Beliefs in society notes

Topic 1: Theories of religion

Sociologist define religion as three things:

• Substantive – they focus on the substance of religion e.g. a belief in God, there is a
very clear line made between what is classed as a religion and what isn’t. They
conform to the widespread (western) views of religion but leave no space for any
practices outside of a belief in God. Weber defines religion as a belief in a superior or
supernatural being that cannot be explained scientifically.
• Functional – they believe that religion plays a specific social and psychological
functions for society, Durkheim defines religion in terms of its contribution to social
integration rather than a belief in God. Functional definitions of God are inclusive to
all those who have a range of beliefs and practice functions needed for integration,
there’s no western bias as no belief in god is mentioned. However just because it
helps integration doesn’t mean it’s a religion.
• Constructionist – this view focuses on how the members of society define religion
themselves, it isn’t possible to create one universal outlook of religion. Aldridge uses
scientology to show how members believe that it’s a religion however the
government would class it more as a cult. They do not assume a belief in God or the
supernatural, or that it performs a function for society. Their approach allows them
to get close to the followers and the definitions they give, however this makes it
impossible to generalise what counts as a religion.

Functionalist theories of religion

Durkheim’s view on religion-

• The key to religion is the fundamental distinction between the sacred and
profane, the sacred are the forbidden things that are taboo or inspire awe and
the profane are things that have no special significance that are ordinary. Sacred
things evoke powerful feelings due to how they represent something greater, the
only greater thing is society so religious worship is worship to society.
• Durkheim believe that to study something in great detail we must study its
origin, so for society we would study a clan society e.g. Arunta. These tribe
worship totem poles as it symbolises the clan’s origins, they create a feeling of
solidarity. To Durkheim they’re really worshipping society.
 • Sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience which maintains social
integration and brings them all together. Also, to the individual society makes us
feel part of something greater than us.
• Worsley (1956) found that many tribes share totems (not sacred to individual
clan), and even if Durkheim is right about Totems it doesn’t prove that he has
found the essence of religion.
• Mestrovic (2011) argues that the postmodern society doesn’t apply to
Durkheim’s research, as increasing diversity has fragmented the collective
conscience.

Psychological functions-

• Malinowski (1954) argues that religion promotes social solidarity due to its
psychological functions (helping them cope with emotional stress).
• 2 situations in which religion promotes social solidarity: where the outcome is
important but is uncontrollable and thus uncertain (lagoon fishing is safe but ocean
fishing is dangerous so islanders perform rituals), and at times of life crises (birth,
puberty, marriage, funeral rituals).

Parsons: values and meaning-

• Parsons sees religion as a way to help people cope with unforeseen events and
uncontrollable outcomes.
• Religion also creates and legitimates society’s central values (Protestantism in the US
sacralised the core American value of individualism) and is the primary source of
meaning (it answers ultimate questions and gives meaning to lives).
Civil religion-

• Bellah (2013) saw religion as a way to unify society, especially in such multifaith
societies as the US. A civil religion (a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to
society) unifies over all e.g. ‘the American way of life’.
• Functional alternatives are non-religious beliefs that perform functions similar to
those of organised religion, such as reinforcing shared values or maintaining social
cohesion.
Evaluation-

• Neglects the negative aspects of religion such as religion being a source for
oppression.
• Ignores religion as a source for conflict and division, for example societies with more
than one religion (Civil religions).
Marxist theories of religion

Religion as an ideology-

• Marx believes that religion operates as an ideological weapon used to legitimate

the suffering of the proletariat. Religion misleads the poor into thinking that their
suffering is virtuous and will be rewarded in the afterlife.
• Lenin describes religion as ‘spiritual gin’ in how it used an intoxicant to drown out
oppression, creating a ‘mystical fog’ that obscures reality.
• Religion also acts a way to legitimate the position of the ruling class, they’re roles are
‘divinely ordained’
Religion and alienation-

• Religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain the lower classes feel over alienation
which is the separation they have from the rewards of their hard work. It acts as no
solution, aspects as an afterlife just provides a source of consolation.
Evaluation of Marxism-

• Ignores the positive functions of religion such as psychological adjustment to

misfortune. Neo-Marxists see certain forms of religion as assisting not hindering the
development of class consciousness.
• Althusser (1971) reject alienation as a scientific concept due to the idea that humans
have an idea of their ‘true self’.

Feminist theories of religion

• Evidence of the patriarchy: religious organisations (male dominated despite how

women participate more), places of worship (segregate the sexes, women’s
participation may also be restricted, taboos concerning periods, pregnancy and
childbirth), sacred texts (all feature male figures such as gods of prophets), religious
laws and customs (women are given fewer rights)
• Armstrong argued that a lot of earlier religion placed women at the centre e.g.
mother nature or the goddess of fertility, however the development of monotheistic
religions saw the establishment of a single patriarchal figure of god.
 Religious forms of feminism-

• Woodhead (2009) admitted while there is a lot of oppression in many religions, it

is not true of all.
• Wearing the hijab is seen as modern-day oppression to westerners, however to
Muslim women it is seen as a symbol of liberation that allows them to enter
public spheres with being condemned as being immodest
• Women also use religion to gain status and respect within the private sphere of
their home, they use activities link to the church (e.g. Bible studies) to share their
experiences.
• Liberal Protestant organisations are often committed to gender equality within
their religion and allow women to play leading roles

Topic 2: Religion and social change

Religion as a conservative force:

• It defends traditionalist customs (many traditional religions uphold conservative
beliefs about moral, upholds family ‘values’ and favours a patriarchal headed family).
• Holds beliefs and functions that conserve or preserve things in stabilising society.
Religion and consensus (functionalist view) see religion as a force that functions to
maintain society and prevent it from disintegrating, it promotes social solidarity
and reduces the need for individuals to pursue their own selfish beliefs and cause
societies downfall. Religion and capitalism (Marxist view) portrays religion as a
conservative ideology that legitimates or disguises the oppression of the working
class. Religion and the patriarchy (Feminist view) see religion as an ideology that
legitimates patriarchal power.

