Fundamentals of Vibrations

Section One

June 6, 2020

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Introduction

The course on Mechanical Vibration is an important part of the

Mechanical Engineering curriculum. It is necessary for the
development and the performance of many modern engineering
products: auto-mobiles, jet engines, rockets, bridges, electric
motors, electric generators, and so on. Whenever a mechanical
system contains storage elements for kinetic and potential energies,
there will be vibration. The vibration of a mechanical system is a
continual exchange between kinetic and potential energies.

This course deals with the characterization and the computation of

the response of a mechanical system caused by time-varying
excitations, which can be independent of or dependent on vibratory
response. In general, the vibration level of a component of a
machine has to be decreased to increase its useful life.

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Oscillations

Vibrations are oscillations of a system about an equilibrium

position.

Definition of oscillation [os–uh–ley–shuhn] in physics and mechanics:

a) an effect expressible as a quantity that repeatedly and regularly

fluctuates above and below some mean value, as the pressure of a
sound wave or the voltage of an alternating current;

b) a single fluctuation between maximum and minimum values in

such an effect.

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 frictionless pivot

amplitude
massless rod (string)

massive bob
bob’s trajectory

equilibrium position

Figure 1: Pendulum.

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It is also an everyday phenomenon we meet on everyday life
(typical examples):

1. Sound waves allow us to hear. We hear because our ear drums

vibrate.
2. Light waves permit us to see.
3. Vibration of dynamic system of a structure.
4. It is the oscillations of a system that has mass and elasticity.

Vibrations can be “good” or “bad”

Good Bad

Musical instruments Resonance (Tacoma bridge)

Clocks, watchers Effects on human body
Various machines Negative effect on machines

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Elementary parts of vibrating systems

A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing

potential energy (spring or elasticity), a means for storing kinetic
energy (mass or inertia), and a means by which energy is gradually
lost (damper).

The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential

energy to kinetic energy and of kinetic energy to potential energy,
alternately. If the system is damped, some energy is dissipated in
each cycle of vibration and must be replaced by an external source
if a state of steady vibration is to be maintained.

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Vibrations can be free and forced

Free vibrations: Vibration of a system because of its own elastic

property. No external force is required for this vibration and only
initiation of vibration may be necessary.

Forced vibrations: A system that vibrates under an external force

at the same frequency as that of external force.

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Basic Definitions

Periodic Motion: A motion that repeats itself after equal interval

of time.

Cycle: The movement of a vibrating body from its undisturbed or

equilibrium position to its extreme position in one direction, then
to the equilibrium position, then to its extreme position in the
other direction, and back to equilibrium position is called a cycle of
vibration.

Time Period: Time taken for one complete cycle.

Simple Harmonic Motion: Motion of particle with time that

moves round a circle with uniform angular velocity. Trigonometric
functions can be used to represent such motion.

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Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from
its equilibrium position is called the amplitude of vibration.

Period of oscillation: The time taken to complete one cycle of

motion is known as the period of oscillation or time period and is
denoted by τ .
2π
τ=
ω
where ω is called the circular frequency.

Frequency: It is the number of cycles per unit time. Frequency

and time period are inversely proportional to each other.Frequency
can be expressed either as angular (circular) frequency (ω) or
oscillatory frequency (f ); ω is expressed in radians per second and
f is expressed in cycles per second or Hertz.
1 ω
f = =
τ 2π

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Natural frequency: It is the frequency of free vibration of a
system. It is constant for a system. In fact, it is an inherent
property of a system. It depends on the elastic properties, mass
and stiffness of the system.

Resonance: Vibration of a system when the frequency of external

force is equal to the natural frequency of the system. The
amplitude of vibration at resonance becomes excessive. During
resonance, with minimum input, there will be a maximum output.

Phase angle: Consider two vibratory motions denoted by

x1 = A1 sin ωt x2 = A2 sin(ωt + φ)

The two harmonic motions given by the above equations are called
synchronous because they have the same frequency or angular
velocity, ω. However, they might have different amplitudes. An
angle φ is known as the phase angle.

