Topic 2: Minerals and Rocks

Earth is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar system. The geosphere, which is one of the
four interacting spheres that allow life to exist, refers to the solid Earth. It is composed of rock and regolith
which are essentially aggregates of various minerals.
A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition
and an ordered internal structure.

Physical Properties of Minerals

1. Color is the most evident characteristic of and is usually the first property used to identify minerals. It
is a result of the way minerals absorb light. When a mineral absorbs all the color of the spectrum
except that of a certain color, the color will appear in that color. However, this property may not be
used in identifying translucent to transparent minerals due to the presence of other trace minerals or
impurities. Therefore, color is considered the least reliable means of identifying minerals.
2. Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form. Usually, the mineral is rubbed on a streak plate to
determine its color.
3. Hardness refers to the measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching. To quantify the hardness of
a mineral, the Mohs scale is used. The harder the mineral, the less prone it is to scratches.

MOHS SCALE OF HARDNESS

Hardness Mineral Simple tests
1 talc easily scratched by fingernail
2 gypsum scratched by fingernail
3 calcite just scratched by copper penny
4 fluorite easily scratched by steel blade
5 apatite scratched by steel blade
not scratched by steel blade,
6 feldspar
can just scratch glass
can easily scratched glass and
7 quartz
steel blade
8 topaz scratches quartz
9 corundum scratches topaz
cannot be scratched by any
10 diamond
other mineral

4. Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along smooth surfaces. Some minerals do not break
along smooth surfaces. They fracture, or break unevenly.
5. Crystalline structure, also known as crystal lattice, is the periodic array of the atoms. This is a unique
arrangement of atoms in a crystal. Minerals that do not have crystalline structure are called
amorphous crystals, and lenses with extremely high magnification are needed to validate this.
6. Transparency or diaphaneity indicates the extent of light that can pass through the mineral. Hence,
the degree of transparency may depend on the thickness of the mineral.
7. Magnetism indicates the ability of the mineral to attract or repel other minerals.
8. Tenacity is the mineral’s ability to hold its particles together or the mineral’s level of resistance to
 stress such as bending, breaking, crushing, or tearing. Tenacity indicates if a mineral is brittle, elastic,
malleable, etc.
9. Luster shows how much light is reflected in a mineral. This depends on the brilliance of light used to
observe the surface of the mineral.
10. Odor is a distinct smell of a mineral that is usually released from a chemical reaction manifested when
the mineral is subjected to water, heat, air, or friction.
11. Specific gravity is a measure of the density of the mineral. It determines how heavy the mineral is by
its weight to water. Specific gravity is used especially when two minerals have the same size and
color. The specific gravities of minerals can distinguish them apart.

Composition of Minerals
In terms of composition, minerals can be classified into several mineral classes which are mainly
composed of elements that are abundant on Earth’s crust.
1. Silicates are composed primarily of silicon, oxygen and metals. Silicates are the major rock-
forming minerals and includes olivine and quartz.
2. Oxides consist of metals and oxygen. Common oxide minerals are magnetite, bauxite, and
hematite.
3. Sulfides consist of sulfur and metals. Some sulfides are sources of economically important
metals such as copper, lead, and zinc. Examples of sulfides are galena and pyrite.
` ` 4. Sulfates contain sulfur and oxygen in the form of the (SO4)- anion. An example of sulfate is
gypsum.
5. Halides are composed of a halogen ion such as chlorine or fluorine which forms halite or rock
salt and fluorite.
6. Carbonates are characterized by the presence of carbonic ion which bonds elements such as
calcium or magnesium to form calcite or dolomite.
7. Native metals consist of a single metal such as copper and gold.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

Out of the thousands of identified minerals, only about two dozen are considered common. Most
of the common rock-forming minerals are silicate minerals composed primarily of silicon and oxygen.
Several rock-forming minerals include plagioclase feldspar, potassium feldspar, quartz, muscovite, biotite,
amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, calcite, dolomite, hematite, halite, gypsum, talc, and chlorite.

Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Rocks are natural substances consisting of aggregate minerals clumped together with other Earth
materials glued by natural processes on Earth. Rocks, like other materials on Earth, are recycled. The cycle
is never ending and it describes the dynamic transition through geologic time. In the process of
transformation from one rock type to another, various substances are combined or formed. Rocks may
also contain other nonmineral materials embedded in it, such as fossils and glass.
 Source: https://digitalatlas.cose.isu.edu/geo/basics/diagrams.htm

Three Types of Rocks

1. Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of molten rock material (magma or lava). Molten
rock material can solidify below the surface of the earth (plutonic igneous rocks) or at the surface of
the Earth (volcanic igneous rocks). Igneous rocks form at much higher temperatures compared to
other types of rocks. Examples of igneous rocks are andesite, pumice, granite, basalt, rhyolite, scoria,
and obsidian.

Examples of igneous rocks

Source: https://www.studycivil247.com/2020/03/what-is-igneous-rocks-how-they-are.html

2. Sedimentary rocks are rocks that have formed from different material deposits on Earth’s surface.
Sediments may be precipitates from the evaporation, or also preexisting rocks or pieces of dead
organisms that have been “lithified” or cemented together by the natural processes of the Earth.
Examples of sedimentary rocks are shale, sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, breccia, and coquina.
 Source: https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC17868_sedimentary-my-dear-maxwell-pressley?guid=4f628c98-33ee-4040-b19a-
30e2d6aaa228

3. Metamorphic rocks are rocks that are formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks that were exposed
to high pressure, high temperature, or a combination of both, deep below the surface of Earth.
Because of this exposure, some of the minerals in these rocks undergo chemical and physical changes.
Examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, amphibolite, quartzite, schist, and marble.

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