A STUDY ON BLACK COTTON SOIL REINFORCED WITH

NYLON FIBRE

A DISSERTATION

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

(SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING)

SUBMITTED BY

PAVAN KUMAR MEENA

(31702214)

under the guidance of

Prof. Ashwani Jain

Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
KURUKSHETRA - 136119
JUNE 2019
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this dissertation titled “A
study on Black Cotton Soil reinforced with Nylon Fibre” towards the partial
fulfilment for the award of degree of Master of Technology in Civil Engineering
with specialization in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering of
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, is an authentic record of my own work
carried out under the supervision and guidance of Prof. Ashwani Jain.
The material embodied herein is original and has not been submitted earlier for the
award of any other degree or diploma of any University.

(Pavan Kumar meena)

Date: M.Tech. Civil
Place: Kurukshetra Roll No. 31702214

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of
my knowledge and belief.

(Ashwani Jain)
Professor
Date: Department of Civil Engineering
Place: Kurukshetra National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a great privilege for me to express deep and sincere gratitude to my guide
Prof. Ashwani Jain, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute
of Technology, Kurukshetra (Haryana) for his generous help and consistent
encouragement at every stage during this work. His painstaking effort in correcting
the manuscript, and giving invaluable time and suggestions for improvement are
gratefully acknowledged.

I also express my deep appreciation and sincere thanks to Dr. S.N Sachdeva, Professor
and Head, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Kurukshetra (Haryana), for giving necessary facilities throughout this study.

I also express my heartiest regards to the Staff of Soil Mechanics Laboratory, my

classmates and my friends for their valuable assistance and help during the course of
experimentation.
I am also thankful to Mr. Sumit Rawat and Krishan Kumar M.Tech. scholar,
Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Kurukshetra for supporting and encouraging
me during this research.
Sincere thanks are due to my family members and friends for inspiring me all the time
during the dissertation work.

Date: (Pavan Kumar Meena)

Place: Kurukshetra (31702214)

ABSTRACT
Expansive soils or swelling soils are those soils which have tendency to increase in
volume when water is made available and to decrease in volume if water is removed.
These volume changes in swelling soils are the cause of many problems in structures
that come in their contact or constructed out of them. The objective of the present
study is to investigate the swelling behaviour of an expansive soil treated with nylon
fibres of two sizes. This has been done to make the soil suitable for construction of
structures on it or acting as suitable sub-grade for construction of roads. For sample
preparation, black cotton soil is mixed with nylon fibres of two sizes (6mm and
12mm) in varying percentages of 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25% by the dry
weight of soil and compacted to maximum dry density at optimum moisture content.
A series of swell pressure tests have been conducted by consolidometer method to
determine swell pressure of untreated black cotton soil and black cotton soil treated
with fibres to evaluate the effect of addition of fibres on swell pressure of the soil.
Specimen heave of the soil has been permitted and it is observed as it occurs with the
passage of time. A series of consolidation pressures of 0.06, 0.12, 0.26, 0.47, 0.96,
1.96 and 3.77 kg/cm2 have been applied and consolidation pressure to bring the soil
back to its original volume has been determined which is reported as swell pressure.
No significant variation has been observed in both optimum moisture content (OMC)
and maximum dry density (MDD) due to an increase in percentage of nylon fibre of
two sizes which may be due to fibre being added to the soil in very small percentage
by weight. A general decreasing trend has been observed in the value of swell
potential due to increase in percentage of nylon fibre of two sizes. It may be due to the
flexible polymeric fibres in the soil are stretched and tension in fibres resists further
swelling. A general decrease has been observed in the value of swell pressure due to
increase in percentage of nylon fibre of 6mm size to the parent soil. No significant
trend has been observed in the variation of swell pressure due to addition of nylon
fibre of 12mm size in various percentages to the parent soil. These results will help in
arriving at economical proportion of fibre in soil-fibre mixtures used in engineering
construction over a wide range of their proportion in the parent soil.

Table of content
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................1
 1.1 General...........................................................................................................................1

1.2 Expansive soils...............................................................................................................1

1.2.1 Occurrence of Expansive Soils................................................................................2

1.2.2 Causes of Volume Change.......................................................................................2

1.2.2.1 Clay mineral......................................................................................................2

1.2.2.2 Associated Cations............................................................................................3

1.2.2.3 Water Layers.....................................................................................................3

1.2.2.4 Cation-Water Effects.........................................................................................4

1.3 Need of Present Study.....................................................................................................4

1.4 Organization of Work.....................................................................................................5

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................7

2.1 General...........................................................................................................................7

2.2 Literature review on Treatment of Expansive soils.........................................................8

2.3 Literature review on Materials Used.............................................................................10

2.3.1 Expansive soil.................................................................................................10

2.2 Literature review on Expansive soils treated with Synthetic fibre................................14

2.3 Literature review on Expansive soils treated with Natural fibre....................................23

CHAPTER 3 TREATMENT OF EXPANSIVE SOILS..............................................26

3.1 General..........................................................................................................................26

3.2 Theory of Swelling.......................................................................................................29

3.2.1 Soil properties.................................................................................................29

3.2.2 Suction and water conditions..........................................................................29

3.2.3 Water content variations..................................................................................30

3.2.4 Geometry and stiffness of a structure..............................................................30

 3.3 Consequences of Swelling.........................................................................................30

3.4 Swell Pressure and Swell Potential............................................................................31

3.4.1 Measurement of Swelling Potential................................................................31

3.4.2 Factors affecting Swell Pressure and Swell potential.....................................33

3.5 Stabilization of Expansive Soils.................................................................................33

3.6 Foundations on Expansive Soils................................................................................34

CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS...............................................39

4.1 Materials used...............................................................................................................39

4.1.1 Black Cotton Soil...................................................................................................39

4.1.2 Natural fibres.........................................................................................................39

4.2 Standard Proctor test.....................................................................................................39

4.3 Sample preparation.......................................................................................................40

4.3.1 Composition of specimens.....................................................................................40

4.3.2 Mixing....................................................................................................................40

4.3.3 Compaction............................................................................................................40

4.4 Testing Programme.......................................................................................................41

4.4.1 Apparatus used.......................................................................................................41

4.4.2 Procedure...............................................................................................................42

4.4.3 Precautions.............................................................................................................43

4.4.4 Evaluation of swell pressure..................................................................................43

CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS & DISCUSSION............................44

5.1 General..........................................................................................................................44

5.2 Moisture-density relationship........................................................................................44

5.3 Swell potential..............................................................................................................45

 5.3 Swell pressure...............................................................................................................46

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE OF FURTHER RESEARCH.............48

6.1 Conclusions...................................................................................................................48

6.2 Scope of further research..............................................................................................49

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................50

Figure 3.1.....................................................................................................................34

Figure 3.2.....................................................................................................................35

Figure 3.3.....................................................................................................................36

Figure 4.1 Three-Gang, Fixed Ring Consolidometer......................................................

Table 2.1 Classification of Expansive Soil Based on Plasticity Index.........................19

Table 2.2 Classification of Expansive Soil Based on Percent Swell...........................19

Table 2.3 Classification of Expansive Soil Based on DFS..........................................20

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

Expansive soils are soils that undergo a significant volume change associated with a
change in moisture content. This continual change in soil volume can cause irregular
movements and cracks in houses built on this floor. Many cities, transportation routes
and buildings are based on soils and rocks rich in clay. With the rapid development of
urban infrastructure, soil development problems have become more evident. It is
therefore necessary to discuss the problems associated with these soils.

1.2 Expansive soils

Essentially, an expansive soil is a soil that changes volume according to the moisture
content. The phenomenon of swelling / contraction depends mainly on the type of
mineralogical composition of the clay, the quantity, shape, size and absorption
capacity of the soil particles, the thickness of the active zone, living organisms, age,
topography of the site, duration and climate. Soils that exhibit swelling and shrinkage
behavior contain expansive clay minerals, such as montmorillonite, which absorbs
water. The more soil this clay contains, the greater its swelling potential and the more
water it can absorb. As a result, these materials swell and, therefore, increase in
volume when wet and shrink as they dry. The more water they absorb, the more their
volume increases, because the expansions of the more expansive clays of 10% are not
rare.

The effects of narrowing and swelling are limited to the area near the surface;
significant activity usually occurs at approximately 3 m depth, but this may vary
depending on weather conditions. The potential for swelling by contraction of
expansive soils is determined by their initial water content; Vacuum rate internal
structure and vertical stresses, as well as the type and quantity of clay minerals in the
soil. These minerals determine the natural expansion of the soil and include
montmorillonite, nontronite, vermiculite, illite and chlorite. In general, the greater the
amount of these minerals present in the soil, the greater the expansion potential.
However, these expansive effects can be "diluted" by the presence of other minerals
that do not swell, such as quartz and carbonate.

1.2.1 Occurrence of Expansive Soils

Expansive soils are found in many parts of the world, particularly in arid and semi-
arid regions, as well as in wetlands after long periods of drought. Its distribution
depends on geology (basic material), climate, hydrology, geomorphology and
vegetation. Shrinkage cracks develop in soils during the dry season due to the
suffocating heat of the tropics. During the rainy season, the expansive clay minerals
attract a large amount of water, mainly through shrinkage cracks, resulting in a large
volume change. Inflammatory clays are detected in Australia, Canada, China, Jordan,
Saudi Arabia, India, South Africa, Sudan, Egypt and the United States.

Flammable soils in India are inorganic clays of medium to high plasticity. They are
found in different regions such as Maharashtra, the western parts of Madhya Pradesh,
parts of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. They are known as black
cotton floors. The name comes from the fact that cotton grows well on black soil.
Most of them plot above line A on the plasticity chart. The clay mineral is mainly
montmorillonite or a combination of montmorillonite and illite. They show a
significant change of volume during humidification and drying. These soils are
generally recognized in the field because of their cracks or damage or because of the
obvious structural damage they have caused to existing buildings. Due to the high
swelling and contraction potential, it is difficult to treat soils when designing
foundations.

1.2.2 Causes of Volume Change

1.2.2.1 Clay mineral

Clay minerals are known as hydrous aluminum silicates. These minerals generally are
made from stacks of two types of sheets: silica tetrahedral sheets and alumina
octahedral sheets. They are rightly named as sheets, because each is just a few
angstroms thick and can be thousands of angstroms wide in each of its other
dimensions. Each type of clay mineral family consists of stacks of these elementary
sheets in differing arrangements. The clays that are expansive in nature consist of
silica tetrahedral sheets that contain substitutions of aluminum ions for some of the
silica ions and alumina octahedral sheets with substitutions of either iron or
magnesium for some of the aluminum ions. As can be understood by considering each
of these ions and their natural charges, those that are present affect the clay behavior
differently. Silica has a +4 charge and aluminum has a +3 charge, while iron can have
and magnesium has a +2 charge. The substitutions described above, therefore, cause
the silica or alumina sheets to have a net negative charge for each substitution. The
basic reason why clay minerals are expansive starts first with their inherent negative
charges. It follows that when more substitutions are present, clay will have a higher
potential to be problematic, since more moisture will be required, in addition to
balance charges in the clay soil.

1.2.2.2 Associated Cations

There are many cations, or positively charged ions, present in the atmosphere and in
the soil of differing types and concentrations. In clay soils, these cations provide
sources of positive charges to assist in offsetting the negative charges in the clays
mentioned above. When these cations are close enough to the clay mineral surfaces,
they essentially become part of the overall charge system of the clay and are
associated with the clay in the cation exchange complex (CEC). The remaining
cations are part of the soil chemistry not closely associated with the clay and are part
of those ions in the pore water system of the soil. The most abundant cations found in
soils are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, followed by several
others including silicon and aluminum. The particular cations associated with clay and
in the pore water of the soil is dependent on the chemical history of the soil.