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Damping: It is the resistance to motion. When the energy of a
vibrating system is gradually dissipated by friction and other
resistances, the vibrations are said to be damped. The vibrations
gradually reduce or change in frequency or intensity or cease and
the system rests in its equilibrium position.

Degree of freedom: The number of independent coordinate

systems required to specify a motion. If the motion is in one
direction due to the vibration of a single spring, then it is a single
degree of freedom system.

If a particle is likely to vibrate in space, it will have six degrees of

freedom, namely three translations and three rotations along three
axis. A continuum can have infinite degrees of freedom.

For example, the motion of the simple pendulum shown in Fig. 1

represents a single–degree–of–freedom systems. Two other
examples are shown in Fig. 2.

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 x
k
m θ

a) b)

Figure 2: Single–degree–of–freedom systems: a) Spring–mass

system; b) Torsional system.

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 X

k
m

l y
θ

x1 x2
k1 k2
m1 m2

Figure 3: Two–degree–of–freedom systems.

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 l1 y1

m1
θ1 l2 m2 y2 θ1
θ2 θ3
x1 θ2
l3
x2 y3
θ3
J2
J3
x3 m3 J1

a) b)

Figure 4: Three–degree–of–freedom systems: a) a pendulum

system where θi (i = 1, 2, 3) specifies the positions of the masses
mi (i = 1, 2, 3); b) a shaft assembly in which θi (i = 1, 2, 3)
describes the motion.

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VIBRATION ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

◮ A vibratory system is a dynamic one for which the variables

such as the excitations (inputs) and responses (outputs) are
time dependent.
◮ The response of a vibrating system generally depends on the
initial conditions as well as the external excitations.
◮ Most practical vibrating systems are very complex, and it is
impossible to consider all the details for a mathematical
analysis.
◮ Only the most important features are considered in the
analysis to predict the behaviour of the system under specified
input conditions.

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Mathematical modelling

The purpose of mathematical modelling is to represent all the

important features of the system for the purpose of deriving the
mathematical (or analytical) equations governing the system’s
behaviour. The mathematical model should include enough details
to allow describing the system in terms of equations without
making it too complex.

It may be linear or non-linear, depending on the behaviour of the

system’s components. Linear models permit quick solutions and
are simple to handle; non-linear models sometimes reveal certain
characteristics of the system that cannot be predicted using linear
models.

Thus a great deal of engineering judgement is needed to come up

with a suitable mathematical model of a vibrating system.

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As an example a mathematical model of a forging hammer is
shown next. It consists of a frame, a falling weight known as the
tup, an anvil, and a foundation block. The anvil is a massive steel
block on which material is forged into desired shape by the
repeated blows of the tup. The anvil is usually mounted on an
elastic pad to reduce the transmission of vibration to the
foundation block and the frame.

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 Tup

Frame

Anvil
Elastic pad

Foundation block
Soil

Tup

Anvil
x1
Damping of elastic pad Stiffness of elastic pad

Foundation
x2
Damping of soil Stiffness of soil

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Response of a human body (mathematical model)

A study of the response of a human body subjected to

vibration/shock is important in many applications. In a standing
posture, the masses of head, upper torso, hips, and legs and the
elasticity/ damping of neck, spinal column, abdomen, and legs
influence the response characteristics.

Develop a sequence of three improved approximations for modeling

the human body.

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Governing Equations

Once the mathematical model is available, we use the principles of

dynamics and derive the equations that describe the vibration of
the system. The equations of motion can be derived conveniently
by drawing the free-body diagrams of all the masses involved.

The free-body diagram of a mass can be obtained by isolating the

mass and indicating all externally applied forces, the reactive
forces, and the inertia forces.

The equations of motion of a vibrating system are usually in the

form of a set of ordinary differential equations for a discrete system
and partial differential equations for a continuous system.

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Solution of the Governing Equations
Interpretation of the Results

The equations of motion must be solved to find the response of

the vibrating system. Depending on the nature of the problem, we
can use one of the following techniques for finding the solution:
standard methods of solving differential equations, Laplace
transform methods, matrix methods, and numerical methods.

