be of the order
5 to 10 g. Forward pulling speeds of 0.5 to 1 m per
minute are recommended. It was found that a slower
forward rate was far more effective than a second
pass in compacting the concrete, though for
finishing a second pass is often made.
It was found that surface vibrators were most
effective for depths less than 200 mm. At greater
depths their effectiveness diminished and was also
affected by the base surface. Reinforcement located
50 mm below the top surface reduced the effective-
ness of vibration compared to an unreinforced slab.
However, this could be compensated for by increasing
the workability of the concrete or alternatively
reducing the forward speed of the vibrator.
ELEMENTS AND TO AVOID SURFACE
DEFECTS
3.1 Surface Defects
The influence of vibration and other construction
considerations in producing surface defects is listed
in Table 2. Although over-vibration is listed as a
possible cause of some of these defects these usually
result from a combination of various causes. For
example 'sand streaking' does involve over-vibration
but only of poorly designed mixes. Correction would
best be made by adjusting the mix and placing
techniques. Over-vibration would have to continue
for a period several times longer than that necessary
for full compaction to cause distress. As has been
previously stressed under-vibration could potentially
cause a far more serious problem in terms of
strength and durability.

5
3.2 Factors for Good Compaction
Factors to ensure good compaction begin at the
design stage when it is imperative that the
implications of the construction methods on the
design are considered. Ensuring good access to allow
for ease of concrete placement and compaction is
part of design detailing. For example, ties in
columns should be arranged to minimise the chances
of segregation during placing the concrete and to
allow access for a sufficiently large vibrator. It must
be remembered that it is virtually impossible to
remix concrete which has segregated during the
placing process.
The specification should spell out the design intent
and performance requirements. It should not
prescribe the solution. McAdam 4 suggests that
‘… no matter how detailed the method
recommendations are, it is paramount that the
specification makes it clear that the principal
criterion of judging the acceptance or rejection of
the final product will be its quality and not on
adherence to any method recommendations.’
Finally, consideration should be given to construction
procedures and the skill of the operators and
supervisors on the project. Construction techniques
are treated under the various elements. A check list
for Supervisors is given in Appendix A and one for
Concretors and Operators using poker vibrators in
Appendix B. A good rule to follow is that vibration
procedures should be evaluated at the commencement
of a project to determine the vibration time for each
type of vibrator in relation to the given concrete mix
and structural elements.
3.3 Walls and Columns
To avoid vibrator 'burns' on the off-form surfaces of
walls it is essential to ensure that the vibrator is
prevented from touching the form. This influences
the determination of minimum wall thickness.
Air bubbles tend to migrate towards the source of
vibration and form-vibration should generally be
avoided. However, form-vibration at the top of walls
has been found to be beneficial in reducing the
number of blowholes, as has revibration of the
top layer.
Concrete should be placed in layers not exceeding
300 mm deep and the vibrator should be inserted so
that it penetrates into the previous layer to prevent
cold joints. The placing rate should ensure that
concrete rises at a rate not less than 2 m/h vertically.
6
McAdam shows how this figure can be used to
determine the number of vibrators required for
specific elements.
Vibrators should be inserted such that their visible
zones of action overlap.
The same criteria apply to columns. The spacing of
the ties should allow insertion of a vibrator of
sufficient size to vibrate the entire cross section.
Placing rates should ensure that the rate of rise is not
less than 2 m/h. Depending on the situation it may
be possible to slowly raise the vibrator as the
concrete is continuously placed, ie not place and
vibrate in layers. If this practice is adopted then the
placing rate needs to be carefully controlled to avoid
trapping air on the form face due to subsequent
height of concrete placed above.
3.4 Floors
Surface or screed vibrators should be used to
compact floors. Floors less than 150 mm thick
cannot be effectively compacted by immersion
vibrators. For floors over 200 mm thick surface
vibration will need to be supplemented by the use of
immersion vibrators. Immersion vibrators should be
used alongside all construction joints and edges
except in floors less than 150 mm thick.
The screed guides supporting the vibrating beam
need to be accurately set. Ensure that the direction
of rotation of the vibrator is such that the screed
tends to move forward under its own action rather
than the beam being pulled against this force. A
small 'roll' of concrete must be kept in front of the
beam as it is pulled forward. A rate of 0.5–1 m per
minute is recommended. Slower forward speeds are
more efficient in compacting the concrete than a
second pass.
REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 ACI Committee 309 Behaviour of Fresh AS 3600 Concrete Structures Standards
Concrete During Vibration ACI 309.IR-93, Australia, 2001.
Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2, American ACI Committee 309 Guide for Consolidation
Concrete Institute, 1996 (reapproved 1998). of Concrete ACI 309R-96, Manual of Concrete
2 Kirkham, R H H Influence of Vibrating Beams Practice Part 2, American Concrete Institute,
on Compaction of Concrete Surfacings 1996.
Highway Research Board Proceedings, 1960,
pp. 340–350.
3 ACI Committee 309 Identification and Control
of Visible Effects of Consolidation on Formed
Concrete Surfaces ACI 309.2R-98 American
Concrete Institute, 1998.
4 McAdam, P S Architectural Concrete Civil
Engineering Department, Queensland Institute
of Technology, July 1982.
5 Alexander, A M Study of Vibration in
Concrete; Report 3, Mechanics of Motion of
Fresh Concrete Technical Report No. 6–780,
US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, September 1977, p. 47.
6 Heaton, B S 'The Relationship in Concrete
Between Strength, Compaction and Slump'
Constructional Review, Vol. 39, No. 2,
February 1996, pp. 16–22.
7 Samarin, A Compaction of Highly Workable
Concrete Paper presented at Seminar
'Transporting, Placing and Curing – How They
Affect the Properties of Concrete', Sydney,
August 1982.
8 Potter, R J Compaction of Highly Workable
Concrete Paper presented at Seminar
'Transporting, Placing and Curing – How They
Affect the Properties of Concrete', Sydney,
August 1982.
9 Hilsdorf, H K and Lott, J L Revibration of
Retarded Concrete for Continuous Bridge
Decks National Co-Operative Highway
Research Program Report 106, Highway
Research Board, 1970, p. 67.
10 ASTM C403-80 Standard Test Methods for
Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by
Penetration Resistance Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Part 14, 1981.
11 Heaton, B S 'Strength, Durability, and
Shrinkage of Incompletely Compacted
Concrete', ACI Journal Proceedings Vol. 65,
No. 10, October 1968, pp. 846–850.