1.2.2.3 Water Layers

Because of the structure of a water molecule, the two hydrogen atoms are located near
one end of it and the oxygen atom is found near the other end. This causes the water
molecule to act as sort of a “bar magnet,” with positive and negative ends. Many of
the behaviour of water, including its overall molecular structure in fluid and solid
states, are caused by water molecules being this way. This phenomenon holds a
stream of water together somewhat and is partly responsible for the surface tension
capability of water. Along with the cations present near and away from clay mineral
surfaces, there are even many more water molecules present, some associated with the
clay mineral surfaces and broken bonds, some associated with cations, and others
associated with each other. The water molecules tend to form “layers” of water inside
of and around clay particles. Those layers most closely associated with the clay are
very tightly held and are more difficult to move around than those found farther away
from the clay surfaces. How tightly these water layers are associated with the clay
becomes less and less the farther they are from the clay surfaces. There are a few
water layers that remain with the clay even when heated to normal oven temperatures
of 100°C. These are called the “adsorbed” water layers. Surrounding them are the
layers associated\either strongly or progressively nearly not at all with the clay,
making up the rest of what is called the “highly viscous” water layers. Outside of
these layers, the water in the soil is not considered associated with the clay at all.

1.2.2.4 Cation-Water Effects

The overall concept of cation and water association with clay minerals is as follows:
in order to balance the charge imbalance caused by the substitutions of ions in the
mineral layers, both cations and water molecules act together. The cations present act
as part of the clay makeup, and the amount of water needed to complete the balance is
determined by the particular clay mineral makeup and the types and concentrations of
cations present in the soil. If there is insufficient water present to complete the
balance of charges, the soil will have a net negative energy with the potential to bring
available water to it, with the result being volume increase. Neither clay mineralogy
nor soil chemical makeup normally is determined during geotechnical engineering
investigations, because of the expense and time required to do so.

1.3 Need of Present Study

As more and more land is subjected to urban and/or industrial development, sites with
good foundation soil, suitable for building activities are difficult to find. In recent
years, an increasing need is being felt for various types of construction in marginal,
low or reclaimed lands and coastal areas which are not suitable normally for
construction purpose.

Extensive studies have been carried out on the stabilization of expansive soils using
various additives such as lime, cement, fly ash, industrial waste products, potassium
nitrate, calcium chloride and phosphoric acid.

The primary advantage of use of randomly distributed fibres is the absence of

potential planes of weakness that can develop parallel to oriented reinforcement.
Fibres are widely used when building with earth. Generally, fibres can be most easily
mixed in with the soil if it is in a plastic or liquid state. The synthetic fibres serve to
increase the tensile strength, reduce density, accelerate drying and reduce cracking by
dispersing stresses. Fibres vary in shape, size, strength, elasticity and their bond
strength with earth, so possible improvements with different types of fibre will vary,
as will the amount of a particular fibre. Reinforcement of expansive soils with natural
fibres potentially offers an alternative method to chemical stabilization techniques and
other methods for reducing swell potential.

Proper investigation of soil profile beneath the proposed structure as well as

proper designing of structures in expansive soils is a must. In the present work, effect
on swell behaviour has been studied for an expansive soil treated with different
percentages of natural fibres by conducting a series of one-dimensional consolidation
tests for measurement of swell pressure.

1.4 Organization of Work

Dissertation work for the odd semester included preparatory work for dissertation and
was organized as follows:

 Review of literature.

 Procurement of material.

 Evaluation of index properties of parent soil.

 Evaluation of compaction properties of parent soil.

Dissertation work for the even semester was organized as follows:

 Determination of maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content

(OMC) of soil treated with different percentages of natural fibres by standard
proctor test in order to prepare remoulded samples for swell pressure tests.

 Determination of swell pressure of parent soil and soil treated with different
percentages of natural fibres using consolidometer method.

 Analysis of test results & discussion.

 Deriving conclusions & suggesting scope of further research.

 Compilation of dissertation work and submission.

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

Various methods have been used during the centuries to reduce the unpleasant effects
of these natural phenomena. Some of them would be mentioned like compaction,
chemical soil stabilization, soil replacement and soil reinforcement.
 Soil stabilization is the process of improving the engineering properties of the
soil and thus making it more stable. It is required when soil available for construction
is not suitable for the intended purpose. In the broad sense, stabilization includes
compaction, pre-consolidation, drainage and many other such processes. Stabilization
is the process of blending and mixing materials with a soil to improve certain
properties of the soil. The process may include the blending of soils to achieve a
desired gradation by the mixing of commercially available additives that may alter the
gradation, texture or plasticity, or act as a binder for cementation of the soil. Soil
stabilization is used to reduce the permeability and compressibility of the soil mass in
earth structures, to reduce the swell in case of expansive soils and to increase its shear
strength. Soil stabilization is required to increase the bearing capacity of foundation
soils.

The discrete fibre can be considered as a good earth reinforcement material,

which causes significant modification and improvement in the engineering properties
of soil. Randomly oriented tensile inclusions incorporated into soil improve its load-
deformation behavior by interacting with the soil particles mechanically through
surface friction and also by interlocking and not creating any internal forces at
molecular levels. The function of the bond or interlock is to transfer the stress from
the soil to the tensile inclusions and to mobilize their tensile strength and impart this
resisting force to the soil, thus reducing the strains induced in reinforced soil which
leads to the improvement in load carrying capacity of the soil. However there is
limited research done on fibre reinforcement of cohesive soils particularly its effect on
swelling, consolidation settlement, and desiccation characteristics.

2.2 Literature review on Treatment of Expansive soils

 J. Erik Loehr, Paul J. Axtell and John J. Bowders (2000) described a series
of laboratory tests performed on fibre reinforced and non-reinforced samples of
expansive clay to determine the potential for using fibre reinforcement to resist
swell displacements. The testing program included a series of one-dimensional
free swell tests performed on 10.2-cm diameter and 6.4-cm diameter specimens
of reinforced and non-reinforced expansive clay using an expansion index test
device and fixed ring consolidation cells. Specimens used for this testing
program were prepared at different fibre dosage rates over a range of
 compaction moisture contents. Results of these tests showed that inclusion of
discrete fibres in expansive clays significantly reduces volume change when
subjected to one-dimensional free swell conditions. As a result, there appears to
be great potential for reducing the detrimental effects on buildings, earth
retaining structures and roadways induced by soils with a high potential for
volume change or expansion.

 Zhang and Cao (2002) conducted studies on the stabilization of expansive soil
by lime and Fly ash. An experimental program was undertaken to study the
individual and admixed affects of lime and fly ash on the geotechnical
characteristics of expansive soil. Lime and fly ash were added to the expansive
soil at 4% - 6% and 40% - 50% by dry weight of soil, respectively. The effect of
lime and fly ash addition on reducing the swelling potential of the expansive
soil was studied. Plastic limit was increased by mixing lime and liquid limit
decreased by mixing fly ash, which decreased plasticity index.

 Amer Ali Al-Rawas, A.W. Hago and Hilal Al-Sarmi (2005) stabilized
expansive soil using lime, cement, combinations of lime and cement, Sarooj
(artificial pozzolan) and heat treatment. Initially, the chemical and physical
properties of the untreated soil were determined. Then the soil was mixed with
lime, cement and Sarooj (produced from Bilad Seet, a town in northern Oman)
at 3%, 6% and 9% by dry weight of soil. Fixed percentages of lime (3% and
5%), plus different percentages of cement were also mixed with the soil. The
physical results of the treated samples were determined. The untreated soil
values were used as control points for comparison purposes. It was found that
with the addition of 6% lime, both the swell percent and swell pressure reduced
to zero. Heat treatment reduced swelling potential to zero. The use of lime
showed superior results when compared with the other stabilizers.

 B.V.S. Viswanadham (2008) study performed on expansive soil reinforced

with geo-fibres, discrete and randomly distributed geo-fibres are useful in
restraining the swelling tendency of expansive soils. Swelling characteristics of
remoulded expansive soil specimens reinforced with varying fibre content and
aspect ratio were studied. One dimensional swell-consolidation tests were
conducted on oedometer specimens. Reduction in heave and swelling pressure
 was the maximum at low aspect ratios at both the fiber contents of 0.25% and
0.50%. Reinforcing expansive clay specimens with polypropylene fiber reduced
heave. Heave was reduced more at lower aspect ratios than at higher aspect
ratios.

 Sajal pachauri (2016) discuss the use of synthetic fibre and natural fibre and
their comparison. In this study, the strength characteristics. of the soil coir fibre
composite have been compared with the same soil reinforced with synthetic
polypropylene fibre. Study shows that fibre inclusion increased not only the
peak strength of the samples but also its ductility. It was also noted that water
content of 5% dry of optimum moisture content showed the maximum strength.
Moreover, soil samples reinforced with coir fibres and showed higher strength
characteristics than polypropylene reinforced soil sample. This study concludes
that coir as natural fibre reinforcement could be successfully employed in field
where short term and effective fibre reinforcement is designed.

 A.R. Estabragh (2014) Treatment of an expansive soil by mechanical and

chemical techniques against swelling. In mechanical treatment, reinforcing the
soil with randomly distributed fibres and chemical treatment by using cement or
lime as a chemical agent. Experiments on untreated and treated samples were
conducted in an oedometer. The experimental programme consisted of two
groups.

 The first group involved the tests on expansive soil reinforced with randomly
distributed fibres (mechanical improvement), different percentages (0.5, 1 and
1.5%), and different lengths (10, 20 and 30 mm), in bar shape or tape shape.

 The second group that were mixed with different percentages (5, 8 and 10%)
of cement or lime (chemical improvement) for different curing times.

 The results showed that, compared with the natural soil, the swelling
behaviour (swelling potential and swelling pressure) was reduced by adding
randomly mixed discrete fibres. The reduction of swelling potential and
swelling pressure is also a function of percentage, length and type of fibre (bar
or tape shape). The results also indicated that the addition of cement and lime
caused reduction in swelling potential and its effect was considerably more
than the influence of fibre.
  Xinshan Zhuang (2015) The test results show that the maximum dry density
and plasticity index of reinforced expansive soil were decreased along with the
increased lime mixed rates. Liquid limit of reinforced expansive soil gradually
decreased and plastic limit increased gradually and the plasticity index
decreases gradually with the increasing amount of lime. Basalt fibre mixed into
expansive soil can make the ductility of expansive soil improved, corresponding
to the axial strain under the damage state was in the desired state with the
increasing of the additional amount of the basalt fibres.

2.3 Literature review on Materials Used

2.3.1 Expansive soil

Expansive soils are found extensively in tropical areas. The presence of expansive
soils greatly affects the construction activities in many parts of south-western United
States, South America, Canada, Africa, Australia, Europe, India, China and the
Middle East. More and more expansive soil regions are being discovered each year
with an increase in the amount of constructional activities, particularly in the
underdeveloped nations. These soils are characterized by the presence of a large pro-
portion of highly active clay minerals of the montmorillonite group which are
responsible for the pronounced volume change capability of the soils. The expansive
soils are distributed geographically very widely, covering large areas. Hence,
identification and classification of such soils is essential.

Many criteria are available to identify and characterize expansive soils, such as liquid
limit, plasticity index, shrinkage limit, shrinkage index, free swell index (FSI),
activity and per cent free swell.