The solution of the governing equations gives the displacements,

velocities, and accelerations of the various masses of the system.
These results must be interpreted with a clear view of the purpose
of the analysis and the possible design implications of the results.

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Elements of a vibratory system

There are three basic elements of a vibratory system:

1. A kinetic energy storage element (mass);

2. A potential energy storage element (spring);
3. An energy dissipation element (damper).

Let’s study these elements in detail.

Mass and/or Mass-Moment of Inertia

Consider three types of motion: pure translational motion, pure

rotational motion, and planar (combined translational and
rotational) motion. We will apply Newton’s second law and write
the expression for kinetic energy.

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Pure translational motion

Consider the simple mass m which is acted upon by a force F (t).

Newtons second law of motion:
mẍ = F (t)
where
dx d 2x
ẋ = and ẍ = 2
dt dt
The energy of the mass is stored in the form of kinetic energy:
1
T = mẋ 2
2
x(t)

F(t)
m

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Pure rotational motion

O d
This mass (m) is undergoing a pure
rotation about the point O, and New-
θ
tons second law of motion leads to
r Feq

Jo θ̈ = −mgr sin θ + Feq · d + Meq

r sin θ C
ω
Meq
vc mg where
Jo – the mass moment of inertia about the centre of rotation O;
Feq – an equivalent external force;
Meq – an equivalent external moment;
θ – the angular position;
θ̇ = ω – the angular velocity.
1
The kinetic energy is T = Jo θ̇ 2 .
2
The potential energy is U = mg (r − r cos θ).

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Planar motion

y
Feq Meq vc

x
d C

Planar motion is a combined rotation and translation.

Let xc and yc be x- and y - coordinates of the center of mass C .
Then, Newtons second law of motion for the translational part of
motion is given by
(x) (y )
mx¨c = Feq (t); my¨c = Feq (t)
(x) (y )
where Feq and Feq x- and y - components of the force Feq .

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Planar motion

Newtons second law of motion for the rotational part of motion is

given by
Jc θ̈ = Jc ω̇ = Meq + Feq · d
The kinetic energy of a rigid body in planar motion is given as
1
T = (mvc2 + Jc ω 2 )
2
where vc is the magnitude of the linear velocity of the center of
mass: vc2 = ẋc2 + ẏc2

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Mass of inertia element

A particles mass is the only inertia property for the particle. The
distribution of mass about the mass center is also important for a
rigid body undergoing planar motion. It is described by a property
of the rigid body called the centroidal moment of inertia or mass
moment of inertia, defined by
Z Z
2
(x − x̄)2 + (y − ȳ)2 dm
 
J0 = r dm =
m m

Mass moment of inertia is a measure of an object’s resistance

to change in rotation direction. It has the same relationship
to angular acceleration as mass has to linear acceleration.

In many practical applications, several masses appear in

combination. For a simple analysis, we can replace these masses by
a single equivalent mass.

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Spring elements

A spring is a type of mechanical link, which in most applications is

assumed to have negligible mass and damping. The most common
type of spring is the helical-coil spring used in retractable pens and
pencils, staplers, and suspensions of freight trucks and other
vehicles.

l+x

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A spring is said to be linear if the elongation or reduction in length
x is related to the applied force F as

F = kx (1)

where k is a constant, known as the spring constant or spring

stiffness, or spring rate. The spring constant k is always positive
and denotes the force (positive or negative) required to cause a
unit deflection (elongation or reduction in length) in the spring.

If we plot a graph between F and x, the result is a straight line

according to Eq. (1). The work done (U) in deforming a spring is
stored as strain or potential energy in the spring, and it is given by
1
U = kx 2 (2)
2

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Spring constant of a rod

Find the equivalent spring constant of a uniform rod of length L,

cross-sectional area A, and Young’s modulus E subjected to an
axial tensile (or compressive) force F as shown below.