Weber: religion as a force for change

• Religious beliefs of Calvinism helped bring about major social change (it has many
similarities to the spirit of capitalism in how in the modern-day people are more
systematic in pursuing profit.
• Calvinist beliefs include: Predestination (God has predetermined who will go to
heaven (‘the elect’) and nothing we do can alter that), Divine transcendence (God is
so far above human understanding and no mortal can claim to know anything about
him), Asceticism (abstinence , self-discipline and self-denial), the idea of vocation or
calling (vocation: other-worldly asceticism in renouncing all personal goods to join a
convent or monastery and this-worldly asceticism (introduced by Calvinism)
methodical, rigorous work in an occupation. This hard work would produce a
psychological function that allowed them to cope with their salvation panic through
 their accumulating wealth and their work would produce much riches that they’d
invest in profit not luxuries)

Hinduism and Confucianism

• Weber argued that Calvinism was only one of the causes of modern capitalism, the
process also needed such features as a number of material or economic factors e.g.
natural resources, trade or a money economy
• However there have been a number of other societies that have had a higher level
of economic development but hasn’t developed modern capitalism, Weber argues
that this is due to the lack of a religious belief system alike to Calvinism.
• Hinduism was an ascetic religion like Calvinism however its orientation was this-
worldly asceticism in how it directed its follower’s attention away from material
goods.
• Confucianism (in ancient China) was a this-worldly religion but wasn’t ascetic, so
wasn’t disciplined.
• Both Hinduism and Confucianism lacked the drive to develop a modern capitalist
system unlike many western cultures, therefore they didn’t under go social change
due to the other factors other than Calvinism.
Evaluation of Weber

• Weber took a different view to Marx, who believed that it was solely economic
factors that encourages change, he believed that cultural aspects also took influence
• Kautsky (1926) argues that Weber overestimates the roles of ideas and
underestimates the economic factors in bringing capitalism.
• Tawney (1926) believes that the roles of technology takes the vital influence in
capitalism, not religious ideas.
• Scotland had many Calvinist follower’s; however, capitalism was slow to develop.
Marshall argues however that this is due to the lack of investment and skilled labour
(supports the idea of material and cultural importance).

Religion and social protest

The American civil rights movement

• The civil rights movement began in 1955 when Rosa Parks refused to move for a
white person on a segregated bus which began the Bus Boycott
• Bruce argues that the black clergy were the back bone of the civil right movement,
Dr Martin Luther King played an important role in through his speeches and rallies
• Churches providing meeting places and sanctuary from threat or white violence
• Bruce sees religion as an ideological resource to support protests and contribute to
social change through: taking the moral high ground (pointing out the hypocrisy of
‘love thy neighbour’ and the hate), channelling dissent (the funeral of Martin Luther
King was a rallying point), acting as an honest broker (churches provide a context for
 negotiation as they’re respected by both sides) and mobilising public opinion (Black
churches in the South all campaigned their support across America)

The New Christian Right

• A politically and morally conservative group that aimed to bring America ‘back to
God’, they believed in traditional gender roles and campaigned against abortion,
homosexuality and divorce.
• They used church owned media stations and televangelism to broadcast
programmes aimed at recruiting new members (strong ties with Republican party)
• The New Christian Right was largely unsuccessful due to how it lacked widespread
support, and their followers found difficulty in cooperating with people from other
and similar religious groups.

• Comparisons between both groups suggest that religiously motivated protests need
to be consistent with those of wider society, they need to comply to mainstream
beliefs about democracy, equality and religious freedom.

Marxism, religion and change

• Engels argues that although religion inhibits social change through its ideology, it
can also encourage it e.g. preaching liberation from slavery and misery. Also, senior
clergy have been known to support the lower ranks and encourage protests for
social change.
• Bloch (1959) sees religion as having a dual character, a view that religion recognises
both positive and negative aspects on social change. Religion while inhibiting social
change can also act as ‘the principle of hope’ which is a view of utopia that we all
strive towards through social change
Liberation theology

• Within Latin America, there was deepening poverty, human rights abuses and a
growing commitment amongst catholic priests that supported violations of the poor
and oppressed.
• During the 1970s it was often only priests who took the side pf the oppressed when
dictators would torture and murder those to hold onto power.
• Liberation theology set out to change society by providing support groups, fought
the oppression and protected many.
• The movement lost influence after the pope condemned the liberation theology for
resembling Marxism, however it created a legitimate change in how the poor were
treated as it encouraged and support the social change
 • Maduro and Lowy both therefore questioned the Marxist principle that religion
always legitimates oppression and inhibits social change
• Pentecostal churches have come up against liberation theology how they took one
step further in helping individuals get out of poverty which was supported by
church pastors (more conservative solution through self-improvement while
liberation theology was more radical)

Millenarian movements

• Millenarian movements describe the belief in judgement day and the end of the
world
• Worsley (1968) noted that beliefs included heaven on Earth, a life free from pain,
death and sin, groups were to be saved not individuals
• The appeal of millenarian movements was largely to the poor as they believed
after their lifetimes of being oppressed would be rewarded in immediate
gratification
• Many native ‘cargo cults’ who performed millenarian movements against the
colonials who stole their material good and land were the first ‘pre-political’ group
who used this view of religion to fuel their protests and spread their views.
Gramsci and hegemony

• Gramsci was interested in how the ruling class used hegemony to maintain their
control over the working class. Hegemony is never guaranteed in society due to
how the lower classes can create their own counter hegemony to challenge the
ruling classes
• Gramsci argues that popular forms of religion can help workers see through the
ruling class ideology, clergy can act as ‘organic intellectuals’ who teach the workers
of their situation
• Billings (1990) applies Gramsci’s idea of hegemony to two groups of workers (coal
miners and textile workers), he identified three ways in which religion was either
supported or challenged by the employers hegemony: leadership (the miners
benefitted from having organic intellectuals, textiles workers lacked leadership),
organisation (churches were used as meeting spaces for miners, textile workers had
nothing) ad support (the churches kept miners morale high in sermons and singing
whereas the textile workers had opposition from the church if attending a union
meeting)
Topic 3: Secularisation

Secularisation in Britain
• In modern Britain there are some major changes concerning religion compared to 5
years ago: there’s been a decline in church going/belonging, fewer baptisms and
church weddings, an increase in the age of average churchgoers, a decline in
traditional Christian beliefs, greater diversity
• Wilson argues that western societies have undergone a long-term process of
secularisation (a process whereby religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose
social significance)
• Wilson identifies (church attendance today) that by 2015 only 5% of the adult
population will attend church weekly, Sunday school attendance has also declined
further. ‘Bogus baptisms’ prove that while infant baptisms have declined those of
older children has increased due to many faith schools (high performing) only
accepting baptised children
• A person’s religious affiliation refers to their membership of identification with the
church. Evidence shows that less people are identifying with the church e.g.
between 1983 and 2014 the percentage of adults who identified as having no
religion rose from one third to a half.
• Evidence shows that religious belief is declining along with church attendance and
membership (religious beliefs today)
• Religious influence from institutions has also declined, it still has some influence
on public life (e.g. church of England bishops has influence on law making in the
house of lords) but the state has mainly taken over any functions that religious
institutions used to handle. Where religion used to control most parts of peoples
lives, it now remains in the private sector of their homes. One measure of the
institutional weakness of the churches is the number of clergies, during the 20 th
century this fell from 45,000 to 34,000. The clergy are also an aging workforce, only
12% of them are under 40ys old.