Chen observed that there was no conclusive evidence of the correlation between
swelling potential and shrinkage limit. Chen in 1988 classified the classified
expansive soils based on the plasticity index as under:

Table 2.1 Classification of Expansive Soil Based on Plasticity Index

Plasticity index (%) Degree of expansion

≤ 15 Low
 10 – 35 Medium

20 – 55 High

≥ 35 Very high

Holtz and Gibbs (1956) proposed the classification based on swell potentials of the
swelling soils. Seed et al (1962) criterion is based on the swell potential of remoulded
specimens that were compacted at their Standard Proctor MMD and OMC values and
inundated under 1 psi pressure.

Table 2.2 Classification of Expansive Soil Based on Percent Swell

Degree of expansion Holtz and Gibbs’ Seed et al classification of

classification of percent swell percent swell

Low 0-10 1-1.5

Medium 10-20 1.5-5

High 20-35 5-25

Very high >35 >25

Besides using the index properties, the swell potential of clay soils can b indirectly
estimated from differential free swell (DFS) test (IS 2720 Part 40-1977). In this
method, two oven-dried samples weighing 10g each and passing through 425µm sieve
are taken. One sample is put in a 100ml graduated glass cylinder containing kerosene
and other sample is put in a similar cylinder containing distilled water. Both samples
are stirred and left undisturbed for 24 hours and then volumes are noted. The DFS is
expressed as:

soil volume in water - soil volume in kerosene

DFS= ×100 %
soil volume in kerosene

Table 2.3 Classification of Expansive Soil Based on DFS

Degree of expansion DFS (%)

Low <20
Medium 20-35
 High 35-50
Very high >50

The black cotton soils of India are typical highly expansive soils which occupy about
16 per cent of the total area of the country. This area mostly falls in the Deccan
Plateau. The major cities falling in the black cotton soil areas are Ahmadabad,
Asansol, Baroda, Bezwada, Bhopal, Bhusawal, Bilaspur, Bina, Coimbatore, Gaya,
Guntakal, Hubli, Hyderabad, Indore, Jabalpur, Kurnool, Madurai, Nagpur, Nasik,
Poona, Raipur, Rajahmundry, Sholapur and Surat. The black cotton soils, also known
as regurs, have a predominance of montmorillonite clay mineral and are said to be
formed as a result of weathering of mostly Deccan trap or basalt. Their name is
derived from their black colour and great suitability for growing cotton. The black
colour is not due to the presence of organic matter which is negligible but may be due
to the presence of iron and titanium which exist in small quantity. Where they occur
as residual soils, the soil profile averages about 1m in thickness, but in transported
regions, it may be as much as 8m deep.

Typical ranges of the physical and chemical properties of these soils are as
follows:Fraction finer than 75µ: 70100%. Fraction finer than 2µ: 4050%. Plasticity
index: 2060. Shrinkage limit: 914%. Volumetric shrinkage on the basis of dry
volume: 200300%. Hygroscopic moisture: 1218%. Organic content: 0.42.4%. pH
value: 89. CaCO3: 515%, SiO2: 5055%, Fe2O3: 812%, SiO2/Al2O3: 35%.

Natural deposits of black cotton soils in the field are characterized by a

general pattern of cracks, especially during the dry season of the year when cracks
about 10cm wide and over 1m deep are not uncommon. In deep deposits, the cracks
may extend up to 3m or more. During rains, the soil first expands horizontally filling
up the vertical shrinkage cracks and thus utilizing about two thirds of the volumetric
expansion. The remaining volumetric expansion causes vertical heaving of the soil
which may cause damage to the overlying structure. Under buildings founded on
black cotton soil, this heaving is observed to be nonuniform, being more under the
central portion of the building than on the periphery. The differential heave is still
more injurious to the overlying structure than a uniform one. Due to the varying
nature of the soil and due to the variations in other influencing factors, such as the
method of test, initial state of compaction and water content and the size and
thickness of specimen, different workers have obtained a largely varying swelling
pressure of the black cotton soils, viz., from 7t/m 2 to 160t/m2, higher pressures are
recorded when the initial dry density is high and the initial water content is low. It is
likely that the field swelling pressure may be comparatively much lower than that of
the laboratory dried specimens, because the saturated soil does not go below certain
water content on desiccation insitu. Deb and Joshi recorded a field swelling pressure
of 11.5t/m2 for attest plate 63.5cm in diameter.

Lateral confinement of a laboratory specimen is another cause for raising the

swelling pressure. A laboratory model test indicated a swelling pressure of only
9.25t/m2 for a circular test plate of 6.35 cm diameter placed centrally over the
unsurcharged surface of a block of black cotton soil 45cm by 40cm by 25cm deep.
For the same soil, a laterally confined specimen exerted a pressure of 174t/m 2. Dinesh
Mohan obtained a correlation between the liquidity index IL and shear strength of
remoulded specimens of black cotton soils prepared by the Proctor compaction at the
plastic limit and then air dried to lower water contents. The relationship can be
expresses as

log10 ( τf )= −0.053−2.45IL .

where , τf = shear strength in kg/cm2

Since the water content of the specimen tested was lower than the plastic limit, the
liquidity index had to be substituted with a negative sign. At the plastic limit soil had
a very low strength. It is further observed that the sensitivity of black cotton soil is
nearly unity and there is no appreciable difference in strengths of undisturbed and
remolded specimens. The insitu untrained shear strength can be assumed as half of the
unconfined compressive strength with a fair degree of accuracy. Alternately, the field
vane test can be used. At a site the average value of shear strength was measured as
1.4kg/cm2. In the laboratory consolidation test of black cotton soils, a large amount of
sudden initial compression has been observed during the first 5 to 15 seconds. This
phenomenon may be attributed to the suppression of the double layer of particles for
pressure increments less than the swelling pressure of the soil

2.2 Literature review on Expansive soils treated with Synthetic fibre

 Stacy Ziegler, Dov Leshchinsky and Hoe I. Ling (1998) carried out research
to study whether the inclusion of discrete tensile elements, specifically
polypropylene fibres, could reduce the dessication cracking and increase the
tensile strength of clays. Tests were conducted at three different fibre content
levels of 0%, 0.1% and 0.3%. The specimens (diameter = 10cm, height = 11.6
cm) were formed by compacting soil-fibre mixture in a standard proctor mold to
95% of maximum dry density. Cracking/ volume change test and tension test
were performed. Based on the test result it was concluded that the fibres are
effective in reducing the amount of dessication cracking that occurs in clays
subjected to drying. The inclusion of fibres also increased the tensile strength of
the clay and provided a ductile behavior that was not present in the specimens
without fibres.

 Yi Cai, Bin Shi, Charles W.W. Ng, Chao-sheng Tang (2006) studied the
influence of the mixture of polypropylene fibre and lime on the engineering
properties of a clayey soil, nine groups of treated soil specimens were prepared
and tested at three different percentages of fibre content (i.e. 0.05%, 0.15%,
0.25% by weight of the parent soil) and three different percentages of lime (i.e.
2%, 5%, 8% by weight of the parent soil). These treated specimens were
subjected to unconfined compression, direct shear, and swelling and shrinkage
tests. It was found that fibre content, lime content and curing duration had
significant influence on the engineering properties of the fibre–lime treated soil.
An increase in lime content resulted in an initial increase followed by a slight
decrease in unconfined compressive strength, cohesion and angle of internal
friction of the clayey soil. On the other hand, an increase in lime content led to a
reduction of swelling and shrinkage potential. However, an increase in fibre
content caused an increase in strength and shrinkage potential but brought on
the reduction of swelling potential. An increase in curing duration improved the
unconfined compressive strength and shear strength parameters of the stabilized
soil significantly.
 Jesus Higuera Seda (2007) jesus shows that, the effect of adding small
particles of waste tire rubber on the swelling potential of an expansive soil was
evaluated. The index properties and compaction parameters of the rubber,
expansive soil, and expansive soil-rubber (ESR) mixture tested were
determined. The ESR mixture is more compressible than the untreated soil, both
the swell percent and the swelling pressure are significantly reduced by the
addition of rubber to the expansive soil. Atterberg limits and plasticity indices
of the soil and ESR mixture are very similar. The optimum water contents of the
soil and ESR mixture are the same. The addition of 20% rubber by weight to the
soil decreases the maximum dry unit weight of the ESR mixture due to the
lower specific gravity of the rubber material. ) The addition of 20% waste tire
rubber by weight to the soil increases the compressibility of the ESR mixture
but significantly reduces both its swell percent and swelling pressure.

 Chaosheng Tang, Bin Shi, Wei Gao, Fengjun Chen, Yi Cai (2007) carried
out an experimental programme to investigate the effects of discrete short
polypropylene fibre on the strength and mechanical behavior of uncemented and
cemented clayey soil. 12 groups of soil samples were prepared at three different
percentages of PP-fibre content (i.e. 0.05%, 0.15% and 0.25% by weight of soil)
and two different percentages of cement content (i.e. 5% and 8% by weight of
soil), and unconfined compression and direct shear tests were carried out after 7,
14 and 28 day curing periods. Their results indicated that the inclusion of fibre
reinforcement within uncemented and cemented soil caused an increase in the
unconfined compressive strength (UCS), shear strength and axial strain at
failure, decreased the stiffness and the loss of post-peak strength, and changed
the cemented soil’s brittle behaviour to a more ductile one.

 Mahmood R. Abdi, Ali Parsapajouh, Mohammad A. Arjomand (2008)

presented investigation that has focused on the impact of short random fibre
inclusion on consolidation settlement, swelling, hydraulic conductivity,
shrinkage limit and the development of desiccation cracks in compacted clays.
To examine the possible improvements in the soil characteristics, samples
consisting of 75% kaolinite and 25% montmorillonite were reinforced with 1, 2,
4 and 8 percent fibres as dry weight of soil with 5, 10 and 15mm lengths.
Results indicated that consolidation settlements and swelling of fibre reinforced
 samples reduced substantially whereas hydraulic conductivities increased
slightly by increasing fibre content and length. Shrinkage limits also showed an
increase with increasing fibre content and length. This meant that samples
experienced much less volumetric changes due to desiccation, and the extent of
crack formation was significantly reduced.

 S.A. Naeini and S. M. Sadjadi (2009) studied the effect of waste polymer
materials on shear strength of unsaturated clays In the investigation, the waste
polymer materials was chosen as the reinforcement material and it was
randomly included in to the clayey soils with different plasticity indexes at five
different percentages of fibre content (0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%) by weight of raw
soil. The main objective of the study was focused on the strength behavior of
the unsaturated clayey soils, reinforced with randomly included waste polymer
fibre. The reinforced soil samples were subjected to direct shear tests. The
results have clearly shown a significant improvement in the shear strength
parameters (c and φ) of the treated soils. The reinforcement benefit increased
with an increase in fibre contents.

 Santhi Krishna K. and Sayida M.K. (2009) conducted studies on the

behaviour of black cotton soil reinforced with sisal fibre. The fibres were cut to
different lengths (1.5cm, 2.0cm, 2.5cm and 3.0cm) and mixed randomly with
soil in varying percentages (0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75% and 1.00%) by dry weight of
soil and compacted to maximum dry density at optimum moisture content. The
results showed a reduction in the maximum dry density and the optimum
moisture content of soil due to the addition of sisal fibre. It also indicated an
improvement in the CBR value and unconfined compressive strength of soil due
to the addition of sisal fibre. The optimum CBR value and UCC value were
obtained for 2.5cm length of fibre with 0.50% fibre content.

