Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food and Bioproducts Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fbp

Effects of ozone application and hot-air drying on

orange peel: moisture diffusion, oil yield, and
antioxidant activity

Taise Raquel Bechlin a , Suian José Granella a,∗ , Divair Christ a ,

Silvia Renata M. Coelho b , Carlos Henrique de O. Paz b
a Laboratory of Storage and Prototyping of Drying Installations, Western Paraná State University, Universitária
Street, 2069 Cascavel-PR, 85819-110, Brazil
b Laboratory of Control and Quality of Agricultural Products, Western Paraná State University, Universitária Street,

2069 Cascavel-PR, 85819-110, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The citrus essential oil (EO) has several industrial applications due to its antioxidant and
Received 10 February 2020 antifungal properties. However, as the peels are susceptible to microbiological contamina-
Received in revised form 8 June 2020 tion, their by-products may undergo oxidation and reduction of bioactive compounds. For
Accepted 17 June 2020 this reason, this work aimed to evaluate the quality of the processed orange peel (albedo +
Available online 24 June 2020 flavedo), obtained after ozone application (for 2 h at 4 ␮g L−1 and 40 ␮g L−1 ) and drying (at 40,
50 and 60 ◦ C). The parameters evaluated in the study include drying kinetics, color, fungal
Keywords: count, pectin, EO yield, and antioxidant activity of the peels. The main results demonstrate
Orange peel by-products an improvement in the drying process, where the use of ozone boosted moisture diffusion.
Postharvest treatment Increased yield of extracted EO and the antioxidant capacity of peels were also described.
Oil yield Overall, this study contributed to a better understanding of how ozone acts on the physical,
Bioactive compounds chemical, and biological parameters of the citrus by-products.
© 2020 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Citrus fruits account for a large portion of the world’s fruit
tree crop, with over 129 million tons in 2018, of which oranges
make up about 58.4% of total production, followed by tanger-
ines with about 26.6%. Lemons and limes make up the third
most essential citrus species, with 15% of the produced total
(FAO, 2020). Orange fruit wastes, consisting mainly of peel,
may account for 45% of total volume (Yeoh et al., 2008), and
are available as by-products. However, these wastes, when
not adequately treated, can cause environmental problems,
notably water pollution, due to the presence of compounds
with high biological activity, in particular essential oils and
polyphenols (Berna et al., 2000; Ferhat et al., 2008, 2006), pectin
(Yeoh et al., 2008), and sugars. Thus, a more profitable and
environmentally sound use would be the conversion of these
wastes into biorefineries for the production of compost, ani-
mal feed, biofuels, food additives, among other industrial and
pharmaceutic uses (Zema et al., 2018).
After extraction, the peel can be a nutrient-rich food in
dry form, increasing the potential return for the orange juice
industry and reducing organic wastes (Yeoh et al., 2008).
Orange peel EO is used to add orange flavor to various prod-
ucts, for example, carbonated drinks, ice cream, cakes, air
fresheners, and essences (Braun and Cohen, 2015).
However, inadvertent contamination by chemical agents
and fungi during the citrus production stages can also lead
to a decline in safety and quality (Lee, 2013; Steinmetz and

∗
Corresponding author at: Department of Agricultural Engineering, Prototype Development Building, Western Paraná State Univer-
sity/PGEAGRI, Universitária Street, 2069 Cascavel-PR, 85819-110, Brazil.
E-mail addresses: taisebechlin@hotmail.com (T.R. Bechlin), suiangranella@hotmail.com (S.J. Granella).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2020.06.012
0960-3085/© 2020 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89 81

