GENERAL FORMS OF RESEARCH

Before discussing the research designs, it is important to tackle first

the general forms of research. The general forms of research define the
purpose and approach of the study. These are as follows:

1. Scientific research is a research method that seeks to explain naturally

occurring phenomena in the natural world by generating credible theories.
It is a systematic process that involves formulating hypotheses, testing
predictions using relevant data and other scientific methods, and finally
coming up with a theory. As such, this study requires rational and statistical
evidence to draw conclusions.

2. Research in the humanities seeks to define the purpose of human

existence by tapping into historical facts and future possibilities. While
studies on natural and social sciences required hard evidence to draw
conclusions, this form of research derive explanations from human
experiences that cannot be simply measured by facts and figures alone.

3. Artistic research provides alternative approaches to established

concepts by conducting practical methods as substitutes for fundamental
and theoretical ones. The main purpose of this form of research is to
expound on the current accepted concepts and open them to further
interpretation. As such, the word “artistic” does not solely refer to the arts
but rather to the kind of approach a researcher assumes in this type of
research. This research generates new knowledge through artistic
practices such as defining new concepts, creating new processes, and
devising new methods.

Any of the three forms of study are by no means a better approach

than the other. However, what differs among the three is the objective of
each study and the means to achieve it. Nevertheless, whichever of the
three are followed by the researcher, the true goal of any research remains
the same—to further the current established knowledge on different areas
of study.
RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design enables the researcher to organize the components of

his or her research in an orderly and coherent manner. This will ensure that
the research or study will effectively address the research topic or problem.
The research design is also a template for the collection, measurement,
and analysis of data. The research problem determines the research
design that will be used in the study.

Quantitative Research
Polit and Beck (2004) define quantitative research as “the traditional positivist
scientific method which refers to a general set of orderly, disciplined procedures to
acquire information.” In their book, Nursing Research Principles and Methods, they
explain that the research method utilizes deductive reasoning to generate predictions
that are tested in the real world. It is systematic since the researcher progresses
logically through a series of steps, according to a pre specified plan of action.

Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that is within the realm of the
senses. The method used in the analysis of data is usually statistical in nature. Thus,
the resulting information from the study is usually quantitative or measurable.
Furthermore, another criterion used in assessing the data in this kind of study is its
capability to generalize the effect of the results to the individuals outside of the study
participants.

However, a quantitative research has its disadvantages as well. Quantitative

research is considered to be limiting when it comes to studying the complex and diverse
minds of human beings. This is because quantitative research can only explain a small
fraction of the human experience (e.g., behavioral impulses and varying personal
preferences). In quantitative research, these human complexities are usually controlled
or removed entirely instead of being analyzed.

The inflexible and narrow vision of quantitative research tends to present the
human experience in a restricted manner.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is defined as the “naturalistic method of inquiry of research

which deals with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly.” (Polit and Beck,
2008) Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research puts an emphasis on human
complexity and man’s ability to decide and create his or her own experience. This type
of research utilizes naturalistic methods of inquiry as the research places great
emphasis on the analysis of the experiences of the individual. This type of research
attempts to explain the human experience with its dynamic, holistic, and individualistic
aspects through the perspective of the individual himself. This type makes use of
qualitative materials that are narrative and subjective.

Qualitative research focuses on gaining insights and understanding about an

individual’s perception and interpretation of events. This type of research collects data
through methods such as interviews and participative observation. The task of the
researcher is to determine the patterns and themes in the acquired data rather than
focusing on the testing of hypotheses. A qualitative study researcher is not limited by
existing theories but is rather open-minded to new ideas and points of views. Lastly, the
researcher does not have to be concerned with numbers and complicated statistical
analyses.

However, a major limitation of this model is its reductionist nature. Qualitative

research tends to reduce human experience to just the few concepts under
investigation, which are defined in advance by the researcher rather than the
experience of the respondents. Another limitation of qualitative research involves the
subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, which sometimes causes concerns about the
nature of the conclusion of the study. Polit and Beck (2008) poses the question, “Would
two naturalistic researchers studying the same phenomenon in similar settings arrive at
similar conclusions?” They added that most naturalistic research studies usually utilize a
small group of people as subjects. This makes the findings from such naturalistic
methods questionable, as opposed to those of the quantitative research studies.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Kania (2008) presents the following key distinguishing characteristics of

qualitative research:

1. Qualitative research is conducted in a systematic and rigorous way. However, it is

more flexible than quantitative research.

2. It usually follows an iterative process, which means that data collection and analysis
occur simultaneously. Data already collected are updated by the ongoing data
collection.