 Stalin V.K., Ravi E. and Arun Murugan R.B. (2010) made an attempt to
control the expansion of swelling clays with geosynthetics. Swelling tests were
conducted on expansive clay with varying orientation and number of layers of
geogrid, geomembrane and geotextiles. Results revealed that two layers of
horizontally placed geomembrane controls swell potential much better than
geogrid and geotextile. Load carrying capacity of swollen clay with geogrid was
 high compared with clay with geotextile and geogrid. It was concluded that
even though control of swell potential of expansive clay with geomembrane was
effective, but however, considering swell control as well as enhancement of
load carrying capacity of expansive clay, geogrid and geocomposites were
preferable.

 Kalpana Vinesh Maheshwari, Atul K. Desai and Chandresh H. Solanki

(2011) performed laboratory model tests on square footings supported on highly
compressible clayey soil reinforced with randomly distributed polyester fibre
were conducted in order to compare the results with those obtained from
unreinforced soil and with each other. In this study amount of 12 mm polyester
fibres mixed with highly compressible clayey soil varied from 0 to 1 %. The
results of load settlement curve of different sizes of square footing reinforced
with various amount of fibres and for various depths of fibres were recorded.
The bearing capacity was also calculated in term of bearing capacity ratio. The
results of model footing tests were also checked by theoretical bearing capacity.
The results indicated that reinforcement of highly compressible clayey soil with
randomly distributed fibres caused an increase in the ultimate bearing capacity
and decrease in settlement at the ultimate load.

 R. Estabragh, A. T. Bordbar and A. A. Javadi (2011) presented the results of

an investigation into the effects of fibre on the consolidation and shear strength
behavior of a clay soil reinforced with nylon fibres. A series of one dimensional
consolidation and triaxial tests were conducted on samples of unreinforced and
reinforced clay with different percentages (10, 20 and 30%) of randomly
distributed nylon fibres. The results showed that the pre-consolidation pressure
decreases and the coefficient of swelling and compression generally increase
with increasing the fibre content. Furthermore, the addition of the fibre leads to
a significant increase in shear strength and friction angle of the natural soil.

 R. K. Sharma (2012) investigated on the behavior of expansive soil modified

with fly ash, and blend of soil, fly ash and Recron 3S fibre of 12mm length. The
properties like grain size distribution, moisture density relation and CBR were
studied for soil blended with fly ash in the range of 20-80%. The mixture of soil
with 30% fly ash was selected for further modification with fibre content in the
 range of 0.5-1.5%. The properties of moisture-density relation and CBR were
evaluated. The MDD value was found maximum for 0.5% fibre content in the
blend of soil with 30% fly ash. The maximum CBR value (both soaked and
unsoaked) was found to be for fibre content of 0.5% in the blend of soil with
30% fly ash.

 Rabindra Kumar Kar, Pradip Kumar Pradhan and Ashutosh Naik (2012)
presented investigation that has focused on the impact of short random fibre
inclusion on consolidation settlement in compacted clays. To examine the
possible improvements in the consolidation characteristics, local clayey soil was
reinforced with random distribution of polypropylene (synthetic) and coir
(natural) fibres as percentage (0-1% at an increment of 0.2%) of dry weight of
soil with 10, 15 and 20 mm lengths. Results indicated that the compression
index and coefficient of volume change decrease with inclusion of
polypropylene/coir fibres in the soil up to certain fibre content and increase
thereafter. The coefficient of consolidation increases with increase in fibre
content and fibre length in the range of fibres considered in the investigation.
Thus, the time required to achieve primary consolidation decreases for fibre-
reinforced soil for a given degree of consolidation and a given drainage path.

 Mona Malekzadeh and Huriye Bilsel (2012) presented an experimental study

evaluating the effect of polypropylene fibre on swell and compressibility of
expansive soils. The initial phase of the experimental program included the
study of the effect of polypropylene fibre on maximum dry density (MDD) and
optimum moisture content (OMC) with different fibre inclusions. Static and
dynamic compaction tests were conducted on an expansive soil sample with
different percentages of 0%, 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1% polypropylene fibre
additions (by dry weight of the soil). The second phase of the experimental
program focused on the compressibility and hydraulic characteristics of the
soils. The unreinforced and reinforced specimens were prepared statically and
the swell and compressibility behavior of the samples were analyzed. Finally it
was concluded that mitigation of expansive soils using polypropylene fibre
might be an effective method in reducing the swell potential and compressibility
of subsoils on which roads and light buildings are constructed.
 Omid Azadegan, E. Akbari Kaffash, M.J. Yaghoubi and G.R Pourebrahim
(2012) performed a study in order to figure out the effects of palm fibres
application in randomly distributed reinforcement of clayey soils. Uniaxial
swelling values of reinforced and unreinforced cylindrical samples were
measured and cracking attributes of each sample type were studied carefully.
Unconfined compressive tests were performed on cracked samples to find out
the effect of reinforcement after shrinkage cracking. In order to clarify the
effects of including fibres on shear strength, direct shear tests were carried out
on regenerated samples. The results show that this kind of randomly distributed
reinforcement would significantly affect and alter the characteristics of the
reinforced soil, but not always by improving them.

 Abd El Megeed Kabasy Mohamed (2013) added the hay of wheat to a type of
clayey swelling soil to improve and stabilize its characteristics. The hay ratio
used in the study was 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% by weight of the clayey soil. The soil
used in the study represented a type of swelling clayey soil. Index, strength and
swelling properties tests were carried out on the clay–hay mixture. The results
showed that the shear strength increases with the increase of hay ratio till
approximately 1% hay addition. The indirect tensile strength for air dried
samples increased as well. The deformation due to the swelling potential also
decreased to about 20%.

 Treasa Maliakal and Sudheesh Thiyyakkandi (2013) discussed shear

strength of clay reinforced with randomly distributed coir fibres based on a
series of consolidated undrained triaxial compression tests. Test results showed
that major principal stress at failure for clay-coir fibre matrix increases with
increase in fibre content and fibre aspect ratio. For all the combinations of fibre
contents and aspect ratios, failure principal stress envelope exhibits a curvilinear
variation with a transition at a confining stress, known as critical confining
stress. Separate regression analyses was performed for observations below and
above critical confining stress to develop mathematical models, which consider
fibre content, aspect ratio, confining stress and plain soil characteristics as the
input parameter, to predict major principal stress at failure for the clay-fibre
composite. In general, the study identifies that the inclusion of discrete coir
fibres in random fashion significantly improves the shear strength of clay and
 hence could be effectively used for the cases where in-place mixing of soil with
fibres is possible (e.g., pavement sub-grade, landfill liner, small embankment).

 A.R. Estabragh, A. T. Bordbar and A. A. Javadi (2013) presented the results

of an experimental investigation into the effects of discrete palm fibres on the
consolidation and shear behavior of a randomly reinforced clay soil. Three
groups of reinforced soil samples were prepared at three different fibre contents
(10, 20 and 30 %). Consolidation and triaxial tests were carried out on the
samples. The results indicated that the inclusion of the fibre reinforcement
within the soil causes decrease in preconsolidation pressure and increase in
compressibility and swelling indices. In addition, the strength and friction angle
increased considerably in terms of total and effective stresses.

 M. Mirzababaei, M. Miraftab, M. Mohamed and P. McMahon (2013)

investigated into utilisation of carpet waste fibres in order to improve the
swelling characteristics of compacted cohesive soils. Two different clay soils
with markedly different plasticity indices (i.e. 17.0 and 31.5 %) were treated
with two different types of carpet waste fibre. Waste fibres were added to
prepare specimens with fibre content of 1, 3 and 5 % by dry weight of soil. Soil
specimens with different dry unit weights and moisture contents were prepared
so that swelling behaviour of fibre reinforced compacted clays was completely
attained under various scenarios. The results indicated that the behaviour of the
fibre reinforced soils seems highly dependent on the initial compaction state and
secondary on the moisture content. It was found that the swelling pressure drops
rapidly as the percentage of fibre increases in samples prepared at the maximum
dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. Reducing the dry unit weight,
while maintaining constant moisture content or increasing the moisture content
at constant dry unit weight was found to reduce the swelling pressure.

 Jili Qu, Chencai Li, Baoshi Liu, Xinxing Chen, Ming Li and Zhaowei Yao
(2013) studied the effect of random inclusion of wheat straw (fibres) on shear
strength characteristics of Shanghai cohesive soil. 1 year old natural wheat
straw (fibres) with four section lengths of 5, 10, 15, 20 mm (aspect ratio: l/d =
1.67, 3.33, 5, 6.67) are used as reinforcement and specific Shanghai cohesive
soil is used as medium. Locally available cohesive soil was compacted with
 standard Proctor’s maximum density with low percentage of reinforcement
(0.1–0.4 % of wheat straw sections by weight of oven-dried soil). A series of
direct shear tests were conducted on unreinforced as well as reinforced soil to
investigate the shear strength characteristics of wheat straw-reinforced soil. The
test results showed that the inclusion of randomly distributed wheat straw
sections (fibres) in soil increases the shear strength to one degree or another. It
was noticed that the optimum wheat straw (fibre) content for achieving
maximum shear strength is 0.3% of the weight of oven-dried soil for wheat
straw fibre length 15–20 mm (aspect ratio: 5-6.67).

 Manjunath K. R, Venugopal G and Rudresh A. N (2013) evaluated the effect

of sisal fibre on the strength and compaction characteristics of lime treated
black cotton soil. For a given fibre percentage contents in the compaction tests,
the maximum dry density of stabilized soil increased and optimum moisture
content decreased. Addition of various percentages of lime to black cotton soil
gives increased value in the unconfined compressive strength up to 3% and
addition of lime with sisal fibre also gave increase in compressive strength up to
0.75% sisal fibre. Hence 3% of lime content and 0.75% of sisal fibre is
considered as optimum percentages for black cotton soil.

 Parag M. Chaple and A I. Dhatrak (2013) worked on effect of coir on bearing

capacity and settlement of footing with parameters such as thickness of
reinforced layer (B, B/2, B/4) with 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% & 1.0% of coir using
the laboratory model tests on square footings supported on highly compressible
clayey soil reinforced with randomly distributed coir fibre. Provision of coir
reinforced layer increased bearing capacity ratio up to 1.5 to 2.66. There was
significant increase in bearing capacity of clayey soil with the inclusion coir
fibres. In general, the results shows that the provision of coir reinforced layer,
reduces the settlement and improves the bearing capacity, which found to be
economical techniques among various types of bearing capacity improvement
technique.

 Lei Gao,Qiuyue Zhou,Xiangjun Yu (2015) Effects and mechanism of carbon

fibre reinforced soil in which carbon fibre is mixed into soil and water was
added in soil to achieve the optimum soil water content. Unconfine compression
 test were performed on soil sample and results showed that the addition of
carbon fibre to the soil improve the UCS, plasticity and brittle failure of soil.
The strength increases in starting then decreases with further increases in fibre
content.

 Arif Ali Baig Moghal and Bhaskar C.S. Chittoori ( 2017) Two type of
synthetic fibres, fibre cast and fibre mesh, were studied by conduction one-
dimensional fixed ring oedometer swell-consolidation and bar linear shrinkage
tests. Three dosages and two lengths of fibres were evaluated with or without
lime treatment. The results indicated that fibre cast fibres had batter swell
restricting performance in the absence of lime treatment, while in the presence
of lime both the fibres had similar performance in reducing swelling. Shrinkage
tests results showed that irrespective of dosages levels, both the fibres had
pronounced effect in reducing the liner shrinkage strain up on lime treatment.
The Cc values increases with increase in fibre length. The C r values either stayed
the same or reduced with increasing fibre content depending on the absence or
presence of lime. Similar behaviour was observed in C r values with increases in
fibre length. Longer fibres performed better compared to shorter fibres due to
greater mobilisation of friction levels.