7
APPENDIX A

CHECKLIST FOR SUPERVISORS

1 Is vibrator suitable for project?
■ Check type, eg immersion, form, surface.
■ Check power source – electric, petrol,
compressed air.
2 Is size of vibrator suitable for member?
■ Check specification of concrete – aggregate,
slump.
■ Check congestion of reinforcement – will
vibrator fit between bars?
3 Is formwork of sufficient standard?
■ High quality finishes demand rigid formwork,
sealed joints.
■ Ensure vibrators cannot damage adjacent
formwork.
■ In walls, horizontal bars should be placed on
formwork side of vertical bars.
4 Is an adequate number of units available?
■ To cope with anticipated concrete placement
rate.
■ To include at least one standby unit.
5 Are vibrator operators experienced and
reliable?
6 Watch operators during placing and correct
undesirable or wrong practices. See Checklist
for Operators Using Poker Vibrators.
7 Check concrete visually during construction
and immediately after stripping. Identify
causes of any problem areas. Discuss these
with contractor and operators and correct
practices before succeeding placements
commenced. (Note physical test methods for
degree of compaction available.)
8 Ensure units are cleaned after each day's
placement.

8
APPENDIX B

CHECKLIST FOR OPERATORS USING POKER

VIBRATORS
1 Have the concrete placed as close as possible 11 Make sure the drive motor is not dislodged off
to its final position in uniform horizontal layers the staging due to the vibration.
300–500 mm thick.
12 Never pull the drive motor by the drive shaft.
2 Use the vibrator to compact concrete in a
13 Avoid leaving the poker vibrating while out of
vertical direction for concrete depths greater
the concrete.
than 175 mm. Insert the vibrator at an angle
for concrete depths of 120–175 mm. Poker 14 Clean down vibrator after each day's
vibrators are not suitable for concrete slabs placement and have all units regularly
less than 120 mm thick or polished concrete. maintained. Failure of seals in immersion
vibrators leads to clogging and requires
3 Don't use vibrator to move concrete
replacement. Replacement of seals and
horizontally, eg don't insert within 600 mm
bearings should be considered as a matter of
of a leading edge. This causes pockets of
course at the time of servicing.
aggregate without mortar between the particles.
4 Insert and withdraw the vibrator vertically on a
regular pattern ensuring that the visible zones
of action overlap.
5 Insert the vibrator as quickly as possible and
then hold it there until no more bubbles come
to the surface, usually about 10–20 seconds.
The appearance of a line of mortar at the forms
or just enough mortar on the surface for
finishing are also indications that compaction
is complete.
6 Where one layer of concrete is being placed on
another, eg in a wall, ensure the layers are not
too thick, ie over three quarters of depth of
poker, and ensure vibrator penetrates into
previous layer.
7 Withdraw vibrators slowly so that the hole
closes up behind the tip, eg at a rate of not
more than 50 mm/sec.
8 Don't allow the poker to touch the forms. This
will damage ('burn') them and reflect on the
finished surface.
9 Avoid touching reinforcement with the vibrator.
(Although it does not reduce bond, it can
displace poorly tied or supported
reinforcement.)
10 When vibrating floors, insert the poker at an
angle to the surface to increase the contact
between the poker and the concrete.