Explanations of secularisation
Max Weber: rationalisation

• Rationalisation refers to the process by which rational ways of thinking and acting
come to replace religious ones. Weber believes that Western cultures have
undergone mass rationalisation.
• The medieval Catholic worldview that dominated Europe saw the world as an
‘enchanted garden’ in which God and angels and other supernatural beings were
present and active changing and influencing the events of our lives. Humans could
try to influence these beings through prayers, spells, fasts and wearing charms.
 • The protestant reformation brought by Martin Luther brought a new worldview,
including a transcendent God (like a watchmaker). Weber sees this society as
‘disenchanted’ as all the religious mysticism is taken out and we are left without
the influence of any supernatural powers and religious thinking.
• This society then enabled the influences and developments of science, Bruce (2011)
argues that the growth of a technological worldview replaced the religious view
completely as it provided logical explanations and arguments for religious
influences. Therefore, the religious scope has declined dramatically as it is taken less
seriously

Structural differentiation

• Parsons (1951) defines structural differentiation as a process of specialisation that

occurs with the development of industrial society. Separate, specialised institutions
develop to carry out functions that were previously performed by a single
institution (religion)
• Disengagement of religion is an outcome of structural differentiation, the functions
of religion were passed to institutions like the state, it therefore became
disconnected from wider society (e.g. the church lost influence over education,
social welfare and the law)
• Privatisation has also become an outcome, religion is now kept within the private
sphere of the home and family. Religion is now seen more as a private matter and
religious institutions have lost much of their influence on wider society as a whole.
• Even in areas where religion still has a function and influence, it has to succumb to
the rules and requirements of the secular state (e.g. in faith schools, teachers must
hold qualifications given by the state)
Social and cultural diversity

• Decline of community is a result from moving from a pre-industrial society to an

industrial one and a contribution to secularisation, Wilson argues that when religion
lost its hold over society, we became a more individualistic society.
• Industrialisation have encouraged larger, more urban groups to overshadow the
smaller, more close-knit ones that were influenced by the consensus of religion.
Social and geographical mobility cause by industrialisation has brought people from
different backgrounds together.
• Diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles undermine religion. The overall
believability of religion is undermined by the thousands of other beliefs that
someone faces in a diverse society, also in the absence of a religion practicing
society both religion and practices seem to decline
• The view that community causes the decline of religion can be criticised, Aldridge
points out that community doesn’t have to be concerned with a particular area:
Religion can be source of identity which doesn’t have to be influenced by location,
 some religious communities are imagined communities that interact through global
media, Pentecostal and other religions flourish in urban areas.
Religious diversity

• Berger (1969) believes that another cause of secularisation is the many conflicting
views of religion in a single society
• The sacred canopy was the shared set of beliefs that everyone held in the Middle
ages, this gave greater plausibility to people’s beliefs as there would be no conflict
or questions. With the protestant reformation, there was no longer an unchallenged
monopoly of truth, this then brought varied interpretations of what was the truth
• Plausibility structure created the crisis of credibility for religion, when there are
many options and versions of religion to choose from people are likely to question
what’s true which erodes the absolute truth held by traditional religions. Religious
beliefs therefore became relative rather than absolute.

Cultural defence and transition

• Bruce identifies two counter-trends that seemed to distinguish the theory of

secularisation which are associated with higher than average levels of religious
participation: Cultural defence (where religion provides a focal point for the defence
of national, ethnic, local or group identity in a struggle against a hostile foreign
power) and cultural transition (where religion provides a sense of community for
ethnic groups such as migrants in a different country or culture)
• Bruce argues that religion only survives in these groups as it’s the focal point, they
don’t disprove secularisation but shows how religion is likely to survive where it
performs functions other than relating to individuals or the supernatural.

Secularisation in America
• Wilson claims that secularisation in America has occurred not because people have
abandoned the church, but because religion has become superficial. Bruce agrees
and uses three sources to support his view that America is becoming increasingly
secular:
Declining church attendance

• Opinion polls found that a stable 40% of people attended church regularly in 1940,
however Hadaway studied church attendance in Ohio and found that the claims of
church attendance were 83% higher than the actual research estimates.
• Bruce concluded that a stable rate of self-reported attendance of about 40%
masked the actual decline in attendance in the US, the widening gap may be due to
how church attendance is seen as socially desirable or normative so people who
have stopped will lie to seem socially sound.
Secularisation from within

• Bruce argues that the way religion has adjusted to the modern world amounts to
secularisation from within, the emphasis on traditional beliefs has declined and
religion is ‘psychologised’ or turned into therapy.
• This shows that the purpose and commitment of religion has changed entirely,
instead of focusing on seeking salvation, religion is less strict

Religious diversity

• Bruce identifies a trend towards practical relativism among American Christians in

how everyone is entitled to their owns beliefs. (in 1924 94% of churchgoers
believed that ‘Christianity was the one true religion, in 1977 only 41% agreed)
• The counterpart to practical relativism is ‘the erosion of absolutism’ which is that we
live in a society where many people hold different views, this therefore undermines
our assumption that out views are absolute.
Criticisms of secularisation theory

• Religion isn’t declining just changing

• Secularisation theory is one-sided (it doesn’t consider the religious revivals and the
growth of new religions
• Religion may have declined in Europe not globally
• Religious diversity only causes an increase in choice not decline in belief overall

Topic 4: Religion, Renewal and Choice

New forms of religion

• some sociologists argue that society isn’t completely secular, while traditional
religions may be declining, other newer religions are emerging often as a result of
changes in wider society such as greater individualism, choice and consumerism.
From obligation to consumption

• Davie (2013) argues that there was an obligation to go to church as it was the norm
but in modern society its now due to choice and consumerism.
• Davie argues that religion isn’t declining but simply taking a different, more
privatised form. Despite this people are still holding onto religious beliefs (believing
without belonging)
• Vicarious religion is now becoming more of a trend, this means religion practiced by
an active minority on behalf of the majority who experience it second-hand. In
Europe major churches are seen as public utilities or ‘Spiritual Health Service’ (it’s
there when you need it like the NHS). Davie compares vicarious religion to an
iceberg; the surface appears the smaller commitment but underneath lies a wider
commitment
 • Voas and Crockett (2005) don’t accept Davies claim of believing but not belonging,
evidence shows that both beliefs and attendance levels are declining together. Bruce
adds that if people aren’t willing to invest themselves in religious practice then are
they really believers?
Spiritual shopping

• Hervieu-Leger (2000) blames the decline of religious obligation on ‘cultural

amnesia’, before children were socialised into religions belief however the view
that religion is passed down through generations has been forgotten. Also, the
trend towards equality has banished the churches view of there being an almighty.
• People in the modern day have developed their own ‘do-it-yourself’ beliefs that
gives meaning to our lives and fit in with out own interest and aspirations (spiritual
shopping).
• Hervieu-Leger argues that two new religious types are emerging: pilgrims (those
who follow their individual paths in search for self-discovery – emphasises
personal development) and converts (those who join religious groups in order to
belong to a community, it may be based around ethnicity – such groups recreate
he sense of community that has been lost in society due to loss in religious
traditions)
• Related to postmodernity due to the increased individualisation