 Rajesh Prasad Shukla (2018) Effect of various proportions of randomly

oriented polyester fibre on the shear strength of expansive soil. The unconfined
compressive strength of reinforced soil was determined by incorporative four
fibre contacts with varying aspect ratios. In almost all the cases, maximum
enhancement in the strength of the soil was achieved with fibre with an aspect
ratio of 40. Peak strength of untreated soil is found at strain level of 6-8%,
whereas it increases to 10-12% in reinforced soil. The rate of the increases in
the soil strength is relatively large with an aspect ratio of 40 as compared to
aspect ratio of 20 or 60. For a fibre content of 0.75% the unconfined
compressive strength increased by approximately 1.5, 2 and 1.7 times the
strength of the unreinforced soil for fibre of aspect ratio 20, 40 and 60
respectively. The strain level is also increased with an increase in fibre content.
For a fibre content 0.75% the strain failure increased by 1.5 times compared to
that of unreinforced soil.
2.3 Literature review on Expansive soils treated with Natural fibre

 Ayyar et al. (1989) and Viswanadham (1989) have reported about the efficacy
of randomly distributed coir fibres in reducing the swelling tendency of the soil.

 Ghavami et al. (1999) found that inclusion of 4% sisal, or coconut fibre,

imparted considerable ductility and slightly increased the compressive strength.
It was also found that introduction of bitumen emulsion did not improve the
bonding between the soil and fibres; but did significantly improve soil
durability.

 Prabakar and Siridhar (2002) used 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1% of sisal
fibres by weight of raw soil with four different lengths of 10, 15, 20 and 25 mm
to reinforce a local problematic soil. They concluded that sisal fibres reduce the
dry density of the soil. The increase in the fibre length and fibre content also
reduces the dry density of the soil. As well it was found that the shear stress is
increased non-linearly with increase in length of fibre up to 20 mm and beyond,
where an increase in length reduces the shear stress. The percentage of fibre
content also improves the shear strength. But beyond 0.75% fibre content, the
shear stress reduces with increase in fibre content.fibres restrain swelling of
expansive soil was explained with the help of soil–fibre interaction

 Ravishankar and Raghavan (2004) confirmed that for coir-stabilized lateritic

soils, the maximum dry density (MDD) of the soil decreases with addition of
coir and the value of optimum moisture content (OMC) of the soil increases
with an increase in percentage of coir. The compressive strength of the
composite soil increases up to 1% of coir content and further increase in coir
quantity results in the reduction of the values. The percentage of water
absorption increases with an increase in the percentage of coir. Tensile strength
of coir-reinforced soil (oven dry samples) increases with an increase in the
percentage of coir.

 .B.V.S. Viswanadham, B.R. Phanikumar and Rahul V. Mukherjee (2009)

reported the results of laboratory study performed on expansive soil reinforced
with geofibres and demonstrated that discrete and randomly distributed
geofibres are useful in restraining the swelling tendency of expansive soils.
 Swelling characteristics of remoulded expansive soil specimens reinforced with
varying fibre content (f = 0.25% and 0.50%) and aspect ratio (l/b = 15, 30 and
45) were studied. One dimensional swell-consolidation tests were conducted on
oedometer specimens. Reduction in heave and swelling pressure was the
maximum at low aspect ratios at both the fibre contents of 0.25% and 0.50%.
Finally, the mechanism by which discrete and randomly distributed

 Priya V.K. and Girish M. S. (2010) investigated the effect of inclusion of sisal
fibres on the compaction characteristics and unconfined compressive strength of
expansive soil treated with lime and to determine the plasticity characteristics of
soil treated with lime. The soil samples were prepared at four different
percentages of sisal fibre of length 25mm (0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1% by
weight of soil) and 5% percentage lime content, and unconfined compression
tests were carried out after 1, 3, 7, 14 and 28 day curing periods. The test results
show that dry density of sisal fibre reinforced lime treated soil lower than that of
unreinforced soil. But the optimum moisture content is higher than that of
unreinforced soil. The inclusion of fibre reinforcement within untreated and
lime treated soil caused an increase in unconfined compressive strength and
changed the brittle behaviour of lime treated soils to more ductile one. The
liquid limit values of expansive soil decreased with an increasing amount of
lime content and curing time. Plasticity index also decreases with addition of
lime.

 Aggarwal and Sharma (2010) used different lengths (5–20 mm) of jute fibres
in different percentages (0.2–1.0%) to reinforce soil. Bitumen was used for
coating fibres to protect them from microbial attack and degradation. They
concluded that jute fibre reduces the MDD while increases the OMC. Maximum
CBR value is observed with 10 mm long and 0.8% jute fibre, an increase of
more than 2.5 times of the plain soil CBR value.
 Panpan Guo (2017) Jute is mainly eco-friendly fibre that is used for producing
porous textiles which are widely used for filtration, drainage and soil
stabilization. The study presents discussion related the fibre content, fibre
length, fibre orientation, water content, and dry density. The direct shear
strength, cohesion and strength ratio increases with increasing fibre content until
 reaching a fibre content of 0.6% after which further increases in fibre content
tends to reduce fibre reinforcing effects due to replacement of soil particles by
too many fibres.

 G.V. Rama Subba Rao (2018) Coir fibre can be effectively used as reinforcing
material but it has less durability and hence coir fibre coated with kerosene is
used as reinforcement. Water absorption test were conducted on uncoated and
kerosene coated coir fibres. It concludes water absorption capacity of kerosene
coated coir fibre reduced by 32% as that of uncoated coir and the addition of
kerosene coated coir fibre decreased MDD and increased OMC. UCC strength
of kerosene coated coir fibre reinforced soil increases to about 2.5 times in
comparison to that of unreinforced soil UCC strength value.

 Lite Chi Dang and Hadi Khabbaz (2018) Bagasse fibre was employed in
this investigation as reinforcing components for expansive soil reinforcement.
The test results indicated that bagasse fibre reinforcement not only
significantly improved the compressive strength, the initial deformation
modulus and the shear strength of reinforced soil, but it also considerably
transformed the reinforced soil behaviour from strain softening to strain
hardening by curtailing the post-peak shear strength loss.
TREATMENT OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

3.1 General

As igneous rock (primarily volcanic ash) breaks down through chemical weathering,
it creates the clays. Weathering breaks the parent rock apart and allows the atoms to
re-crystallize. These form Silicon Tetrahedron Sheets and Aluminum Octahedral
Sheets.

Figure 3.1

The basic reason why clay minerals are expansive starts first with their inherent
negative charges. It follows that when more substitutions are present, clay will have a
higher potential to be problematic, since more moisture will be required, in addition to
balance charges in the clay soil.

Kaolinites are formed in well drained soils, with an abundance of Oxygen, Silicon and
Aluminum. Since the constituents are "pure", these form very regular shapes which
bind together in regular structures. The layers are tightly bonded together by a weakly
O-H-O bonding between the octahedral OH- ions of one crystal and tetrahedral
oxygen O2- of the other crystal above or below in which OH - ion of one sheet lies next
to and in close contact with the O2- layer of the neighbour sheet.
 Figure 3.2

Montmorillonites are formed in poorly draining soils so that a wide variety of atomic
species are available for recrystalization. When the aluminum octahedrals are trying
to form, sometimes "isomorphic substitution" occurs in which a magnesium atom
substitutes for an aluminum atom. This creates irregular shapes and unbalanced
charges with weak "van der Waals" forces between them. The substitution of Al 3+ by
Mg2+ in octahedral sheet in montmorillonite creates net negative charges on the clay
structure that cause the interlayer space to shrink or expand with change in humidity
or moisture content in contact.

Figure 3.3
Illites consist of one octahedral sheet of either Fe3+ and/or Mg2+ ions and two
tetrahedral sheets in which Al3+ occurs as a substituted ion in place of some of the
Si4+.Furthermore, illites contain unhydrated interlayer cation K+ (i.e. they are
potassium rich) between layers, and therefore have strong ionic bonding (Grunwald,
2006). The presence of Na+, K+, Mg2+ or Ca2+ cations in the interlayer prevents the
entrance of water into the structure.

3.2 Theory of Swelling

For swelling to occur, soils must be initially unsaturated at some water content. If the
unsaturated soil gains water content, it swells. On the other hand, if a decrease in
water content occurs the soil shrinks. The key aspect of expansive soils behaviour is
soil vulnerability of water induced volume change. When soils with a high expansive
potential are present they will usually not cause a problem as long as their water
content remains relatively constant. This is largely controlled by

 Soil properties, e.g. mineralogy

 Suction and water conditions

 Water content variations both temporally and spatially

 Geometry and stiffness of a structure, on particular its foundation

In a partially saturated soil changes in water content, or suction (increasing strength of
the soil due to negative pore water pressures), increase the chances of damage
occurring significantly. Changes in soil suction occur due to water movement through
the soil due to evaporation, transpiration or recharge, which are often significantly
influenced by interaction with trees through response to dried/wet periods of weather
(Biddle 2001). In a fully saturated soil the shrink– swell behaviour is controlled by the
clay mineralogy.

3.2.1 Soil properties

When potentially expansive soils become saturated, more water molecules are
absorbed between the clay sheets, causing the bulk volume of the soil to increase, or
swell. This same process weakens the inter-clay bonds and causes a reduction in the
strength of the soil. When water is removed, by evaporation or gravitational forces,
the water between the clay sheets is released, causing the overall volume of the soil to
decrease, or shrink. As this occur features such as voids or desiccation cracks can
develop.

3.2.2 Suction and water conditions

Subsequent swelling requires an effective stress decrease, and a movement of fluid

into a geological formation or soil. The magnitude of strains associated with these
processes depends on the drained stiffness, the extent of the stress change, the water
pressures which are set up the soil or rock, and the new boundary conditions. The rate
of volume change depends on the compressibility, expansibility and hydraulic
conductivity of the sediment and surrounding materials. In stiff homogeneous
materials with a low hydraulic conductivity several decades may be necessary to
complete the process.

3.2.3 Water content variations

The seasonal volumetric behaviour of a desiccated soil is complex and this increases
with severity of the shrinkage phenomena. The seasonal volumetric behaviour of a
desiccated soil is complex and this increases with severity of the shrinkage
phenomena. During the rainy season, the expansive clay minerals attract a great
amount of water, mainly through shrinkage cracks, resulting into massive change in
volume. Swelling, or shrinkage or both may cause damages to structures supported on
expansive soil. Generally, both swelling and shrinkage are very complicated and
inextricably interrelated.

3.2.4 Geometry and stiffness of a structure

Different structures react differently as the soils dry and shrink back to their original
positions. Soil drying and shrinkage aside, the structures will not return to their
original position depending upon the size, shape and type of substructure, building
material properties (hardness, ductility and strength), building history and age of the
building/foundation. The worst hit structures are those void of counteracting pressures
and flexibility, thus numerous masonry houses especially lightweight structures on
these expansive soils, have met with damages originating from differential heave.