L AE
k=
L

F F

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Solution

The elongation (or shortening) ∆ of the rod under the axial tensile
(or compressive) force F can be expressed as

∆ σ FL
∆= L = εL = L = (3)
L E AE
Using the definition of the spring constant k, we obtain from (3):

FL kL
=1 or =1 (4)
AE AE
Therefore,
F AE
k= = (5)
∆ L

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Spring constant of a cantilever beam

Find the equivalent spring constant of a cantilever beam subjected

to a concentrated load F at its end.

Solution: From strength of materials, we know that the end

deflection of the beam due to a concentrated load is given by
FL3
∆= (6)
3EI
where E is the Young’s modulus and I is the moment of inertia of
the cross section of the beam. Thus,
F 3EI
k= = 3 (7)
∆ L

3EI
k=
The equivalent spring will look as L3
F
x(t)

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Combinations of strings

1. Strings in parallel: Consider two strings shown below:

k1 δst k2 δst

k1 k2 k1 k2 k1 k2

δst

W W

a) b) c)
Figure 7: Parallel combination of strings.

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When a load W is applied, the system undergoes a static
deflection δst as shown in the Fig. 7b. Then the free-body
diagram, shown in Fig. 7c, gives the equilibrium equation

W = k1 δst + k2 δst (8)

If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant of the combination of

the two springs, then for the same static deflection δst we have

W = keq δst where keq = k1 + k2 (9)

In general, if we have n springs with spring constants k1 , k2 , . . . , kn

in parallel, then the equivalent spring constant keq can be obtained:

keq = k1 + k2 + . . . + kn (10)

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Springs in series

Next we derive an expression for the equivalent spring constant of

springs connected in series by considering the two springs:

ki
k1 k1
W = ki δi
(i = 1, 2)
δ1
k2
W

δ1 k2
δst
δ2

Figure 8: Springs in series.

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Under the action of a load W , springs 1 and 2 undergo elongations
δ1 and δ2 , respectively, as shown. Therefore, the elongation of the
system is
δst = δ1 + δ2 (11)
Since both springs are subjected to the same force W , we have the
equilibrium:
W = k1 δ1 and W = k2 δ2 (12)
If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant, then for the same
static deflection
W = keq δst (13)
Equations (12) and (13) give

k1 δ1 = k2 δ2 = keq δst (14)

or
keq δst keq δst
δ1 = and δ2 = (15)
k1 k2

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Substituting these values of δ1 and δ2 into Eq. 12, we obtain
keq δst keq δst
+ = δst (16)
k1 k2
That is
1 1 1
= + (17)
keq k1 k2
In the case of n springs:
1 1 1 1
= + + ... + (18)
keq k1 k2 kn
Torsional spring constant of a shaft: The torsional spring constant
of a shaft is calculated as
GJp
kt = (19)
L
Where G is the shear modulus and Jp is a polar moment of inertia.
If a shaft is made of sections of different diameters, then the same
approach is used as for the springs in series.
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Example 1.

Determine the equivalent stiffness of the system shown in the

figure below.

2m

E = 210 GPa
I = 3.8 × 10−5 m4
k1 = 2 × 106 N/m

100 kg

k2 = 3 × 105 N/m

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Solution:

Stiffness of the beam:

3EI 3 × (210 × 109 ) × (3.8 × 10−5 )
kb = = = 2.9925 × 106 N/m
L3 23
The beam and the spring located above the load are acting in
series:
2.9925 × 2
k1b = × 106 = 1.2 × 106 N/m
2.9925 + 2
The bottom spring is parallel to the above combination:

keq = 1.2 × 106 + 3 × 105 = 1.5 × 106 N/m ←

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Example 2.