Postmodern religion

• Lyon (2000) agrees that believing without belonging is becoming increasingly

popular, he states that the postmodernist society we now live in is changing the
nature of religion (these include globalisation, the importance of media and the
growth of consumerism)
• Religious ideas have become ‘disembedded’ from churches and spread across the
media due to globalisation, e.g. televangelism has relocated religion onto the
media allowing believers to express their faith without needing to attend church.
This has resulted in religion becoming deinstitutionalised, it has been removed
from its original location in a way that people can adapt it for their own purposes.
• Hellend (2000) distinguishes 2 types of internet activity involving religious
organisations: religion online (where religious organisations talk to their
followers/coverts without any dialogue, an electronic version of their hierarchal
communication) and online religion (a community where individuals can visit virtual
worship, explore shared spiritual interests and provide mutual support)
• As Hervieu-Leger noted within ‘spiritual shoppers’ as there’s more consumerism in
postmodern society, we are able to pick and mix elements of different faiths to suit
our tastes and make them part of our identity. This concludes that people haven’t
given up on religion, just tailored it to suit their own religion, as Lyon notes
religion isn’t declining just evolving. This kind of religion means that there’s a loss
of faith in meta-narratives (theories that claim absolute truth), traditional religions
lose authority and decline as there’s no longer a monopoly of truth.
 • New age beliefs and practices put emphasis on spirituality, reject traditional views
and connecting with ones ‘inner self’, the key feature is individualism which
encourages ‘self-spirituality’ or ‘self-religion’
• Lyon criticises secularisation for assuming that religion is declining, he argues that
we are actually in a period of re-enchantment with the growth of unconventional
beliefs, practices and spirituality.

Spiritual revolution?

• Some sociologist argue that a spiritual revolution is taking place within society,
where Christianity (congregational domain) is giving way to ‘holistic spirituality’
(holistic milieu). Increased spirituality has seen a growth in the spiritual market.
• Heelas and Woodhead (2005) investigated whether traditional religion has declined
and whether spirituality was compensating for it, they found that in 2000 7.9% of the
population attended church and 1.6% took part in holistic milieu
• They found that congregational domain attendance was dropping overall and holistic
milieu was rising, their explanations for this included: the massive subjective turn of
the new age meant that there was a shift away from obligation to religion, demand
duty to religion was dropping, evangelical churches while having the duty and
demand of traditional churches were still rising due to their inclusion of spirituality

Weakness of the New Age

• The problem with scale- even if newer forms of individualised religion were
increasing, it would still have to fill the large gaps left by the decline of traditional
religions.
• Socialisation of the next generation- parents aren’t socialising their children into the
ways of the New Age, also women from the holistic milieu are remaining childless
• Weak commitment- sociologists found that while people dabbled in mediation,
horoscopes etc they don’t actually have a serious commitment

Religious market theory

• Stark and Bainbridge criticise secularisation as a theory noting that there has never
been a ‘golden age’ of religion as well as it being Eurocentric
• They proposed the religious market theory which is based on two assumptions:
people are naturally religious and religion meets human needs and it is human to
seek rewards and avoid costs
• They argue that religion is attractive as it provides us with religious compensators
(when real rewards are scare, we have supernatural ones). They put forward a
cycle of renewal where some religions grow and others decline. They also state
that churches operate like companies selling goods in market, churches that make
 their product attractive will succeed in attracting more customers (religious
competition)
America vs Europe

• Demand for religions increase when there’s more to choose from, in contrast is a
religion has religious monopoly of truth then there’s no competition
• Stark and Bainbridge believes that religion thrives in the US as there is no
monopoly of truth, this means that there has been a variety of competition and a
healthy religious market
• In Europe however, most countries have been dominated by an official state
church meaning that religious monopoly has been high and there’s been no
competition so the lack of choice has then led to a decline.
• They conclude that supply is the most important factor when influencing religious
participation, participation increases when there is an ample supply of religious
groups to choose from. Also, that the decline of religion isn’t universal
Supply-led religion

• A lot of studies support Stark and Bainbridge’s theory that the demand for religion is
greatly influenced by the quality and variety of religion on offer
• Finke (1997) argues that lifting the Asian immigration laws in America causes Asian
faiths became another option that proved popular with consumers in the religious
marketplace
• Hadden and Shupe (1988) argued that the growth of ‘televangelism’ in America
shows that the level of religious participation is supply-led, commercial funding
opened up competition and responded to consumer demand by preaching a
‘prosperity gospel’

Criticisms

• Bruce (2011) rejects the view that diversity and competition increase the demand for
religion, statistics show that decline of religion and diversity accompany one another
• Bruce also argues that Stark and Bainbridge misrepresent the secularisation theory,
it doesn’t claim that there was a ‘golden age’ just long-term decline, nor does it claim
that secularisation is universal
• Beckford claims that the religious market theory is unsociological through it claims
that people are naturally religious but doesn’t explain how.
An alternative view: secularisation and security
• Norris and Inglehart (2011) reject religious market theory over how it focuses on
America
• They claim that variations of religious following comes down to the society and the
degrees of existential security (the feeling that survival is secure enough to be taken
for granted), those in poor societies or poor who live in rich societies face more
life-threatening risks so therefore are more religious. Therefore, demand isn’t
constant and varies in between cultures.
• Europe have the highest rate of secularisation as their society is the most equal,
America however is incredibly unequal which creates high levels of poverty and
brings a greater need for religion
• Gill and Lundegaarde (2004) found that the more a country spends on welfare, the
lower the level of religious participation (another reason why Europe is more secular
than US). They do not believe that religion will disappear completely due to the
security needed from welfare provision, it doesn’t answer all the ultimate questions
that religion does.
Evaluation

• They only use quantitative date about income levels, they don’t examine peoples
own definitions of ‘existential security’
• They see religion as a negative response to deprivation, they ignore the positive
reasons people have for religious participation.

Topic 5: Religion in a Global context

Religious fundamentalism

The view of fundamentalism reflects on the past ‘golden age’ of society and seek a return to
the basics of faith. Religious fundamentalism arises when traditional beliefs are threatened
by modern society.
Characteristics of Fundamentalism

• An authoritative sacred text: a text that gives objective truth and portrays the rules
in which followers should follow. Aldridge (2013) notes that no text should be taken
seriously, only by its interpretations can we gage its meaning.
• An ‘us and them’ mentality: fundamentalist separate themselves from the rest of
the world. Davie (2013) notes that they seek to establish islands of certainty against
what they see as social and cultural chaos.
 • Aggressive reaction: fundamentalist movements aim to draw attention to the threat
of their beliefs and values, they do this by active in an aggressive manner intended
to shock, intimidate or cause harm
• Use of modern technology: while they oppose modern culture, technology is often
used to achieve their aims
• Patriarchy: Hawley (1994) notes that fundamentalists favour a world in which
women’s sexualities and choices are controlled.
• Prophecy: they believe that the ‘last days’ will soon be upon us, in which the sinners
will be taken to heaven and the sacred will rise from the dead and be taken to
heaven
• Conspiracy theories: they’re often attracted to the idea that powerful, hidden, evil
forces and organisations are in control of human destiny

Fundamentalism and modernity

• Davie (2013) argues that fundamentalism occurs when the traditional beliefs and
values are threatened by modernity, they feel a need to defend themselves.
• Giddens (1999) argues that it’s a product of globalisation, in today’s modern society
we experience a lot of uncertainty therefore fundamentalism acts as a faith-based
retreat from the uncertainties of the globalising world.
Cosmopolitanism