3.3 Consequences of Swelling

Many towns, cities, transport routes, services and buildings are founded on expansive
soils. These may be solid (bedrock) geological strata in a weathered or un-weathered
condition, or superficial (drift) geological strata such as glacial or alluvial material,
also in a weathered or un-weathered condition. These materials constitute a significant
hazard to engineering construction in terms of their ability to swell or shrink, usually
caused by seasonal changes in moisture content. Superimposed on these widespread
climatic influences are local ones such as tree roots and leakage from water supply
pipes and drains. The swelling of shrinkable clay soils after trees have been removed
can produce either very large uplifts or very large pressures (if confined), and the
grounds recovery can continue over a period of many years. It is the differential,
rather than the total, movement of the foundation, or superstructure, that causes major
structural damage. The structures most affected by expansive soils include the
foundations and walls of residential and other low-rise buildings, pipelines, pylons,
pavements and shallow services. Frequently, these structures only receive a cursory
site investigation, if any. It is usually not until sometime after construction, that
problems may come to light. Damage can occur within a few months of construction,
develop slowly over a period of 3-5 years, or remain hidden until something happens
that changes the water content of the soil.
3.4 Swell Pressure and Swell Potential

The swell pressure of a soil is the external pressure that needs to be placed over a
swelling soil to prevent volume increase, while the swell potential of an expansive
soil is the magnitude of heave of a soil for a given final moisture content and loading
condition. These expansive soil parameters can be directly estimated in the laboratory
from special oedometer tests or indirectly from the index properties of the soils and
the differential free swell test. However, swell potentials based on index properties are
in far excess of the oedometer swell potentials. The soil properties, external pressure,
and wetting–drying process affect the swell potential and swell pressure of expansive
soils.

3.4.1 Measurement of Swelling Potential

The tendency of expansive soils to increase their volume when they come in contact
with water is quantified by the swell potential and swell pressure parameters. These
parameters in turn can be directly quantified in the laboratory by three different
oedometer tests.

In first method, the seating pressure (at least 1 kPa) is applied to the clay specimen.
After the initial deformations at the seating pressure are complete, the specimen is
inundated with water in the oedometer cell and is allowed to swell vertically. The
specimen is stepwise loaded after primary swell is complete using a load increment
ratio of unity. The loading process is continued till the swollen specimen regains its
initial void ratio/height. The external pressure needed to regain the initial void ratio e 0,
defines the swell pressure of the specimen. The swell potential at the seating pressure
relative to the initial void ratio e0 is given as:

Where ese is void ratio after stabilized swell at seating pressure and e 0 is the initial
void ratio of the soil specimen at the seating pressure. This test method measures (a)
the percent heave of the specimen at the seating pressure and (b) the swell pressure of
the specimen.
In second method, a vertical pressure exceeding the seating pressure is applied to the
specimen. The magnitude of vertical pressure (σv0) is usually equivalent to the in situ
overburden pressure, or structural loading or both. After the axial deformations under
the vertical pressure σv0 are complete, the specimen is inundated with water and axial
swelling deformations of the specimen are recorded until primary swell is complete.
After completion of primary swell, the specimen is stepwise loaded till the pre-
wetting void ratio (ev0) corresponding to the vertical pressure σv0 is attained. The
pressure needed to regain the void ratio ev0 defines the swell pressure of the specimen.
This test method measures (a) the percent heave for vertical pressure usually
equivalent to the estimated in situ vertical overburden pressure and other vertical
pressures up to the swell pressure and (b) the swell pressure of the specimen. The
swell potential at the vertical pressure σv0, relative to ev0 is given as:

Where ese is the void ratio after stabilized swell at the vertical pressure σ v0 and ev0 is
the initial (pre-swollen) void ratio at the vertical pressure σv0.

In third method, a vertical pressure (σ1) equivalent to the estimated vertical in situ
pressure or swell pressure is applied to the specimen. After completion of axial
deformations under the vertical pressure σ 1, the specimen is inundated with water.
Increments of vertical stress are applied to the wetted specimen to prevent any swell.
The vertical pressure at which the wetted specimen shows no further tendency to
swell defines the swell pressure of the specimen. The specimen is stepwise loaded
following no further tendency to swell.

3.4.2 Factors affecting Swell Pressure and Swell potential

The swell potential and swell pressure are dependant on several factors namely the
type and amount of clay minerals present, the initial dry density (void ratio) and water
content of the soil specimen, the nature of pore fluid, the type of exchangeable
cations, the overburden pressure, and the wetting and drying. The swell potential and
swell pressure is known to increase with increase in clay content and dry density and
decrease with increase in initial water content, overburden pressure, pore salt
concentration, and exchangeable cation valence. It has hence been suggested that clay
soils could be compacted at water contents in excess of their OMC values to control
their swell potentials. Clay soils in arid and semi-arid regions are subjected to cycles
of wetting and drying in the field due to climatic variations. The cyclic wetting and
drying overrides the influence of initial water content and void ratio on the swell
potentials of expansive clays.

3.5 Stabilization of Expansive Soils

Improvement of certain desired properties like bearing capacity, shear strength (c and
φ) and permeability characteristics of soil can be undertaken by a variety of ground
improvement techniques. Stabilization is the process of blending and mixing materials
with a soil to improve certain properties of the soil.

Chemical stabilization by cement or lime is a proven technique for improving

the performance (strength and stabilization) of soil. When lime is added to soils, it
reacts with soil particles, which leads to the improvement in many engineering
properties of soils. Al Rawas et al. (2005) carried out tests on the expansive soils and
found that both swell percentage and swell pressure reduced to zero with a given
amount of lime admixed to expansive soils. While the use of lime improves the above
engineering properties, it brings unfavorable changes of other properties.

In recent years, discrete fibres have been added and mixed into soils to
improve the strength behavior of soils (Prabakar and Sridhar, 2002). There were
notable increases in shear strength, toughness and plasticity of a cohesive soil after
reinforcement with discrete polypropylene fibre. The results of Cai et al. (2005)
indicated that fibre reinforced soils took on the strain-hardening ductile failure
characteristics. In comparison with conventional geosynthetics (strips, geotextile,
geogrid, etc.), there are some advantages in using randomly distributed fiber as
reinforcement. First, the discrete fibers are simply added and mixed randomly with
soil, in much the same way as cement, lime, or other additives. Second, randomly
distributed fibers limit potential planes of weakness that can develop parallel to
oriented reinforcement. Therefore, it has become a focus of interest in recent years.
3.6 Foundations on Expansive Soils

The problem of heave or uplift of foundations caused by expansive soils is one of

tension developed in the soil due to swelling. Hence, tension-resistant foundations are
required for counteracting the heave problem. Various special foundation techniques,
which are going to be explained, are all tension-resistant foundations. However, some
of them counteract swelling through skin friction also. Some of the special foundation
techniques employed to counteract heave in expansive soils are explained in the
following section.

Drilled piers: Drilled piers are piers of small diameter but of considerable length,
which are drilled into expansive soils up to the zone unaffected by moisture change
(Chen, 1988), or beyond active zone. Both the end-bearing resistance, E (psf), and
skin friction resistance increase with depth at the rate of about 10% per meter, or 3%
per foot. Therefore, the load-carrying capacity, Q (kips) of a pier is given (Chen,
1988) as:

Q = [A (E = 0.03 EL) + 0.1 (E + 0.03 EL) CL]

where,

A = Area of cross-section of the pier (sq. ft),

L =Depth of penetration into the bearing stratum (ft),

C = Perimeter of the pier (ft).

The uplift force, U (lb) is given by:

U = 2πrfu (D - d)

where,

r =radius of the pier (ft),

d = depth of the zone of soil unaffected by wetting (ft),

D = total length of the pier (ft),

u = Swelling pressure (psf),

f =coefficient of uplift between concrete and soil

The resisting force comprises of the dead load of the pier and the skin friction and is
given by:

where,

P = unit dead-load pressure (psf),

s = skin friction surrounding the pier (psf),

W = total withholding force (lb),

d = depth of the zone of soil unaffected by wetting (ft),

r = radius of the pier (ft).

A rational pier formula is obtained by equating the uplift force and the resisting force.

2πrfu (D – d) = (πr2p+2πrsd)

or p = 2/r [fu(D-d)-sd]

Friction piers: Where the bedrock is very deep and the upper layers of the soil are
expansive, friction piers can be used (Chen, 1988). In these piers, resistance to uplift
is basically by shaft friction. If the stratum is homogeneous clay, the ultimate shaft
resistance (S) is given by:

S = ∞r2Su

where,

r = radius of the pier,

Su = undrained shear strength,

∞ = a reduction factor, obtained from field load tests.

The disadvantage is that soft soil should not be encountered within the length of the
pier.
Belled piers: Belled piers (Chen, 1988) are piers with enlarged base adopted to
increase the carrying capacity (Figure 34.7). The uplift force, U, exerted on the belled
pier is given by:

U = (P + Fw + Fs)

Where

P = total vertical pressure on the pier,

FW = total weight of the soil above the bell,

FS = total shearing resistance along the assumed circular failure surface.

Under-reamed piles: These piles, developed by Central Building Research Institute

(CBRI), Roorkee, are an extension of belled-pier technique and are most efficacious
in isolating the structure from the foundation soil. Under-reamed piles are bored cast
in situ piles with enlarged bases and connected at their top by plinth beams. In the
case of multi under-reamed piles, frictional resistance is mobilized over a larger
perimeter and reduces heave.

The principle involved is to transfer the load of a building through the piles to a depth
beyond the zone of seasonal variation in moisture content. This depth is about 3.65 m
for black cotton soils in Central India. For other expansive soil deposits, the pile is
taken down to at least 0.6 m into the non-expansive layer underlying the swelling soil.
The under-reamed piles are bored cast in situ piles with their lower portions enlarged
or reamed in the form of a bulb. Since swelling soils are stiff and does not hold free
water, it is quite easy to drill holes in the material to cast the piles. The spacing of the
piles may range from 1.5 m to 3.0 m. the piles are connected at their top by plinth
beams of reinforced concrete which support the superstructure. The plinth beams are
kept clear of the ground surface by about 8 cm and a granular material like sand is
provided in between to permit the swelling of the soil from below without straining
the plinth beams. A pile is provided under every wall junction in the plan of the
building so that no point load is allowed to bear on the plinth beam. Auger boring and
an under- reaming tool have been developed by the CBRI, for making the hole before
the concrete is cast. The concrete with which the hole is filled is reinforced
throughout its length to take care of the tensile stresses that are set up on an account
of the uplift forces due to swelling. During hot seasons, the soil shrinks and the pile
act as a column. The steel reinforcement should be sufficient to take care of this
situation also. The maximum net tension developed in the pile due to uplift forces will
determine the requirement of reinforcement.

The diameter of the pile shaft (D) may vary from 200 to 500 mm and the ratio of the
diameter of the enlarged base or bulb to that of the shaft (D u/D) may vary from 2 to 3.
In the case of multi-under-reamed piles, i.e., having more than one bulb, the topmost
bulb should be at a minimum depth of twice the bulb diameter. The centre to centre
distance between the two bulbs may vary from 1.25 Du to 1.5 Du. The ultimate bearing
capacity of under-reamed piles can be calculated from soil properties (IS:2911 (Part

III)- 1980). The soil parameters required are c, ϕ and γ. If they are not determined
from laboratory tests, they may be obtained indirectly from in situ penetration test
data. A factor of safety of 2.5 to 3 is used for calculating the safe load.
For clay soils, the ultimate load carrying capacity of an under-reamed pile may be
worked out from the following expression:
Qu = ApNccp + AaNcca' + ca'As' + αcaAs

where

Qu(kN) = ultimate bearing capacity of pile

Ap(m2) = cross-sectional area of pile stem at toe level = D2

Nc = bearing capacity factor, usually taken as 9

cp(kN/m2) = cohesion of the soil around toe

Aa(m2) = (Du2-D2), where Du and D are the bulb and stem diameter, respectively

ca'(kN/m2) = average cohesion of soil around the under-reamed bulbs

α = reduction factor (usually taken as 0.5 for clays)

ca(kN/m2) = average cohesion of soil along the pile stem

As(m2) = surface area of the stem

As' (m2) = surface area of the cylinder circumscribing under-reamed bulbs.