Determine the equivalent stiffness of the system shown in the

figure below.
Use the following data:
k1 = 2 × 105 N/m, k2 = 3 × 105 N/m, k3 = 1.5 × 105 N/m,
E = 210 × 109 N/m2 , I = 1 × 10−6 m4 .

k1
1.5 m 1.5 m

k2

200 kg

k3

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Solution:

The equivalent stiffness of the simply supported beam at its

midpoint is

48EI 48 × 210 × 109 × 10−6

kb = = = 3.7333 × 105 N/m
L3 33

The beam acts in parallel with the upper spring. This parallel
combination acts in series with the spring connecting the beam
and the block. Finally, this combination acts in parallel with the
spring connecting the block and the ground . Using the equations
for parallel and series combinations, the equivalent stiffness for this
system is

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Beam and upper spring:

kb1 = kb + k1 = 3.7333 × 105 + 2 × 105 = 5.7333 × 105 N/m

Add the spring between the beam and block:

1 1 1
= + =⇒
kb12 kb1 k2

kb1 · k2 5.7333 × 3 × 1010

kb12 = = = 1.9695 × 105 N/m
kb1 + k2 (5.7333 + 3) × 105
Finally,

keq = kb12 + k3 = (1.9695 + 1.5) × 105 = 3.4695 × 105 N/m

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Example 3.

Determine the equivalent spring constant of the hoisting drum

system when the suspended length of the wire rope is L. Assume
that the net cross-sectional diameter of the wire rope is d and the
Young’s modulus of the beam and the wire rope is E .

kb keq
t
b kr

L
W
d

t W
a
W

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Solution

The spring constant of the cantilever beam is given by

Eat 3
 
3EI 3E 1 3
kb = 3 = 3 at = (20)
b b 12 4b 3

The stiffness of the wire rope subjected to axial loading is

AE πd 2 E
kr = = (21)
L 4L
Since both the wire rope and the cantilever beam experience the
same load W , they can be modelled as springs in series. The
equivalent spring constant is given by

4b 3 πat 3 d 2
 
1 1 1 4L E
= + = + = (22)
keq kb kr Eat 3 πd 2 E 4 πd 2 b 3 + Lat 3

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Example 4.

The boom AB of the crane is a uniform steel bar of length 10 m

and area of cross section 2, 500 mm2 . A weight W is suspended
while the crane is stationary. The cable is made of steel and has a
cross-sectional area of 100 mm2 . Neglecting the effect of the cable,
find the equivalent spring constant of the system in the vertical
direction.
B

L1 , k1

1.5 m 1.5 m 10m w

L2 , k2
45 ◦
θ
C A
keq

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Solution

The equivalent spring constant can be found using the equivalence

of potential energies of the two systems. Since the base of the
crane is rigid, the cable and the boom can be considered to be
fixed at points C and A, respectively. Also, the effect of the cable
is negligible; hence the weight W can be assumed to act through
point B.

Let us denote k1 as the stiffness of the cable and k2 of the boom.

The length of the cable is
q
L1 = (3 + 10 cos 45◦ )2 + (10 sin 45◦ )2 = 12.3055 m (23)

Thus, the angle ACB is θ = 35.0736◦ . The total potential energy

(U) stored in the springs k1 and k2 can be expressed, using Eq. (2)
as

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 1 1
U= k1 (x cos (90◦ − θ))2 + k2 (x cos (90◦ − 45◦ ))2 (24)
2 2
where x is the vertical coordinate and
A1 E1 (100 × 10−6 )(207 × 109 )
k1 = = = 1.6822×106 N/m (25)
L1 12.3055

A2 E2 (2500 × 10−6 )(207 × 109 )

k2 = = = 5.1750 × 107 N/m
L2 10
(26)
Since the equivalent spring in the vertical direction undergoes a
deformation x, the potential energy of the equivalent spring (Ueq )
is given by
1
Ueq = U = keq x 2 −→ keq = 26.4304 × 106 N/m (27)
2

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Example 5.

Find the equivalent spring constant of the system shown in the

figure in the direction of the load P.

k7

k6
k8 θ2
k5
θ1
k9
P

k4
k2
θ3 k3

θ4
k1

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Solution

Equivalent spring constants in different directions are

k1 k2 k3 k4
ke1 = , ke2 =
k1 + k2 k3 + k4
k5 k6 k7 k8 k9
ke3 = , ke4 =
k5 k6 + k5 k7 + k6 k7 k8 + k9
If the force P moves by x, the spring located at θi undergoes a
displacement of xi = x cos θi . Equivalence of potential energy gives
4
1 1X
keq x 2 = kei xi2
2 2
i =1