• Cosmopolitanism is a way of thinking that embraces modernity and globalisation, it’s

tolerant of the new ideas and beliefs of the population. Ones lifestyle is seen as a
personal choice rather than something prescribed by an external force (similar to
pilgrims from the New Age)
• Bauman (1992) sees postmodernity as a response to living in postmodernity, which
brings freedom as well as uncertainty and a heightened awareness of risk. In this
view many are attracted to the freedom of postmodernity however others still
retreat to the safety of fundamentalism. Castells (2011) distinguishes between the
two responses to post modernity: Resistance identity (those who feel threatened
and retreat to fundamentalism) and project identity (those who engage in social
movements, feminism and environmentalism)
• Giddens ignores the differences between fundamentalisms
• They distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism,
forgetting about ‘hybrid’ movements
• They’re ‘fixated on fundamentalism’ ignoring how globalisation is also affecting such
other religions as Catholicism
Monotheism and fundamentalism

• Bruce (2008) sees the main cause of fundamentalism as the perception of religious
traditionalists that today’s globalising world threatens their beliefs. He however
believes that it is confined to monotheistic religions due to how they’re based off of
 the notion of one God and one sacred text in which their ideas and beliefs are based
off
• While all fundamentalist movements believe in the same basis of the literal truth in
sacred texts, there can be differences in some due to different origins: in the West
fundamentalism is seen as change taken place within a society e.g. diversity and
secular choice of modernity, in the Third World however they believe that
fundamentalism is a reaction to changes being thrust upon it from outside e.g.
western views imposed by foreign capitalism.
Secular fundamentalism

• Davie (2013) argues that recent decades have seen the emergence of secular forms
of fundamentalism, due to changes in the modern society. These changes are
distinguished in phases:
• The first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism: At the time of enlightenment,
where philosophy held an optimistic secular view introduced the power of science
and human reason to improve the world. It dominated all of European thought and
helped to secularise all areas of social life attacking and undermining religious
certainties. Religious fundamentalism was a reaction to this secularisation process.
• The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism: The optimism had since
been under attack by the views of postmodernity (since 1970s), this resulted in a
growing mood of pessimism and uncertainty due to such events as global warming,
the fall of communism and globalisation. This led to the loss in faith in such secular
ideologies as liberalism and rationalism, therefore these ideologies were struggling
for survival along with the traditional religions. The supporters of these ideologies
were, in turn, then attracted to fundamentalism.
• Overall, Davies argues that both religious and secular fundamentalism can arise due
to greater uncertainties in the late modern and post-modern society, in which
reasserting truth and certainty is increasingly attractive. As a result, competing
fundamentalisms have become a normal feature of today’s society.
The ‘clash of civilisations’

• Religion has been the centre of a number of global conflicts, e.g. 9/11. Huntington
believes that these attacks aren’t due to fundamentalism (aggressive reactions) but
the nations themselves
• Huntington identifies seven civilisations: Wester, Islamic, Latin American, Confucian
(China), Japanese, Hindu, and Slavic-Orthodox (Russia and eastern Europe). Each of
these nations are closely identified with a great religion, this means that there will
always be fundamentalism within them as they attempt to defend it from
secularisation
• Religious differences are a major source of conflict, this is due to globalisation has
made nations less significant as a source of identity, creating a gap that religion has
filled. Also, globalisation increases the contacts between civilisation, increasing the
likelihood of conflict
 • Religious differences also create the fundamentalist characteristic of an ‘us and
them’ relationship with increased competition between civilisations for economic
and military power, religious conflicts are harder to resolve than political ones due
to how religious beliefs are deep rooted in culture and history.
• Jackson (2006) sees Huntington’s work as orientalism, this is a western ideology that
stereotypes Eastern nations and people as untrustworthy
• Casanova (2005) argues that Huntington ignores important religious divisions within
the ‘civilisations’
• Horrie and Chippindale (2007) see this theory as a grossly misleading neo-
conservative ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy when only the
minority fight in religious fuelled wars.

Cultural defence
• Bruce (2002) sees one function of religion as cultural defence, religion can unite a
community against external threats, often due how religion can symbolise the
union itself between people
• 2 examples of cultural defence are between Poland and Iran, they portray how
religion can be used as defence against the external powers of political domination:

Poland

• From 1945-1989, Poland was under rule from the Soviet Union. The catholic church
(as it embodied the Polish identity) acted as a popular rallying point for the
opposition of the Soviet Union. It lent its support to the Solidarity free trade union
which eventually helped to bring the fall of communism
Iran

• Western capitalist powers and oil companies had long influence in Iran, including the
illegal involvement of overthrowing the democratic government. This rule included
banning the veil and replacing the Muslim calendar, as well as widening the gap
between rich and poor. The revolution of 1979 (influenced by Islam) brought the
introduction of the Islam Republic, in which clerics held state power and were able
to impose the Sharia law.

Religion and development

God and globalisation in India

• Globalisation has brought rapid economic growth and has seen India become a more
important player on the world political stage. Meera Nanda’s book examine the role
of Hinduism (a religion that accounts for 85% of the populations beliefs), in
legitimating both the rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra-nationalism’ and the prosperity of
the Indian middle class
 • Globalisation has created a scientifically educated, urban middle class in India, these
are the people that secularisation predicts will be the first to abandon religion
forever. However, Nanda observes that the majority of this class continues to
believe in the supernatural. Additionally, a rise in religious tourism within India
portrays how there has also been increased interest in religion (becoming
fashionable?). Middle-class religiosity also contains an attraction to lower-class gods
as they’re more responsive to people’s needs than traditional Hindu Gods.
• Nanda examines what motivates the middle-class to believe in miracles and
supernatural beings, she rejects poverty and existential security as an explanation as
well as the idea that their religiosity is a defensive reaction to modernisation and
Westernisation. She argues that increasing religiosity is the result of their
ambivalence about their newfound wealth. It stems from a tension between
traditional Hindu beliefs and the new prosperity of the middle-classes. This is
resolved by the modern holy men who preach how desire isn’t bad, also they
dispense a business-friendly version of Hinduism to become spiritually balanced.
Modern versions of Hinduism therefore legitimates the position of the middle-class
and allow them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism.
• Nanda (2003) also examines the role of Hinduism in legitimating a triumphalist
version of Indian nationalism (supporting the view of a superior religion), she notes
that India’s success in the global market is increasingly attributed to the superiority
of ‘Hindu values’. In this Hindu ultra-nationalism, Hinduism has become a civil
religion (unifies society) and the worship of gods mirrors the worshipping of the
Hindu nation. This creates a widening gulf between Hindus and non-Hindu
minorities. Hinduism has also penetrated and is influencing the secular views of
public life.
Capitalism in East Asia

• In recent decades, ‘East Asian tiger economies’ (e.g. South Korea, Singapore and
Taiwan) have industrialised and become significant players in the global economy.
The success of capitalism in East Asia has led some sociologists to believe that
religion has played a role similar to one Calvinism played in the development of
capitalism.
Pentecostalism in Latin America

• Berger (2003), argues that Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a ‘functional

equivalent’ to Weber’s Protestant ethic, it encourages the development of
capitalism today in the same way as Calvinism did. Latin American Pentecostalists
embrace the work ethic and lifestyle similar to that of Calvinists, it demands an
ascetic way of life (self-discipline). It encourages members to prosper and become
upwardly mobile, concluding that Pentecostalism has an affinity with modern
capitalism.
• Berger agrees that a lifestyle like Protestants are necessary when promoting
economic development and raise a society out of poverty, this process can be led
 by an active minority with a this-worldly asceticism. However, he adds that religious
ideas alone are not enough, natural resources are also needed.
• Lehmann (2002) attribute the success of Pentecostalism as a global religion in part
due to its ability to incorporate local beliefs, while it preaches a known worldwide
message it uses symbols and imagery from local cultures. Pentecostalism therefore
validates local, traditional beliefs, while at the same time claiming to give believers
access to a greater power (of the holy spirit).