9
APPENDIX C
C1 THE RESPONSE OF CONCRETE TO
VIBRATION
C1.1 General Description
When first placed in the form, normal concretes,
ie excluding those of very low or high slump, will
contain between 5 and 20% by volume of entrapped
air. The mortar-coated aggregate particles arch up
from each other and are prevented from slumping by
internal friction. Compaction of these concretes is a
two-stage process.
In the first stage, the particles are set in motion by
the action of the vibrator, the internal friction
between the particles being reduced. The concrete is
'liquefied' and slumps to fill the form and give a
level top surface. During the second stage, bubbles
of entrapped air are displaced to the surface, the
aggregate settles into its tightest configuration and
the mortar is forced to fill the spaces between the
coarse aggregate.
C1.2 Mechanics of Motion of Fresh Concrete
The basic description of the mechanics of fresh
concrete has been given by Alexander5:
■ There is no resonant frequency for fresh
concrete either before or after liquefaction.
■ The threshold level of vibration required to
cause liquefaction is dependent on the concrete
properties and is a function of the
frequency/force combination.
■ The energy imparted to the concrete by
vibrations of a given amplitude is increased by
increasing the frequency, eg a more continuous
peak force is exerted at 200 Hz compared to
100 Hz.
■ At higher frequencies, ie greater than 250 Hz,
the concrete cannot respond quickly enough to
the changes in direction of the force and the
efficiency of the vibration decreases.
C1.3 The Effect of Properties of Fresh
Concrete on Compaction
The effect of the properties of fresh concrete on its
response to vibration needs to be understood if the
type and amount of vibration are to be selected
rather than guessed. This understanding can be used
to solve problems such as segregation which may
occur in practice.
10
Concrete mixtures need to be properly proportioned
if they are to achieve their specified characteristics
and be easily handled. Poorly proportioned harsh
mixes require a high compactive effort and even
then may, from lack of fines, still have a high
porosity. Fatty (rich in cement and fines) mixes are
very sticky, sluggish and difficult to handle, while
those with too high a water content are prone to
segregation and excessive bleeding.
In general, the stiffer the mix, the higher the energy
required to compact the concrete. The stiffness also
has a major influence on the time taken for the
concrete to be vibrated to achieve full compaction.
Heaton6 found that, in the laboratory, when the
slump is increased by adding water, the length of
time to achieve full compaction is reduced. No time
was required for compaction at 150 mm slump.
However, due to the higher water cement ratio, the
strength was reduced from that obtained at the lower
workability of 74 mm slump by approximately 20%.
Mixes with a high w/c ratio also tend to segregate
under prolonged vibration. This tendency is also
increased with greater differences between the
specific gravity of the coarse aggregate and the
mortar.
The size and angularity of the coarse aggregate also
affect compaction. The larger the aggregate the
larger the force required to liquefy the concrete.
Round aggregates compact more easily than do
angular ones.
Admixtures affect the properties of the fresh
concrete and may influence the compaction. The
effect of super-plasticisers is discussed by Samarin7
who states that superplasticised concrete, though
potentially self levelling, still requires compacting to
remove entrapped air. Although superplasticised
concrete may be self-levelling, congested
reinforcement and intricate section shapes may
require additional attention for complete compaction.
The introduction of self-compacting concrete is a
development in this area.
C1.4 The Effect of Compaction on the
Properties of Hardened Concrete
The effect of compaction on individual properties is
discussed by Potter8. Generally, its effect improves
the properties of the hardened concrete. The