Potter, 1996). In addition, the presence of fungi on the fruit peels (kgwater kg−1 dry matter ). Me values were obtained for each
surface reduces its quality and usefulness (Amaral et al., time interval studied since the equilibrium moisture content
2017; Shuping and Eloff, 2017). Also, under certain conditions, in longer drying times is not constant, it changes gradually
some of the fungal contaminants may secrete toxic metabo- according to the pressure of water vapor in the drying air
lites, namely mycotoxins, that are not destroyed by heat (intrinsic to temperature and water activity). Therefore, mois-
treatments, like convective drying. They have a cumulative ture desorption isotherms of the orange peel obtained by
capacity and are hardly eliminated by the human organ- Kammoun Bejar et al. (2011) were considered to obtain Me.
ism (Hashem and Alamri, 2010; Kumar et al., 2017; Tola and
Kebede, 2016). 2.2. Kinetic model-based on Fick’s second law
The traditional antimicrobial chemicals used in agriculture
for pest control are associated with several problems. There is For representing the drying curves, reduction of water content
currently a vigorous debate about the safety aspects of chem- on the orange peel, a kinetic model based on Fick’s second law
ical preservatives as they are considered dangerous to human was used (Eq. 2, according to Crank (1975)).
health (Stevic et al., 2014). Thus, the use of alternative tech-
 −(2i−1)2 2 D 
8 
nologies, in particular the ozone application in food products, ∞ eff t
Mt – Me 1 4L2
has a significant advantage, besides leaving no residue on the MR = = 2 2
exp (2)
M0 – Me  (2i − 1)
food surface; it is a powerful oxidizing agent against fungi, i=1
bacteria, and insect pests.
The fresh orange peel has a high moisture content that where: Deff is the effective moisture diffusion coefficient (m2
needs to be reduced for proper processing; subjecting the s−1 ), i is a positive integer, L is half of the slice thickness (m),
product to convective drying after ozone application can and t is the drying time (s).
guarantee more excellent safety during their processing in Since this theory assumes that moisture diffusion occurs in
agro-industries and biorefineries. Over 85% of industrial dryers the same dimension (infinite slab); and simplified first-order
used for processing products are of convective type, utilizing kinetic model can describe the global moisture of product with
combustion gasses or hot air as drying medium (Mujumdar, 2 mm of thickness, represented by Eq. 3, considering long dry-
2015). Knowledge of the kinetic mechanisms of drying is ing times (MR < 0.6)
essential to investigate the behavior of a product during the  −2 D 
eff t
drying process (Isik et al., 2019). Mt – Me 8 4L2
Oxidation capacity of ozone leads to qualitative and quan- MR = = 2 exp (3)
M0 – Me 
titative losses of the products that may occur substantially
depending on the dosage applied (Alwi and Ali, 2014; Rodoni 2.3. Anomalous model for super-diffusion
et al., 2010). Also, it may influence the moisture diffusivity of
pretreated biological materials during drying. Therefore, the According to (Simpson et al., 2013), the anomalous diffusion
objective of this work was to evaluate the application of ozone model (Eq. 4) that uses the fractional time for porous biolog-
gas on the orange peel and subsequent convective drying. ical materials can adequately represent super-diffusion (n>1)
Effects on fungal count, color, oil and pectin yields, antioxi- using temporary fractional orders.
dant activity, and secondary compounds of the dried orange  −2 D n