Topic 6: organisations, movements and members

Types of religious organisations

Church and sect (Troeltsch)

• Churches are large organisations, often with millions of members, run by a

bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests, who also claim monopoly of truth.
They’re universalistic, aiming to include the whole of society, although they tend to
be more attractive to the higher classes because they’re ideologically conservative
and are often closely linked to the state.
• Sects are small, exclusive groups. They’re hostile to wider society and they expect a
high level of commitment. They draw the poor and oppressed and are led by
charismatic leaders. They too believe they have monopoly of truth
Denomination and cult

• Niebuhr (1929) describes denominations as lying midway between churches and

sects, membership is less exclusive than sects but they don’t appeal to the whole of
society. They also accept societies values like churches but aren’t linked to the state,
and while they impose minor restrictions they aren’t as demanding as sects. Unlike
both churches and sect, they do not claim monopoly of truth.
• Cults are highly individualistic, loose-knit and are usually small group based around a
shared interest, but aren’t based around a specific belief system. They’re usually led
by ‘practitioners’ or ‘therapists’ who claim special knowledge, like denominations
they’re tolerant of other organisations. Cults don’t demand a strong commitment
from followers they may have further involvement with the cult once they have
acquired the beliefs or techniques it offers.
 • Wallis (1984) highlights two characteristics of similarities and differences: how they
see themselves (churches and sects claim that their interpretation of the faith is the
only legitimate or correct one, whereas denominations and cults accept that there
can be many valid interpretations) and how they’re seen by wider society (churches
and denominations are seen as respectable and legitimate, whereas sects and cults
are seen as deviant).
• Sociologists argue that some of the above descriptions of religious organisations do
not fit today’s reality. E.g. in today’s society churches are no longer churches as they
have lost their monopoly of truth (due to diversity etc)
New religious movements (Wallis)

• World-rejecting NRMs: examples include the Manson family, Children of God and
the People’s Temple. Characteristics include: clear religious belief with a clear
notions of God, highly critical of the outside world and seek radical change, they
desire to achieve salvation, members live communally and they often have
conservative moral codes.
• World-accommodating NRMs: breakaways from existing mainstream churches or
denominations (e.g. neo-Pentecostalists). They neither accept nor reject the world,
and they focus on religious rather than worldly matters, seeking to restore the
spiritual purity of religion.
• World-affirming NRMs: they lack conventional features of religion such as collective
worship and aren’t highly organised. However they do offer their followers access to
spiritual of supernatural powers. Characteristics include: optimistic view of the world
as a whole, non-exclusive and are tolerant of other religions, most are cults whose
followers are often customers rather than members with training and little demands
on their life
• It is not clear whether Wallis categorising them according to the movements or
individuals beliefs
• He also ignores the diversity of beliefs within NRMs
• Useful in analysing and comparing the significant features of NRMs

Sects and cults

• Stark and Bainbridge identify two kinds of organisation that are in conflict with wider
society:
• Sects result from schisms (splits in existing organisations), they break away from
churches usually because of disagreements about doctrine
• Cults are new religions e.g. scientology
• Sects are seen to have other-worldly benefits (e.g. a place in heaven) to those
suffering economic deprivation or ethical deprivation, whereas cults have this-
worldly benefits to more prosperous individuals who are suffering from psychic
deprivation (normlessness) and organismic deprivation (health problems)
• Stark and Bainbridge subdivide cults according to how organised they are: Audience
cults (least organised, do not involve formal commitment with little interaction
 between members), Client cults (based on the relationship between a consultant
and client, provides services to their followers) and Cultic movements (most
organised and demand a high level of commitment, movements aims to meet all
members religious needs and rarely allow their followers to be a part of other
religious movements as well)

Explaining the growth of religious movements

Marginality

• Weber notes how sects tend to arise in groups who are marginal to society (groups
who feel as if they’re deprivileged), sects therefore offer a solution to this problem
by offering their members a theodicy or deprivilege (a religious explanation and
justification for their suffering) – this may prove their suffering to be a test of faith
etc.
• Historically, many sects have recruited from the marginalised poor, however since
the 1960s sects like world-rejecting NRMs have recruited from more middle class
groups.
Relative deprivation

• Refers to the subjective sense of being deprived, it is possible therefore for a

privileged person to feel that they’re deprived in some way (e.g. spiritually
deprived)
• Stark and Bainbridge argues that relatively deprived people break away from
churches to form sects and safeguard the original message that had since been lost
in the church
• Stark and Bainbridge argues that world-rejecting sects offer the deprived the
compensators that they need for the rewards they’re denied, therefore the
privileged are attracted to world-accepting churches that express their status and
bring them to further success.
Social change

• Wilson (1970) argues that periods of rapid change disrupt and undermine
established norms and values produce anomie. In response to the uncertainty that
is created, those who are most affected may turn to sects.
• Bruce (1996) sees the growth of sects and cults today as a response to the social
changes involved in modernisation and secularisation. People are less attracted to
mainstream, traditional religion and more to sects.
• World-rejecting NRMs: Wallis points to social changes from the 1960s impacting on
young people, gave them freedom from adult responsibilities and enabled a
counter-culture to develop. Also the growth of radical, political movements offered
alternative ideas about the future- world-rejecting NRMs offered young people a
more idealistic way of life.
• World-affirming NRMs: Bruce argues that their growth is a response to modernity,
especially to the rationalisation of work. Work no longer provides meaning or a
 source of identity, therefore world-affirming NRMs provide both a sense of
identity and techniques that promise success in this world.
The dynamics of sects and NRMs