exception is the slight reduction in any entrained air,
though this is noted as not adversely affecting the
freeze-thaw resistance of the concrete.
C2 REVIBRATION C3 OVER-VIBRATION AND
Revibration is the intentional systematic vibration of UNDER-VIBRATION
fresh concrete which has been previously compacted. Despite consistent advice that over-vibration is not a
It is generally agreed that in deeper sections problem for properly designed mixes and that under-
revibration improves the properties of concrete, the vibration is much more serious, most specifications
bond to the reinforcement and the surface finish. contain a cautionary note against over-vibration and
In spite of these benefits, revibration is not widely lay down a length of time for vibration which must
used because of the cost of this extra step in not be exceeded. It is true that poorly designed
construction. There are, however, a number of mixes, or those to which large additions of water
situations where revibration is or should be have been made, will tend to segregate, especially
undertaken: under extended periods of vibration. However, the
solution to this problem is not to avoid over-vibration.
■ To knit each layer of concrete into the
The correct course of action is to amend the faulty
preceding one. In elements such as walls and
mix design and prohibit the indiscriminate addition
deep beams filled in successive layers the
of water.
vibrator should penetrate into the previous
layer by at least 100 mm. On a typical Australian project, Heaton11 found that
the 80–110 mm slump concrete had been compacted
■ To close plastic shrinkage and settlement
for less than the equivalent of 5 seconds on the
cracks. These form in the first few hours after
vibrating table in the laboratory. Due to the remaining
placing concrete and can be closed by
entrapped air, the site concrete was 17% lower in
revibration. A reasonable energy level for this
compressive strength compared to standard cylinders.
revibration is required, mere reworking of the
surface may close over the cracks providing It must be clearly understood by operators in the
only a temporary cosmetic finish where the field, that there are two stages in compaction. The
cracks reopen later. first, the liquefaction of the concrete, allows it to be
mobile and fill the form. The second is the expulsion
■ To improve the surface finish at the tops of
of bubbles of entrapped air. Too frequently the
columns and walls. Air bubbles at the form
conclusion of the first stage, usually within
surface tend to congregate towards the upper
3 to 5 seconds, is mistaken for the finish of the
region of these elements as they are not
second. Compaction is completed only when air
subjected to the same hydrostatic pressures as
bubbles cease breaking the surface.
those in the lower regions, nor does this layer
receive additional vibration from any
succeeding layer.
■ To improve the wear resistance of floors.
Revibration coupled with a trowelling action
as in a 'Kelly Compactor' creates a hard
burnished wear-resistant surface layer.
A difficulty is knowing just how late revibration (or
initial vibration) may be carried out. A rule of thumb
is that if the vibrator is capable of liquefying the
concrete and sinking under its own weight, the
concrete may be vibrated. Hilsdorf and Lott9 suggest
that penetration resistance of concrete as determined
according to ASTM C40310 is a useful parameter in
determining how long after mixing revibration may
be successfully carried out. A limiting figure of
450 kPa for the penetration resistance is suggested,
above which revibration is unlikely to be successful.

11

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Tel [03] 6221 3715 Fax [03] 6224 2325
Victoria
2nd Floor, 1 Hobson Street South Yarra VIC 3141
Tel [03] 9804 7834 Fax [03] 9825 0222
Western Australia
45 Ventnor Avenue West Perth WA 6005
Tel [08] 9389 4447 Fax [08] 9389 4451
National Office
PO Box 848 Crows Nest NSW 1585
Level 6, 504 Pacific Highway St Leonards NSW 2065
Tel [02] 9903 7770 Fax [02] 9437 9703