3. It focuses on gathering information from people who can provide the richest insights
into the phenomenon or interest. As a result, small samples are commonly used in
qualitative research. Study participants are usually selected in a purposive manner,
using only those for whom the topic under study is relevant.
4. Collection of data is continuous until saturation, or when it reaches the point where no
new information is revealed with respect to the key themes emerging from the data.

5. Qualitative data collection examines everyday life in its natural context or in an

uncontrolled naturalistic setting.

The Value of Qualitative Research

Qualitative data provides context and meaning. If an organization wants to

assess the behavior of their clients, they can easily collect and analyze information
about top-selling items, buying trends in various geographic locations, and overall sales
figures by month. This will give a sense of the who, what, when, and where of the study.
Qualitative research can complete the picture by delving into the why and the how. If
quantitative research represents the skeleton, the qualitative research represents the
flesh. It can explore narrowly-defined issues in greater depth, explaining the setting in
which behavior can take place. It gives the complete picture of the issue being studied.

The value of qualitative study comes from its focus on the lived experience of the
participants, which enabled development of a greater understanding concerning the
outcomes that are important, relevant, and meaningful to the people involved.

Common Types of Qualitative Research

The following are the various types of qualitative research based on different fields of
inquiry

(Merriam, S. B., et al, 2002):

1. Phenomenological study. This type of research seeks to find the essence or

structure of an experience by explaining how complex meanings are built out of simple
units of inner experience. It examines human experiences (lived experiences) through
the descriptions provided by subjects or respondents. The goal of this study is to
describe the meaning that experiences hold for each subject. Some of the areas of
concern for these studies are humanness, self-determination, uniqueness, wholeness,
and individualism.

Example: What are the common experiences encountered by a person with a

spouse who is undergoing rehabilitation?

With the given problem, the researcher has to discover the inner feelings,
emotional hardships, and mental disturbances that the respondent is experiencing.
2. Ethnographic study. This study involves the collection and analysis of data about
cultural groups or minorities. In this type of research, the researcher immerses with the
people and becomes a part of their culture. He or she becomes involved in the everyday
activities of the subjects, and gets to empathize with the cultural groups experiencing
issues and problems in their everyday lives. During the immersion process, the
researcher talks to the key persons and personalities called key informants who provide
important information for the study. The main purpose of this study is the development
of cultural theories.

Example: What is the demographic profile and migratory adaptations of squatter

families in Barangay Cutcut, Angeles City (dela Cruz, 1994)?

In studying the problem, the researcher immerses with subjects and becomes
involved with the activities that exemplify the cultural practices of the respondents.

3. Historical study. This study is concerned with the identification, location, evaluation,
and synthesis of data from past events. This is not only limited to obtaining data from
the past, but it also involves relating their implications to the present and future time.

Example: What were the roles of women in the Katipunan?

Some sources of data for a historical study are as follows:

a. Documents – printed materials that can be found in libraries, archives,

or personal collections
b. Relics and artifacts – physical remains or objects from a certain
historical period
c. Oral reports – information that is passed on by word of mouth

The data sources are classified as follows:

a. Primary sources – materials providing first-hand information, e.g., oral

histories, written records, diaries, eyewitness accounts, pictures, videos, and
other physical evidence

b. Secondary sources – second-hand information such as an account based on

an original source, or a material written as an abstract of the original materials
The validity of materials used in the study are assessed through the following
processes:

a. Internal criticism. This involves establishing the authenticity or originality of the

materials by looking at the consistency of information. Motives and possible
biases of the author must be considered in trying to determine the accuracy of
the materials.

b. External criticism. This is based on the analysis of the material: the ink and the
type of paper used, the layout and physical appearance, and as well as the age
and texture of the material itself.

The researcher can consult authentic and original resource materials relevant to
the problem to determine the accuracy of information provided in the research paper.

4. Case study. It is an in-depth examination of an individual, groups of people, or an

institution. Some of its purposes are to gain insights into a little-known problem, provide
background data for broader studies, and explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural
processes. A case study also involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a
particular individual, group, or situation over a period of time. It provides information on
where to draw conclusions about the impact of a significant event in a person’s
life(Sanchez, 2002).

Example: How do cancer survivors look at life?

The researcher is able to give an overview of the problem by interviewing a

cancer survivor about his or her experiences.

5. Grounded theory study. The method involves comparing collected units of data
against one another until categories, properties, and hypotheses that state relations
between these categories and properties emerge. These hypotheses are tentative and
suggestive, and are not tested in the study.

Example: Ten school counselors were given structured interviews to help

determine how their professional identity is formed.