peels were determined. eff t
Mt – Me 8 4L2
MR = = 2 exp (4)
M0 – Me 
2. Principles of drying theory
This model is also associated with long drying times and
Samples of 50 g of peels were used to monitor mass loss during was also used in the studies by Galaz et al. (2017) and Simpson
the drying process accompanied by the use of a balance with et al. (2015), both with satisfactory results. It is noteworthy that
a resolution of 0.01 g by gravimetric method. Drying was inter- when the anomalous model (Eq. 4) admits n = 1, it returns to
rupted when the moisture content of the orange peel was 12% Eq. 3 of the water diffusion of Fick’s law.
(wb), estimated mathematically by reducing the mass accord-
ing to the initial moisture content of the product. During the 2.4. Mathematical model
drying process, the air temperature and relative humidity were
monitored with the aid of two thermo-hygrometers. Relative For the study of the drying curves of orange peel, the Page
humidity into dryer was obtained mathematically through the model (Eq. 5) was used. In general, it has shown a good fit for
air’s psychometric principles. Thus, with these data, it was drying data applied to long drying periods, as in drying hydro
possible to obtain and study the drying curves (time × mois- of orange peels (R2 >0.99, Casso-Hartmann et al. (2016)).
ture ratio).
MR = k1 exp(−k2 tn ) (5)
2.1. Moisture ratio
where k1 is a constant dependent on material geometry (k1 =
Moisture ratio (MR) was determined according to the Eq. 1: 0.81 for an infinite slab), k2 is a constant dependent on the Deff
and geometry, and n assumes value 1 for the Fickean drying
Mt – Me process or different to 1 for anomalous cases.
MR = (1)
M0 – Me The differences in diffusion processes during drying are
mainly related to the food microstructure; therefore, just one
where Mt is the moisture content at some time (kgwater kg−1 value of n should represent all the processes, independent of
−1
dry matter ), Me is equilibrium moisture content (kgwater kg the drying temperature (n constant), while k2 must be increas-
dry matter ), and M0 is the initial moisture content of the orange ing with temperature. Under these constraints, it is possible
82 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89
to fit all the drying data (considering the three temperatures)
and search for a unique value of n and k2 for each temperature
(Simpson et al., 2015).
For modeling, the differences between the model predic-
tions and the experimental measurements were quantified
using the root-mean-square error (RMSE) and the residual sum
of squares (RSS), shown below through equations Eq. 6 and Eq.
7, respectively. The correlation coefficient (R2 ) was also used
for the analysis of the model.
 for 60 s, obtaining the first dilution (10−1 ). The second dilution
n  2
i=1
xexperimental − xpredicted
SE =
df
1  2
n
RSS = xexperimental − xpredicted
n
i=1
where: n is the total number of measurements, and x is the
variable to be compared.
3. Material and methods
3.1. Sampling and locale of study
Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) peels were obtained from local
commerce in the city of Cascavel-PR, Brazil. The orange juice
was extracted using an industrial food juicer (EXB-N, Skym-
sen, Brusque, Brazil), and the peels transported on the same
day to the laboratory. The peels (flavedo + albedo) were sani-
tized, and the excess endocarp was removed with the aid of
a spoon. In sequence, peels were cut obtaining the follow-
ing mean dimensions: 10.0 × 2.5 × 0.35 cm (length × width
× thickness) (Fig. 1). After homogenization, the material was
packaged into polyethylene bags and stored at −5 ◦ C. The
moisture content (73.89 ± 0.60 %, wb, n = 3) of the fresh peel
was determined using 20 g sample in an oven at 105 ◦ C for 24
h.
3.2. Experimental stage
Peels with uniform color and size were selected and randomly
divided into three groups, being one of them the control group
containing 500 g of sample. The other two groups, with about
1.8 kg of peel samples each, were subjected to ozone and
drying treatments. Ozone was applied in a PVC cylindrical
chamber (30 × 40 cm, diameter × height) in different concen-
trations of 4 ␮g L−1 and 40 ␮g L−1 , both for 2 h. Ozone was
obtained by an ozone generator (SKID 20, O3R, Balneário Cam-
boriú, Brazil) previously calibrated with a continuous rate of 20
g O3 h−1 . After treatment with ozone, the orange peel samples
were subjected to convective drying at 40, 50, and 60 ◦ C. For
this, each sample treated with ozone was again divided into
six batches. Each batch with 300 g of peel samples was placed
in an aluminum tray. Two trays were used for each drying tem-
perature. Thus, a total of six treatments (ozone and drying) +
1 control were obtained.
The drying was carried out using a hot-air forced convec-
tive dryer (TE-394, Tecnal, Piracicaba, Brazil). The mass loss of
the orange peel during the drying process was measured peri-
odically, and the process was interrupted when the moisture
content reached 12.0 (%, wb), this value is considered adequate
so that the excess or deficiency of water in the sample does not
interfere with the extraction of the EO (Ivanovic et al., 2011).
Three replicates of the drying process and drying kinetics anal-
yses were performed. Three replicates of the drying process
and drying kinetics analyses were performed.
3.3. Methods
3.3.1. Fungal count (FC)
Fresh and dried orange milled peel samples (10 g) were added
to 90 mL of 0.1% peptone salt solution, following by stirring
(10-2 ) was obtained by adding 1 mL of the first dilution to 9
(6) mL of peptone water. Surface plating was carried out in DRBC
agar, with 0.1 mL inoculum in duplicate; plates were incubated
at 25 ± 2 ◦ C for 72 h in a B.O.D incubator (MAPA, 2003). Results
were expressed in cfu g−1 of orange peel.
(7)
3.3.2. Color
The parameters CIELab (L*, a*, b*) of milled orange peel were
measured using a colorimeter (Model CR410, Minolta Osaka,