4
X
−→ keq = (kei cos2 θi )
i =1

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SDOF System

Consider the single degree of freedom system. It consists with a

cylinder and a pulley:
x
k1
C Rigid link
r m k2
r2

Roll without slip x1

O r3

For a small displacement x(t):

x(t)
θ(t) = (28)
r2
The kinetic energy is given as
1
Tcyl = (mẋ 2 + Jc ωc2 ) (29)
2
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where the mass-moment of inertia of the cylinder about C is
1 2
Jc = mr (30)
2
and the angular velocity of the cylinder for rolling without slipping
is
ẋ
ωc = (31)
r
Substituting Eqs. (30) and (31) into Eq. (29),
1
Tcyl = 1.5mẋ 2 (32)
2
The kinetic energy of the stepped pulley is
1
Tpul = Jo ωp2 (33)
2
where where ωp is the angular velocity of the stepped pulley:
ẋ
ωp = θ̇ = (34)
r2
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Substituting Eq. (34) into (33),

1 ẋ 2
Tpul = Jo (35)
2 r22
The total energy of the system is
1
Ttot = Tcyl + Tpul = meq ẋ 2 (36)
2
where meq is the equivalent mass of the system:
Jo
meq = 1.5m +
r22
The total potential energy of the system is
1
Utot = (k1 x 2 + k2 x12 ) (37)
2
where
x1 = r3 θ (38)
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Substituting Eq. (38) into (37), and using Eq. (28),

1
Utot = keq x 2 (39)
2
where keq is the equivalent stiffness of the system:
 2
r3
keq = k1 + k2
r2

x
keq

meq

The above system can be also described as the equivalent SDOF

system.

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Case 1: Translational masses connected by a rigid bar.

Let the masses be attached to a rigid bar that is pivoted at one

end, as shown below.

ẋ1 ẋ2 ẋ3 ẋeq = ẋ1

Pivot
point m2 m3 meq
m1
l1
l2 l1
l3

The equivalent mass can be assumed to be located at any point

along the bar. To be specific, we assume the location of the
equivalent mass to be that of mass m1 .

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The velocities of masses m2 (ẋ2 ) and m3 (ẋ3 ) can be expressed in
terms of the velocity of mass m1 (ẋ1 ) by assuming small angular
displacements for the bar, as
l2 l3
ẋ2 = ẋ1 , ẋ3 = ẋ1 (40)
l1 l1
and
ẋeq = ẋ1 (41)
By equating the kinetic energy of the three-mass system to that of
the equivalent mass system, we obtain
1
1 2
m1 ẋ12 + m2 ẋ22 + m3 ẋ32 = meq ẋeq (42)
2 2
Taking into account the equations (40) and (41) we obtain the
equivalent mass
 2  2
l2 l3
meq = m1 + m2 + m3 (43)
l1 l1

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It can be seen that the equivalent mass of a system composed of
several masses (each moving at a different velocity) can be thought
of as the imaginary mass which, while moving with a specified
velocity v , will have the same kinetic energy as that of the system.

Case 2: Translational and rotational masses coupled

together.

Let a mass m having a translational velocity ẋ be coupled to

another mass (of mass moment of inertia J0 ) having a rotational
velocity θ̇ as in the rack-and-pinion assembly (m is the rack mass;
R is the pinion radius). These two masses can be combined to
obtain either (1) a single equivalent translational mass meq or (2)
a single equivalent rotational mass Jeq as shown below.

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1. Equivalent translational mass. The kinetic energy of the two
masses is given by
1 1
T = mẋ 2 + J0 θ̇ 2 (44)
2 2
and the kinetic energy of the equivalent mass can be expressed as
1 2
Teq = meq ẋeq (45)
2

Since ẋeq = ẋ and θ̇ = ẋ/R the equivalence of T and Teq gives

 2
1 1 1 ẋ
meq ẋ 2 = mẋ 2 + J0 (46)
2 2 2 R

Finally,
J0
meq = m + (47)
R2

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2. Equivalent rotational mass. Here θ̇eq = θ̇ and ẋ = θ̇R, and the
equivalence of T and Teq leads to