• Niebuhr (1929) argues that sects are world-rejecting organisations that come into
existence because of schisms – splitting from an established church because of a
disagreement over religious doctrine. He argues that they’re short lived (compared
to churches) which either die out within a generation out abandon their views and
become a denomination. There are several reasons for this: the second generation
(those who are born into a sect lack the belief of their parents), the ‘Protestant
ethic’ effect (followers who attend sects that practise asceticism leave due to the
prosperity of the sect) and the Death of a leader (sects with charismatic leaders will
become a denomination after being taken over by bureaucratic leadership)
• Stark and Bainbridge (1986) see religious organisations as moving through a cycle,
the first stage is schism where there’s tension in those who attend church but do not
feel their needs being satisfied causing the deprived will break away and create
world-rejecting sects. The second stage is of initial fervour with a charismatic leader
and tensions between the sect and wider society, stage three consists of
denominationalism (as seen above in Niebuhr’s explanation) with the second
generation/death of a leader/the ‘Protestant ethic’ effect. Stage four,
establishment, sees the sect becoming more world-accepting with reduced tension
and the final stage, further schism, results when less privileged members break
away to found a new sect
• Wilson (2008) argues that not all sects follow the sectarian cycle and denomination
or death. ‘Conversionist’ sects aims to convert large numbers of people so are
therefore likely to grow rapidly into formal denominations, however ‘Adventist’
sects believe they must hold themselves separate from the corrupt world which
prevents them from becoming denominations. He also argues that there have been
many sects that have survived, turning into established sects. Contrary to Niebuhr’s
beliefs this is due to the success in socialising the second generation. However,
Wilson admits that globalisation will make it more difficult in future for sects to
survive, but will make recruitment easier.
The growth of the New Age

• The New Age covers a range of beliefs and activities that have been widespread
since the 1980s, many of them are extremely diverse and eclectic (putting
unconnected things together in new combinations) e.g. belief in UFOs/tarot cards.
Heelas (1996) believes that there are two common themes that characterise the
New Age: self-spirituality (seeking spirituality and turning away from traditional
religions) and detraditionalisation (valuing personal experiences not a spiritual
deity). Heelas argues also that most New Age beliefs offer both world-affirming and
world-rejecting aspects.
Postmodernity and the New Age

• Drane (1999) argues that the appeal of the New Age is due to the shift towards the
postmodern society, the loss of faith causes those to become disillusioned with the
churches failure so turn to the New Age so we can find the truth
• Bruce (1995) argues that the increase of New Age support is actually due to the
modern society, the individualism promoted is supported by New Age principles.
Also, he argues that the beliefs of the New Age are ‘softer’ versions of traditional
religions, this is more appealing to Westerners
• Heelas (1996) sees the New Age and modernity to be linked in 4 ways: a source of
identity (the different roles of modern society create a fragmented identity so the
New Age offers a source of ‘authentic’ identity), consumer culture (New Age offers
an alternative view of perfection that isn’t created as promised in modern society),
rapid social change (New Age provides a norm to the disrupted norms of modern
society) and decline of organised religion (modernity leads to secularisation which
gets rid of the competition of the New Age)

Religiosity and social groups

Gender and religiosity

• There are clear differences between gender differences and religiosity in the UK:
most churchgoers are females who outnumber males by almost half a million, more
women than men (55% vs 44%) say they’re religious, more women than men (38% vs
26% say that religion is important to them.

Reasons for gender differences

• Miller and Hoffman explain that there’s 3 reasons for women’s higher levels of
religiosity: risk taking (men are more likely to take the risk of not bring religious and
potentially going to hell etc), socialisation (women are socialised to be more
religious as they’re socialised to be more obedient, passive and caring what religion
values) and gender roles (as women aren’t as likely to be in full-time work as men
they have more time to participate in religious organisations). Davie (2013) argues
that women are more conscious of religion due to their roles close to child birth and
caring for the elderly which brings them closer to the ‘ultimate questions’
• Bruce (1996) argues that women’s religiosity is a result of their lower levels of
involvement in paid work, religion has recently been adopted into the private sphere
of the home (due to secularisation) so women have more time to follow religion. As
religion has become privatised therefore, men’s religiosity to declining quicker than
women. Despite the decline overall, religion also remains more attractive to women
due to: the feminisation of the church (due to the low attendance of men) and
women sharing the traits valued at church
 • Women also share an attraction to the more individualistic/spiritual side of the
New Age than men (as they’re more often associated with nature and healing) as
well as how the New Age emphasises the importance of being ‘authentic’ rather
than acting (gender roles). The private sphere of the family allows women to be
more expressive in their roles (rather than the conflict of masculinised instrumental
at work as well as expressive at home), the New Age beliefs allow women to bypass
the role conflict and create their own ‘inner self’. Class differences seen in religion
are bypassed in the New Age, lower class women are attracted to this through the
idea that it gives them a passive role.
• Bruce (1996) estimates that there are twice as many women involved in sects that
men. Sects act as compensator to relative deprivation, deprivation is seen more
commonly in women. Organism deprivation stems from how women are more
likely to be mentally or physically ill so seek the help of sects, ethical deprivation
portrays how women are more morally conservative so would regard the world to be
in moral decline and turn to sects. Social deprivation explains how women are most
likely to be poor and the poor are attracted to sects
• Pentecostalism has grown in recent years, but is generally seen to be patriarchal
based due to how the heads of the church are men. However, women are also
attracted to it (Pentecostal gender paradox) this is due to how Pentecostalism
require an ascetic way of life and also requires men to be bread-winners. Pentecostal
women can use these ideas to combat a widespread culture of machismo in Latin
America when men are told to ‘buck-up’ and care for their families. For western
Pentecostal women liberation isn’t seen as men retain their headship role in the
family.
Ethnicity and religiosity

• The UK is now seen as a multi-ethnic, multi-religious society. This means that there
are vast, varying differences in religious participation patterns, for example black
people are twice as likely to attend church that white people, or how they’re also
more likely to be involved in the Pentecostal church than whites.
Reasons for ethnic differences

• Bruce (2002) argues that religion offers support and a sense of cultural identity, this
becomes especially relevant in uncertain or hostile environments. For example,
Bird (1999) notes that religion can hold community solidarity to the minorities who
are poor and oppressed.
• Religion can also be used as a means into easing the transition into a new culture
by providing support and a sense of community. Herberg (1955) shows that high
levels of religious participation is seen in first-generation immigrants.
• Pryce’s (1979) study of the African Caribbean community in Bristol shows both
cultural defence and cultural transition have been important. Pentecostalism helped
African Caribbean’s to adapt to British society as it encouraged its members succeed
 by encouraging self-reliance. It gave people mutual support and hope of improving
their situation.
Age and religious participation

• The older a person is, the more likely they are to attend religious services. However
there is an exception with under 15s who are most likely to attend religious services
than those above them due to their parents.
Reasons for age differences

• Voas and Crockett (2005) suggest 3 possible explanations for age differences in
religiosity: the ageing effect (the view that we approach religion more when we get
old due to the spiritual matters of death), the period or cohort effect (people born
during a particular period may be more or less likely to be religious due to events
they’ve lived through) and secularisation (as religion declines in importance, each
generation becomes less religious than the one before it). Secularisation is seen as
the main explanation of age difference in religiosity.