This data was coded first to form concepts. Then, connections between these
concepts were identified. A core concept emerged and its process and implications
were discussed. School counselors’ professional interactions were identified as defining
experiences in their identity formation (Brott & Myers, 1999).

6. Narrative analysis. The main sources of data for this type of research are the life
accounts of individuals based on their personal experiences. The purpose of the study
is to extract meaningful context from these experiences.
The common types of narrative analysis are as follows:

a. Psychological – This involves analyzing the story in terms of internal

thoughts and motivations. It also analyzes the written text or spoken words
for its component parts or patterns.

b. Biographical – This takes the individual’s society and factors like

gender and class into account.

c. Discourse analysis – This studies the approach in which language is

used in texts and contexts.

7. Critical qualitative research. This type of research seeks to bring about change and
empower individuals by describing and critiquing the social, cultural, and psychological
perspectives on present-day contexts. As such, it ultimately challenges the current
norm, especially on power distributions, building upon the initial appraisal of the said
presentday perspectives.

For example, a critical examination of consumer education texts used in adult

literacy programs revealed content that was disrespectful for adult learners, their
previous experience as consumers, and promoted certain ideologies regarding
consumerism. The texts also defended the status quo by blaming individual
inadequacies for economic troubles, ignoring societal inequities (Sandlin, 2000).

8. Postmodern research. As opposed to the traditional forms of qualitative analysis,

the approach of this type of research seeks to analyze the facts that have been
established as truths, the ability of research and science to discover truth, and all
generalizations and typologies.

Merriam et al. (2002) proposes the following three “crises” as a result of the questioning
performed:

a. Whether the experience of another can be captured or whether it is created by

the researcher

b. Whether any study can be viewed as valid if traditional methodologies are

flawed

c. Whether it is possible to institute any real change

Example: If our views of the self are themselves constructed by the society we
live in and the language we use, is true knowledge of the self, independent of these,
even possible? If our “selves” are constructed, then attempting to gain knowledge
through self-reflection is a miscognition and [it] instead results in the creation of a less
independent and more societal-regulated self (Bleakly, 2000).
9. Basic interpretative qualitative study. This is used when a researcher is interested
in identifying how individuals give meaning to a situation or phenomenon. It uses an
inductive strategy which is a process of analyzing patterns or common themes to
produce a descriptive account that summarizes and analyzes the literature that defined
the study.

Example: An interview of 45 women from varying backgrounds and a comparison

of the developmental patterns discerned with earlier findings on male development.

They found women’s lives evolved through periods of tumultuous,

structurebuilding phases that alternated with stable periods (Levinson &
Levinson, 1996).

Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research

Anderson (2010), in her article “Presenting and Evaluating Qualitative Research,”
lists the following strengths of a qualitative research:

1. The study requires a few cases or participants. Data collected are based on
the participants’ own categories of meaning.

2. It is useful for describing complex phenomena.

3. Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.

4. Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided or

redirected by the researcher in real time.

5. Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects or topic are often
missed by more positivistic inquiries.

6. It provides individual case information.

7. Cross-case comparisons and analysis can be conducted.

8. It provides understanding and description of people’s personal experiences of

phenomena (i.e., the emic or insider’s viewpoint).

9. It can describe in detail the phenomena as they are situated and embedded in
local contexts.
10. The researcher usually identifies contextual and setting factors as they relate
to the phenomenon of interest.

11. The researcher can study dynamic processes (i.e., documenting sequential
patterns and change).

12. The researcher can use the primarily qualitative method of grounded theory
to inductively generate a tentative but explanatory theory about a phenomenon.

13. It can determine how participants interpret constructs (e.g., self-esteem and
IQ).

14. Data are usually collected in naturalistic settings in qualitative research.

15. Qualitative approaches are especially responsive to local situations,

conditions, and stakeholders’ needs.

16. Qualitative data in the words and categories of participants lend themselves
to exploring how and why particular phenomena occur.

17. You can use an important case to vividly demonstrate a phenomenon to the
readers.

18. It can determine idiographic causation (i.e., determination of causes of a

particular event).

Anderson (2010) also enumerates the following weaknesses of qualitative

research:

1. The knowledge produced might not be applicable to other people or other

settings (i.e., findings might be unique to the relatively few people included in the
research study).

2. Inflexibility is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate.

3. It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research

within the scientific community.

4. The researcher’s presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable

in qualitative research, can affect the subjects’ responses.

5. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can present problems when presenting

findings.
6. It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.

7. It is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools.

8. It might have lower credibility with some administrators and commissioners of

programs.

9. It generally takes more time to collect the data compared to quantitative

research.

10. Data analysis is often time-consuming.

11. The results are more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases
and idiosyncrasies.