1 1 1
Jeq θ̇ 2 = m(θ̇R)2 + J0 θ̇ 2 (48)
2 2 2
or
Jeq = J0 + mR 2 (49)

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Example: Equivalent mass

In the figure below find the equivalent mass of the rocker arm
assembly with respect to the x coordinate.

k1 x1

m1

kt

a
b
k2 x
J0
m2

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Solution
x xa
From the figure: θ = and x1 = .
b b
From the equivalence of kinetic energies:
1 1
meq ẋ 2 = m1 ẋ12 + m2 ẋ22 + J0 θ̇ 2


2 2
 2
 a 2 1
meq = m1 + m2 + J0
b b

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Damping elements

◮ In many practical systems, the vibrational energy is gradually

converted to heat or sound. Due to the reduction in the
energy, the response, such as the displacement of the system,
gradually decreases. The mechanism by which the vibrational
energy is gradually converted into heat or sound is known as
damping.
◮ Although the amount of energy converted into heat or sound
is relatively small, the consideration of damping becomes
important for an accurate prediction of the vibration response
of a system.
◮ A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity, and
damping force exists only if there is relative velocity between
the two ends of the damper. It is difficult to determine the
causes of damping in practical systems. Hence damping is
modelled as one or more of the following types.
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Viscous damping

Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism

in vibration analysis. When mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid
medium such as air, gas, water, or oil, the resistance offered by the
fluid to the moving body causes energy to be dissipated.

In this case, the amount of dissipated energy depends on many

factors, such as the size and shape of the vibrating body, the
viscosity of the fluid, the frequency of vibration, and the velocity of
the vibrating body. In viscous damping, the damping force is
proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body.

Typical examples of viscous damping include:

(1) fluid film between sliding surfaces,
(2) fluid flow around a piston in a cylinder,
(3) fluid flow through an orifice,
(4) fluid film around a journal in a bearing.

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Other types of damping

Coulomb or dry-friction damping: Here the damping force is

constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to that of the
motion of the vibrating body. It is caused by friction between
rubbing surfaces that either are dry or have insufficient lubrication.

Material or solid or hysteretic damping: When a material is

deformed, energy is absorbed and dissipated by the material. The
effect is due to friction between the internal planes, which slip or
slide as the deformations take place.

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Calculation of damping constant

Find a single equivalent damping constant for the following cases:

a) When three dampers are parallel; b) When three dampers are in
series; c) When three dampers are connected to a rigid bar ( see
the figure) and the equivalent damper is at site c1 ;
Hint: The energy dissipated by a viscous damper in a cycle during
harmonic motion is given by πcωX 2 where c is the damping
constant, ω is the frequency, and X is the amplitude of oscillation.

L3
L2
L1

Pivot
ẋ1 ẋ2 ẋ3
c1 c2 c3

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Solution a)

F1 c1

F2 c2

F3 c3

ẋ1 ẋ2

Fi is a damping force of ci :

Fi = ci (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ), i = 1, 2, 3

Feq is a damping force of ceq :

Feq = ceq (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ), (i = 1, 2, 3) ≡ F1 + F2 + F3

Therefore, ceq = c1 + c2 + c3
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Solution b)

c1 c2 c3

ẋ1 ẋ2 ẋ3 ẋ4

ceq

F1 = c1 (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ), F2 = c2 (ẋ3 − ẋ2 ), F3 = c3 (ẋ4 − ẋ3 )

ẋ4 − ẋ1 = ẋ4 − ẋ3 + ẋ3 − ẋ2 + ẋ2 − ẋ1
Feq F1 F2 F3
= + +
ceq c1 c2 c3
Since Feq = F1 + F2 + F3
1 1 1 1
= + +
ceq c1 c2 c3
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Solution c)

Equating the energies dissipated in a cycle,

πceq ωX12 = πc1 ωX12 + πc2 ωX22 + πc3 ωX32

where
X1 = θL1 , X2 = θL2 , X3 = θL3
Thus,  2  2
L2 L3
ceq = c1 + c2 + c3
L1 L1

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