Topic 7: Ideology and science

Science as a belief system

The impact of science

• Science has had an enormous impact on society in the last few centuries
• Faith and religion has been dimmed by the recent discoveries, while science may
have helped us in protection against diseases and natural disasters it has also caused
such problems as global warming and weapons of mass destruction.
Open belief systems

• Popper (1959) science is seen as an ‘open’ belief system through how it is open to
scrutiny and criticism. Science is governed by the principle of falsification, scientists
set out to try and falsify existing theories and try to disprove them. If they succeed,
the theory can be discarded and the search for a better explanation can begin.
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative, it builds on the achievements of previous
scientists to develop greater research.
The CUDOS norms

• Merton (2007) argues that science can only thrive as a major social institution if it
receives support from other institutions and values
• He also argues that science as an institution or organised social activity needs an
‘ethos’ or set of norms that makes scientists act in ways that serve the goal of
increasing scientific knowledge. Four such norms: communism (scientific knowledge
is shared throughout the community), universalism (the truth of scientific
knowledge is judged by universal standards), disinterestedness (publishing your
findings in order for others to check their claims) and organised scepticism (every
idea is open to questioning and criticism).
Closed belief systems

• Opposing science, religion is a closed belief system which cannot be challenged,

those who do used to be punished.
• Horton (1973) distinguishes between an open and closed belief system, science is an
open belief system however such topics as religion or magic are closed due to how
they cannot be successfully overturned
Witchcraft among the Azande

• The Azande believe that when misfortune befalls someone, they believe that it is
due to witchcraft (they believe that coincidences aren’t real)
• The injured may make an accusation against the suspected witch, the benge will
therefore perform a ritual to investigate.
• The Azande regard witchcraft as a psychic power coming from the intestines, this
means that they can unintentionally cause harm. This allows the accused to proclaim
their surprise and horror, to apologise and promise that there will be no further
bewitching
• Evans-Pritchard argues that this belief system performs useful social functions such
as preventing grudges and forcing neighbours to act accordingly to one another.
• He also notes that the Azande beliefs are closed, in the event of any criticism they
would just proclaim that it wasn’t a good Benge. The argument would reinforce their
beliefs, not disprove it
• Polanyi (1958) argues that all belief systems have three devices to sustain
themselves in the face of apparently contradictory evidence: Circularity (each idea in
the system is explained in terms of another idea within the system), Subsidiary
explanations (e.g. if the oracle fails, it may be explained due to the incorrect use of
the benge) and Denial of legitimacy (belief systems reject alternative worldviews by
refusing to grant any legitimacy to their basic assumptions)
Science as a closed system

• Others claim that science as a belief system can be seen as a closed system of belief.
Polanyi argues that all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their
knowledge-claims (science is no different)
• Kuhn (1970) argues that mature science such as geology, biology and physics is
based on a shared set of assumptions that he calls a paradigm (lays down the broad
outlines of the theory)
• Scientific education and training is the process of being socialised into the truth of
the paradigm. Those who disregard the paradigms were likely to be punished,
however during such events as scientific revolutions (where the truth of a paradigm
is undermined by anomalies), only then do scientists become open to radically new
ideas.
The sociology of scientific knowledge

• Interpretivist sociologists argues that all knowledge (including scientific knowledge)

is socially constructed, they believe that knowledge is created by social groups using
the resources they have. Scientific ‘facts’ are the product of shared theories or
paradigms that tell scientists what they should expect to see
• Knorr-Cetina (1999) argues that the invention of new instruments (telescopes or
microscopes) permits scientists to make new observations and constructs new facts.
Similarly, she points out that the constructed environment of labs are far removed
from the natural world
• Woolgar (1992) argues that scientists are engaged constantly in trying to interpret
the world, when confronted by evidence from their observations they have to
extract its meaning. They also then have to persuade others to share their views.
• Marxist and feminists see scientific knowledge as far from the truth, they regard it as
serving the interests of dominant groups (patriarchy and ruling-class). For Marxists,
and also men, they believe that the advances of science have been driven by the
needs of capitalism and the patriarchy.
• Postmodernists also reject the knowledge-claims of science to have ‘the truth’.
Lyotard (1984) believes that science is one of a number of meta-narratives that
falsely claims to possess the truth about how the world works as a means of progress
to a better society whereas in reality science just is a way to dominate people.

Ideology
Marxism and ideology

• Gramsci (1971) proposes the ideas of the ruling class’ ideological domination of
society, known as hegemony. The working class have a dual consciousness when
they follow the ruling class ideology while using their own exploitation to create
their individualistic ideas. Its therefore possible for the working class to develop
class consciousness and overthrow the capitalists through revolution.
 • However, some critics argue that its not the existence of a dominant ideology that
keeps workers in line and prevents revolution. Abercrombie et al (2015) believes
that it’s the economic factors such as unemployment
The ideology of nationalism

• Nationalism is an important political ideology. Its main claims are that nations are
distinctive communities with their own unique characteristics, every nation should
be self-governing and national loyalty and identity should come before all.
Anderson (2006) however claims that nations are imagined communities of people
that binds million of strangers and creates a sense of common purpose.
• Marx views nationalism as a form of false class consciousness that helps to prevent
the overthrow of capitalism by dividing the international working class. This is due
to how nationalism encourages workers to believe they have more in common with
the capitalists of their country than the working-class of others. This has enabled
the ruling-class to persuade the working-class of their country to fight wars for them.
• Functionalists see nationalism as a secular civil religion, it integrates individuals into
larger social and political units by making them feel part of something greater than
themselves. In the modern society, nationalism functions as a unity between all
regardless of differences such as religion (multi-faith society) or class. Education
plays an important role in creating social solidarity, involving collective rituals
involving nationalist symbols such as the flag or national anthem.
• Gellner (2006) sees nationalism as false consciousness, its modern view sees pre-
industrial societies that were held together not by nationalism, but by face-to-face
relationships in small-scale communities with a fixed hierarch and ascribed statuses.
Modern societies however create large-scale impersonal communities with complex
divisions of labour where all citizens are relatively equal. Nationalism allows for
communication within this society, by using the education system to impose a
single standard language on every member and makes economic and social
cooperation easier through the equality of its members.
Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia

• Mannheim (1929) see all belief systems as having a one-sided worldview. This
results in the view point of one particular group/class and its interests created by
intellectuals who attach themselves to a particular class. Two broad types of belief
system include: Ideological thought (it reflects the position and interests of
privileged groups such as the capitalist class, favouring hierarchy and conservative
views) and Utopian thought (reflects the position and interests of the
underprivileged and offers a vision of how society could be organised differently)
• The solution is to detach the intellectuals from the social groups they represent and
create a free-flowing intelligentsia, free from representing the interests of this or
that group. They would be able to synthesise elements of different ideologies to
arrive at the ‘total’ worldview that represents the interests of society as a whole.
 However, many elements of political views are directly opposed so to try to unite
partial elements of all views wold be impossible
Feminism and ideology

• Marks (1979) describes how ideas from science have been used to justify excluding
women from education, e.g. the exclusion of training women to be
doctors/scientists leading to the creation of ‘puny and unfeminine’ women and
‘disqualifying women from their vocation’.
• The patriarchal ideologies embodied in religious beliefs have also been used to
define women as inferior, e.g. through the ‘purifying’ of women after birth or how
women are seen as unclean, particularly due to menstruation
• However, not all elements of religious beliefs subordinate women, e.g. matriarchal
religions with female deities and female priests.