Japan). L* indicates lightness with 0 = black and 100 = white,
a* indicates chromaticity on a green (−) to red (+) axis, and b*
indicates chromaticity on a blue (−) to yellow (+) axis. To read-
ings of the color indices, the samples were arranged in circular
containers, and readings were performed in triplicate. To eval-
uate the magnitude of color change, the three-dimensional
parameter E was calculated using the following equation:
2 2 2
(L∗ ) + (a∗ ) + (b∗ )
E = (9)
2
3.3.3. EO yield
Samples of orange peel weighing 100 g were suspended in 500
mL of distilled water and subjected to conventional hydrodis-
tillation for 3 h using a Clevenger apparatus, as described by
Bustamante et al. (2016). Extraction was performed, and the
obtained EO was collected, dried over anhydrous sodium sul-
fate (Na2 SO4 ), and stored at 5 ◦ C in amber glass flasks. The EO
yield was expressed g of EO per 100 g of dried peel.
3.3.4. Pectin extraction and yield
The pectin extraction occurred according to the methodology
described by Fakayode and Abobi (2018). The conventional hot
solvent extraction for pectin was performed in a 250 mL flask
by adding 5−10 g oil-free orange peels into 180 mL HCl aqueous
solution at pH 2.0 and temperature 90 ◦ C for 90 min. Subse-
quently, the samples were hot-filtered and precipitated with
180 mL 95% ethanol solution 1:2 (v/v) for 12 h. The precipitate
was separated and washed three times with 95% ethanol and
then dried in a hot air oven at 50 ◦ C until constant weight. The
pectin yield was expressed g of collected pectin per 100 g of
oil-free orange peel.
3.3.5. Antioxidant activity by DPPH method
The measurement of the DPPH radical scavenging activity of
the flour orange peel was performed according to Choi et al.
(2002): 5 g of peel was used and homogenized with 50 mL
of methanol-water (2:1) solution for 30 min followed by cen-
trifugation for 15 min at 3600 rpm, in sequence, solutions of
the orange peel extracts were prepared in methanol on con-
centrations of 2,0–10,0 mg mL−1 . The absorbance values were
measured after 30 min of mixing 1 mL of the sample solution
with 3 mL of 0.06 mM dpph radical solution, in a spectropho-
tometer (Femto-700 Plus model, São Paulo-SP, Brazil) at 515
 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89
Fig. 1 – Schematic representation of the orange peel slices obtaining and average dimensions.
nm, and the following equation calculated the percentage of
inhibition (%I):
Abssample
%I = 1 −
Abscontrol
where: Abssample is the absorbance of the sample, Abscontrol
is the absorbance of the DPPH solution in methanol. Extracts
solution in methanol was used with blank. Final DPPH radical
scavenging activity value was determined by IC50 index (IC50
value is the concentration of the sample necessary to inhibit
50% of radical) of the peel extracts.
3.3.6. Phenolic content
Reagent Folin-Ciocalteu was used to determine total pheno-
lic compounds, according to Singleton and Rossi (1965). The
peel extracts were dissolved in methanol to obtain a con-
centration of 1.0 mg ml−1 . The standard curve was prepared
with gallic acid at concentrations of 10−100 ␮g mL−1 . The
absorbance values were measured in a spectrophotometer
(Femto-700 Plus model, São Paulo-SP, Brazil) at 760 nm, and
results were expressed in ␮g gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per
mg of sample.
3.4. Statistical analysis
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) by a completely random-
ized design was used to evaluate the effects of the ozone
application and drying temperature on the orange peel. All
analyses were performed at least three times. The significant
differences between the means of the experimental results
of the parameters were evaluated by the LSD test, at 5% of
significance, using R-project Software (version 3.2, Vienna,
Austria).
83
4. Results
4.1. Drying curves of the orange peel and modeling
The drying curves obtained from the reduction of moisture
(10)
content (73.9–12.0% wb) on orange peel submitted at three
drying temperatures (40, 50 and 60 ◦ C), and using ozone pre-
treatment at two different concentrations (4 and 40 ␮g L−1 ) for
2 h, are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.
The drying kinetics data of orange peel were fitted to the
Page model grounded on Fick’s second law considering n = 1:
Fig. 2a (ozone pretreated peel at 4 ␮g l−1 ) and Fig. 2b (ozone pre-
treated peel at 40 ␮g L−1 ). The second study of drying kinetics
occurred to the Page model considering the anomalous solu-
tion with n variable: Fig. 3a (ozone pretreated peel at 4 ␮g L−1 )
and Fig. 3b (ozone pretreated peel at 40 ␮g L−1 ).
The drying curves fitted with the Page model show that
Fickean and anomalous (with n variable) solutions have an
appropriate fit to the experimental drying data (R2 ≥ 0.96) over
long drying periods, also considering the different ozone appli-
cations used. Table 1 presents the data obtained from different
modeling (considering n = 1 or n variable), the coefficients
obtained from models, and the statistical parameters consid-
ered; it is possible to observe that the values of n were higher
than 1. Pretreated orange peels with ozone at 4 ␮g L−1 pre-
sented values of n between 1.06 ± 0.03–1.18 ± 0.02 at 40 and 60
◦ C, while pretreated at 40 ␮g L−1 presented values n between
1.15 ± 0.02 and 1.27 ± 0.05 at 40 and 60 ◦ C, indicating a pos-
sible occurrence of super-diffusion during the drying process.
The values of k2 obtained by the Page model by Fick’s law can
be considered similar at the same temperature. For the Page
model based on anomalous diffusion, the k2 presented differ-
ent values between the pretreatment with ozone at the same
drying temperature. The statistical parameter RMSE, in gen-
eral, presented low values ranging from 0.467 × 10-2 to 4.18
× 10-2 , which also occurred for RSS (<0.58). Both parameters
proved to be adequate to the experimental data under the
different drying conditions evaluated.
84 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89