The above expression holds for the usual spacing of under-reamed bulbs placed at not
more than one- and-a half times their diameter. The following points may be noted:

(i) The first two terms on the RHS are for bearing and the last two refer to
friction resistance

(ii) If the pile has only one bulb, the third term will not figure.

If the uplift load capacity alone is to be estimated, equation is used without the term
ApNccp.

On the basis of a large amount of experimental data, CBRI has suggested bearing
capacity values for typical dimensions of under-reamed piles.

While some of the aforesaid techniques are efficacious, they suffer from serious
limitations. Moreover, the installation of some of these foundations is not foolproof.
The solution may not be often economical, particularly for lightly loaded structures as
the cost of the foundation may be very high.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS

4.1 Materials used

4.1.1 Black Cotton Soil

Soil has been collected from Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh. The soil is classified as
highly compressible clay, CH, as per IS: 1498 (1970). The grain size distribution and
the physical properties of soil are reported in Table 4.1.

4.1.2 fibres

nylon fibres have been used. The fibres were cut into pieces of 6 mm and 12 mm
lengths and were mixed in varying percentages (0%, 0.05%, 0.10%, 0.15%, 0.20%,
and 0.25%) by the dry weight of soil. Fibre used in present study was Nylon fibre and
obtained from Vruksha composites (Vijayawada), in two variable lengths 6mm and
12mm.. The properties of these fibres have been reported in Table 4.2.

DETERMINATION OF INDEX PROPERTIES

Specific Gravity

Weight of empty bottle was W1. About 10 to 20 gm of oven dried soil sample was
taken. The weight of the bottle and oven dried soil was W 2. Now the bottle was filled
completely with distilled water and weighted W3 and the bottle was kept under
constant temperature. Now the bottle was refilled with only distilled water and it was
weighed. It was noted as W4. The same process was repeated for 2 to 3 times, to take
the average reading. Obtained specific gravity value= 2.70

Plastic Limit

The plastic limit is defined as the water content at which soil crumble into the 3 mm
threads. The plastic limit is the lower water content of plastic stage. It was determined
by continuous rolling of soil mass by hand on a ground glass plat.

Free Swell Test

Free swell test was performed by allowing expansive soil to expand freely in distilled
water and kerosene for 24 hours in measuring cylinder and then finally expanded
volume was noted by measuring cylinder. Then free swell index was calculated by
this formula:

Free swell index (FSI) = ((Vd-Vk)/(Vk))*100

Where,
Vd = equilibrium sediment volume of 10gm of oven dried sample passed through
425microns and placed in distilled water to expand up to its capacity.

Vk= equilibrium sediment volume of 10 gm of oven dried sample passed through

425microns and placed in kerosene which would not expand at all.

4.2 Standard Proctor test

Standard Proctor tests have been conducted to determine optimum moisture content
and maximum dry density of parent soil and for soil reinforced with varying
percentages (0.05%, 0.10%, 0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25%) of nylon fibres. It has been
performed as per the code IS 2720: PART VII: 1980. This test is used to determine the
maximum dry density of the soil. In this method first empty mould was weighed then thin
layer of oil was applied to the mould so that the soil sample was not stick to the mould. Then
3 kg of the soil was taken and water was added to the soil, then the soil was mixed
thoroughly. Soil was kept under covered 20 to 30 seconds to allow the soil for full maturation.
Then soil was filled in 3 layers with compaction of each layer by 25 number of blows. Then
the total weight of the soil and mould was noted. This procedure was repeated with varying
the water content and density of soil was determined in each case and then graph was drawn
between dry density and water content and then MDD of the soil was determined. The above
procedure was repeated for different proportions of nylon fibre and change in maximum dry
density and optimum water content was observed with the increase in nylon fibre.

The mixed sample was placed in moulds of capacity 1000cc in three layers. Each
layer was given 25 blows with a 2.6kg rammer with free fall height of 310mm. After
three successive layers’ collar was removed and access soil was trimmed off. The
weight of moulds with soil was a decrease in (m 2) value. For each trail a portion of
soil for moisture content determination.

Calculation:

Bulk density, ɣb = W / V

Dry density ɣd = ɣb / 1+W

Where (W) is moisture content present in soil.

Table for MDD and OMC for different fibre content.

 Table 4.4 Standard Proctor Test results for 6mm fibre lengths

S. No. OMC and MDD table

1 fibre length and % OMC MDD

2 0.05% 6mm fibre 26.57 1.480

3 0.10% 6mm fibre 30.72 1.418

4 0.15% 6mm fibre 28.42 1.46

5 0.20% 6mm fibre 28.57 1.434

6 0.25% 6mm fibre 28.45 1.414

1.48
1.46
1.44
BC soil +0.05% Nylon fibre (6
1.42 mm)
1.4
BC soil +0.10% Nylon fibre (6
1.38
MDD

mm)
1.36 BC soil +0.15% Nylon fibre (6
1.34 mm)
1.32 BC soil +0.20% Nylon fibre (6
1.3 mm)
1.28 BC soil +0.25% Nylon fibre (6
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 mm)
OMC

Figure 4.4 combined proctor test results for 6 mm fibre

Table 4.5Standard Proctor Test results for 12mm fibre lengths

S.No. OMC and MDD table

1. fibre length and % OMC MDD

2. 0.05% 12mm fibre 27.89 1.424

3. 0.10% 12mm fibre 31.67 1.385

4. 0.15% 12mm fibre 30.05 1.413

5. 0.20% 12mm fibre 29.45 1.390

6. 0.25% 12mm fibre 30.45 1.382

 1.45

1.4 BC soil + 0.05% Nylon fibre (12

mm)
1.35 BC soil + 0.10% Nylon fibre (12
MDD

mm)
1.3
BC soil + 0.15% Nylon fibre (12
mm)
1.25
BC soil + 0.20% Nylon fibre (12
mm)
1.2
BC soil + 0.25% Nylon fibre (12
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 mm)
OMC

Figure 4.5 combined proctor test results for 12 mm fibre

Unconfined Compressive Strength

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

Sample Preparation

Unconfined Compressive Strength

Mixing

Oven dry soil will be dry mixed with sufficient quantity of distilled water will then be
added to bring the moisture content to the desired level. The mixture will then be
manually mixed thoroughly with a spatula. All the specimens will be kept in
polythene bags for maturing for three days

Compaction

Cylindrical specimens will be compacted by static compaction in 3.81cm diameter

and 7.62cm high mould. The inner surface of the mould will be smeared with mobile
oil (of low viscosity which does not affect the property of sample) so as to extrude the
sample from mould with minimum disturbance. The wet homogenous mixture will be
placed inside the specimen mould in seven layers using spoon, leveled and gently tap-
compacted by 3.8Icm diameter ram. Pressure pad will be inserted into the mould and
the whole assembly will be statically compacted in loading frame to the desired
density. The sample will be kept under static load for not less than 10 minutes in order
to account for any subsequent increase in height of sample due to swelling. The
sample will then be removed from the mould with the help of sample extruder.

Apparatus used

Strain controlled triaxial test apparatus will be used to conduct unconfined

compressive strength tests to determine the shear strength and deformation
characteristics. For conducting Unconfined Compressive Strength Test, triaxial cell is
not filled with water so that there is no confining pressure, and axial stress is applied
to fail the specimen.

1. Strain controlled triaxial test apparatus

2. Strain controlled mechanism consisting of strain setting lever and turret lever for
inducing axial strains in the sample at rates varying from 0.02 mm/minute to 1.00
mm/minute.

3. For measurement of compressive stress taken by the sample, 250 kg capacity

proving ring with proving ring constant of 0.176 kg/division

4. Load gauge installed in proving ring with a least count of 0.002 mm

5. For measurement of vertical deformation in the sample, deformation dial gauge

with a least count of 0.01 mm.

Procedure

The remoulded sample will be placed on the pedestal of the triaxial cell with non-
pervious discs at the top and bottom. A loading platen will be placed at the top which
is connected through loading piston to the proving ring. The axial strain rate is chosen
as 1 mm/minute by appropriate setting of turret lever and strain setting lever. The
compressive stress taken by the sample will be recorded at various strain levels. At
failure, peak compressive stress will be noted as unconfined compressive strength and
failure strain will also be recorded.
Precaution

1. The specimen should be handled carefully to prevent disturbances, change in

density or loss of moisture.

2. Two ends of the specimen should be perpendicular to the long axis of the specimen.

3. Seating of the sample should be proper on the upper and lower plates

4. The strain should be induced in the specimen at a constant rate and perpendicular to
the cross-sectional area of the sample.

Nylon fibre is mixed with BC soil in different percentages 0.05%, 0.10%, 0.15%,
0.20% and 0.25% and then water is added to soil. The amount of soil taken and water
added for UCS sample is calculated from MDD and OMC obtained during standard
proctor test for both the length of fibres 6mm and 12 mm. All soil samples are
completely soaked before testing. A series of UCS tests were performed on the parent
soil and fibre reinforced soil with different percentages of fibre (0.05%, 0.10%,
0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25%) and varying lengths of fibre (6mm and 12 mm).

3.5

2.5 0%
0.05%
2 0.10%
0.15%
1.5 0.20%
0.25%
1

0.5

Figure 6 Test results of UCS (stress strain curve) for 6 mm fibre length
 Figure 7 UCS test samples of soil + 6 mm fibre length

stress v/s strain combined curves for 12 mm fibre

3.5

2.5 0%
0.05%
2
0.10%
stress

1.5 0.15%
0.20%
1 0.25%
0.5

0
0.00000 0.00100 0.00200 0.00300 0.00400 0.00500 0.00600 0.00700
strain

Figure 8 Test results of UCS (stress strain curve) for 12 mm fibre length

Figure 9 UCS test samples of soil + 12 mm fibre length

4.3 Sample preparation

4.3.1 Composition of specimens

Specimens of parent soil and soil treated with varying percentages (0.05%, 0.10%,
0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25%) of nylon fibres have been prepared at maximum dry
density and optimum moisture content as per IS: 2720 (Part 7) (1974).

4.3.2 Mixing

Oven dry soil was dry mixed with various percentages of fibres. Sufficient quantity of
water was then added to bring the moisture content to the desired level. All the
specimens were kept in polythene bags for maturing for one day.

4.3.3 Compaction

Specimens were compacted by static compaction in 10 cm diameter consolidation

ring to the required height of 2.5 cm. The inner surface of the ring was smeared with
mobile oil to help minimize friction between inner surface of the ring and the soil
sample. The wet homogenous mixture was placed inside the specimen ring using a
spoon in three layers, leveled and gently tap-compacted by 3.81cm diameter ram.
Sample was placed in specimen ring with extension collar attached to it and both the
exposed sides of the sample were covered with saturated filter papers. After that
porous stone and pressure pad were inserted into the extension collar and the whole
assembly was statically compacted in loading frame to the desired density.The
samples were kept under static load for not less than 10 minutes in order to account
for any subsequent increase in height of sample due to swelling.

4.4 Testing Programme

A series of swell pressure tests have been conducted by consolidometer method to

determine the swell pressure of untreated black cotton soil and black cotton soil
treated with varying percentages (0.05%, 0.10%, 0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25%) of nylon
fibres of 6 mm and 12 mm lengths to evaluate the effect of addition of these fibres on
swell pressure of the soil. In consolidometer method, the volume change of soil is
permitted and corresponding pressure required to bring back the soil to its original
volume is measured. A consolidometer provides means for submerging the sample,
for applying vertical load and for measuring the change in thickness of specimen.

4.4.1 Apparatus used

1. Three-gang, fixed ring, one-way drained one dimensional consolidometer.

2. Fixed ring cell with specimen ring of 100 mm diameter, 25 mm height, with
an extension collar, a bottom porous stone-120 mm in diameter and a top
porous stone-100 mm in diameter.
3. For applying vertical pressure, lever arm loading mechanism with a lever arm
constant of 10.
4. For measurement of vertical deformation in the sample, deformation dial
gauge with a least count of 0.01 mm.

Figure 4.10 Three-Gang, Fixed Ring Consolidometer

4.4.2 Procedure

A series of swell pressure tests have been conducted by consolidometer method on

parent soil and soil treated with various percentages of fibres. Statically compacted
specimen was placed in fixed ring consolidometer where only the top porous stone is
permitted to move downwards as the specimen compresses. Consolidometer was
assembled with the ring having the soil specimen and saturated porous stone at the
top. Filter paper was placed between soil specimen and porous stone. Assembly was
then mounted on the loading frame. The holder with the dial gauge to record the
progressive vertical heave (swelling) of the specimen under no load, shall then be
screwed in place and adjusted in such a way that the dial gauge is near the end of its
release run, allowing small margin for the compression of the soil, if any. Lever arm
loading beam was leveled in a horizontal position with appropriate load transmitting
member in contact with pressure pad through a ball seating before applying load.
Steel ball was placed on the space provided on the pressure pad to maintain verticality
of loads. While mounting the assembly in consolidometer, specimen ring with
collar is placed first and then outer ring of trough is placed in order to avoid any
gap resulting from improper assembly procedure. All the three test samples were
mounted simultaneously in order to avoid any disturbance in dial gauge reading of a
previously mounted specimen due to mounting of subsequent specimens. A seating
load of 0.06 kg/cm2 was applied and initial reading of dial gauge was noted at this
stage. The system was then connected to a water reservoir with the level of the water
in reservoir at about the same level as that of soil specimen and water allowed to flow
in the sample. A time gap of 5 minutes was maintained for connecting the sample to
water reservoir and commencement of swelling in the three samples. The
consolidometer trough was also completely filled with water to keep the specimen
saturated during the test.
The test specimens were allowed to swell under a seating load of 0.06 kg/cm 2
for a period of 6-7 days or till swelling became constant. The free swell readings
shown by the dial gauge under the seating load were recorded at different time
intervals. The dial gauge readings were taken till equilibrium is reached. This was
ensured by making a plot of swelling dial readings versus time in hours till the plot
becomes asymptotic with abscissa (time scale). The vertical expansion of the
specimen was measured by means of a deformation dial gauge, and dial gauge
readings were taken at elapsed times of 0, 1/2, 1, 2, 4, 8,12, 16, 20 24, 36, 48, 60, 72,
96, 120 and 144 hours and greater if required. The equilibrium swelling is normally
reached over a period of 5-7 days in general for all expansive soils. The swollen
sample was then subjected to consolidation under different pressures of 0.06, 0.12,
0.26, 0.47, 0.96, 1.96 and 3.77 kg/cm2. The compression dial readings were recorded
till the dial reading became constant or for a maximum period of 24 hours for each
load applied over the specimen. The consolidation loads were applied till the
specimen attained its original volume.

4.4.3 Precautions

1. Porous stones should be fully saturated by boiling in water for about 25

minutes.

2. Load applied should be axial.

3. Throughout the test, container trough should be kept filled with water.

4. Grease should be applied at all the joints in order to prevent leakage of water
from the consolidometer.

5. Water in the consolidometer trough and reservoir is kept at same level in order
to avoid any pressure difference.

6. In case of lever arm loading system, the apparatus shall be properly

counterbalanced by ensuring that the yoke is in horizontal position.

7. Weight of loading pad should be included while calculating pressure value.

4.4.4 Evaluation of swell pressure

The observed swelling dial gauge readings have been recorded in Table 4.4 to 4.14
and plotted with elapsed time as abscissa and specimen heave (ΔH) as ordinate on
natural scale for virgin soil and soil treated with various percentages of fibres in Fig.
4.18 to Fig. 4.21. A smooth curve is drawn joining these points. As the curve so
drawn becomes asymptotic with the abscissa, the swelling reaches its maximum and
hence the swelling phase is stopped, and the consolidation phase is started.

The compression readings have been recorded in Table 4.15 to 4.25 and plots
of change in thickness of expanded specimen as ordinate and consolidation pressure
applied as abscissa on semi-logarithmic scale have been shown in Fig. 4.18 to Fig.
4.20. Initially, a flat curve is obtained as the sample remains in over-consolidated state
due to remolding pressure applied for sample preparation and thereafter it changes to
a straight line for normally consolidated condition. The swelling pressure exerted by
the soil specimen under zero swelling condition was obtained by interpolation.
ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS & DISCUSSION

5.1 General

The objective of the present study is to investigate the swelling behaviour of a black
cotton soil treated with 0.05%, 0.10%, 0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25% of nylon fibres. This
has been done to make the soil suitable for construction of structures on it or acting as
suitable sub-grades for construction of roads. A series of swell pressure tests have
been conducted by consolidometer method to determine the swell pressure of
untreated black cotton soil and black cotton soil treated with natural fibres to evaluate
the effect of addition of natural fibres on swell pressure of the soil. Specimen heave of
the soil has been permitted and it is observed as it occurs with the passage of time. A
series of consolidation pressures of 0.06, 0.12, 0.26, 0.47, 0.96, 1.96 and 3.77 kg/cm 2
have been applied and consolidation pressure to bring the soil back to its original
volume has been determined which is reported as swell pressure. The results of these
tests have been analyzed under the following headings.

5.2 Moisture-density relationship

Standard Proctor tests have been conducted to determine optimum moisture content
(OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) of soil stabilized with various varying
percentages of nylon fibres. Fig 4.2 and Fig 4.14 show comparison of OMC and
MDD respectively for parent soil stabilized with different percentages of nylon fibres.
For parent soil OMC and MDD have been observed as 28.% and 1.48 g/cc
respectively.
For soil stabilized with 6 mm nylon fibre, OMC increases from 26.57 to 30.72% and
MDD decreases from 1.48 to 1.41 g/cc, with increase in percentage of coir fibre from
0.05% to 0.25%.
For soil stabilized with 12 mm nylon fibre, OMC increases from 27.89 to 31.67% and
MDD decreases from 1.424 to 1.38 g/cc, with increase in percentage of nylon fibre
from 0.05% to 0.25%.
It has been observed that there is an increase in OMC and decrease in MDD due to an
increase in percentage of nylon fibres. The presence of nylon fibres may be the cause
for reduction in density.
5.3 Swell potential

Increase in thickness of the sample was noted after saturation. Swell potential (S%) is
defined as the ratio of increase in thickness (∆H) of the soil specimen compacted in a
consolidometer and allowed to freely swell on soaking under a token surcharge to the
original thickness (H) after being compacted to maximum density at optimum
moisture content according to Standard Proctor test and expressed as percent value.
Table 4.26 shows the record of values of change in thickness (∆H) of untreated soil
and soil treated with various percentages of natural fibres.
Based on the analysis of results, swell potential values of parent soil and soil treated
with different percentages of natural fibres have been determined and the results have
been tabulated in Table 4.27. A graph for the variation of swell potential with
different percentages of natural fibres has also been shown in Fig. 4.23.

 For parent soil the value of swell potential has been observed as 3.28%.

 It has been observed that with the increase in percentage of 6 mm nylon fibre
from 0% to 0.15%, that the value of swell potential increases from 3.28% to
1.44%.

 It has been also observed that with the further increase in percentage of 6 mm
nylon fibre from 0.15% to 0.25% that the value of swell potential firstly
increases from 1.44% to 3.84% and then again decreases to 3.8%.

 It has been observed that with the increase in percentage of 12 mm nylon fibre
same trend is followed, from 0% to 0.15% of fibre the value of swell potential
decreases from 3.28% to 2.04% and then again attains maximum value of swell
potential as3.76% then again decreases for 0.25% fibre to 3.72%.

 It has been observed that both the fibres are helpful in arresting the swell of soil
when it is added in low percentages of up to 0.15% to the parent soil. At higher
percentages, the value of swell potential is higher. With the increase in nylon
fibre to the soil, swell potential value increases. This increase in swell potential
may be attributed to the increase in volume of additive upon absorption of
water.
  It has been observed that out of the two fibres, 6 mm nylon fibre is more
effective in reducing swell potential of the parent soil because of 12 mm fibres
are replaces the soil particles which reduces the cohesion between soil particles.

5.3 Swell pressure

Based on the analysis of results, swell pressure values of parent soil and soil treated
with different percentages of nylon fibre have been determined and the results have
been tabulated in Table 5.3. A graph for the variation of swell pressure with different
percentages of nylon fibres (6 mm and 12 mm) has also been shown in Fig. 4.24.
For parent soil the value of swell pressure has been observed as 1.05 kg/cm2.
It has been observed that with the increase in percentage of nylon fibre (6mm) from
0.05% to 0.25% in the soil, the value of swell pressure varies from 0.88 to 0.69
kg/cm2. It has also been observed that with the increase in percentage of nylone fibre
(12mm) from 0.05% to 0.25% in the soil, the value of swell pressure varies from 0.85
to 2.436 kg/cm2.
A general decrease has been observed in the value of swell pressure due to increase in
percentage of nylon fibre of 6 mm size to the parent soil. No significant trend has
been observed in the variation of swell pressure due to addition of nylon fibre of 12
mm size in various percentages to the parent soil.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS & SCOPE OF FURTHER RESEARCH

6.1 Conclusions
The study demonstrates the influence of randomly distributed fibre inclusion on the
swelling behaviour of an expansive soil collected from Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh.
The following conclusions have been drawn based on the laboratory investigations
carried out in this study:

1. No significant variation has been observed in both optimum moisture content

(OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) due to an increase in percentage of
nylon fibre of two sizes which may be due to fibre being added to the soil in very
small percentage by weight.

2. A general decreasing trend has been observed in the value of swell potential due
to increase in percentage of nylon fibre of two sizes. It may be attributed to the
fact that in expanding soil, the flexible fibres tend to get stretched. The resulting
tensile stresses in fibres resist swelling of soil.

3. A general decrease has been observed in the value of swell pressure due to
increase in percentage of nylon fibre of 6 mm size to the parent soil. No
significant trend has been observed in the variation of swell pressure due to
addition of nylon fibre of 12mm size in various percentages to the parent soil.

The study shows that the inclusion of synthetic fibres has significant influence in
reducing the swell pressure of expansive soils. Resistance offered by the fibres to
swelling depends upon the soil–fibre contact area, sample size, orientation of fibre,
fiber surface roughness and soil composition. It is an alternative to other expensive
techniques like use of geo-textiles and stone columns, thereby reducing the
construction costs particularly in developing countries. The results of this study will
help in arriving at economical proportion of the fibre in designing foundations and
pavements on compacted stabilized clay beds.

6.2 Scope of further research

A number general research suggestions are listed herein that should increase this
knowledge and enable the random inclusion of fibres to become more useful
engineering materials.
1. For advance research, it is recommended that the effect of combining the fibres
with additives such as lime or cement can be investigated that can further improve
the properties of stabilized soil.
2. Comparative study on soil treated with natural fibres and man-made fibres may be
done.
3. Further research may be done in this direction to know the exact cause and
remedial measures against the failure of structures resting on expansive soils.
4. Experimental studies can be done on soil stabilized with natural fibres to
determine other properties such as strength, permeability etc.

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