Fig. 2 – Convective drying kinetics for the six treatments (ozone pretreated samples at (A) 4 ␮g L−1 and (B) 40 ␮g L−1 , and
dried at 40, 50 and 60 ◦ C). Dots are experimental data, the vertical bars are the standard deviation, and dotted lines are the
predicted data (MR < 0.6) using Fick’s second law model.

Fig. 3 – Convective drying kinetics for the six treatments (ozone pretreated samples at (A) 4 ␮g L−1 and (B) 40 ␮g l−1 , and
dried at 40, 50 and 60 ◦ C). Dots are experimental data, the vertical bars are the standard deviation, and dotted lines are the
predicted data (MR < 0.6) using the anomalous diffusion model with n dependent on temperature.

Table 2 shows the values of Deff calculated by anomalous
diffusion and Fickean diffusion models. Based on the Deff
results, in all conditions, the diffusivity for the Fickean solu-
tion (n = 1) was lower than for the anomalous solution (n = / here by the lowest IC50 index, occurred when the sam-
1). The Deff values ranged from 0.23 ± 0.05 × 10−8 m2 s-1 to
1.33 ± 0.02 × 10−8 m2 s-1 at 40 and 60 ◦ C and under ozone
pretreatment at 4 ␮g L-1 , and from 0.94 ± 0.06 × 10−8 m2 s-1
to 1.52 ± 0.01 × 10−8 m2 s-1 at 40 and 60 ◦ C under ozone pre-
treatment at 40 ␮g L-1 , by Fickean diffusion model. For the
case of the anomalous diffusion model with n variable, the
Deff values ranged from 2.34 ± 0.75 × 10−8 m2 s-1 to 11.02
± 1.23 × 10−8 m2 s-1 . However, this variation was not linear
with the increase in the drying temperature from 40 to 60 ◦ C,
since the values of n, also non-linear, affected the diffusiv-
ity solution. Thus, although the Page model could represent
the drying experimental data, it lacks phenomenological sup-
port (Simpson et al., 2013). In this case, ozone pretreatment for
drying can affect the parameters of the equation and directly
interfere with the properties of the materials.
4.2. Effects of the processing on orange peels
The EO yield was most positively influenced (p < 0.05) when
orange peels were submitted to a higher ozone concentra-
tion of 40 ␮g l−1 and drying air temperature at 40 ◦ C with
a value of 4.48 ± 0.07 g 100 g−1 (Table 3). However, these
same conditions negatively influenced (p < 0.05) the antiox-
idant activity by DPPH method (IC50 = 5.70 ± 0.04 mg mL−1 ,
Table 3). Whereas, the highest antioxidant activity, presented
ples were subjected at 4 ␮g O3 l−1 and 60 ◦ C (IC50 = 4.09
± 0.12 mg mL−1 , Table 3). Thus, an increase in ozone con-
centration from 4 to 40 ␮g O3 l−1 per 2 h exposure time
may have an inverse effect on the product’s antioxidant sys-
tem.
The values of color a* and b* for the control corresponded
to 1.11 ± 0.14 and 57.12 ± 0.90, respectively. In the treated peel
samples, the color a* varied from 5.67 ± 0.24–9.04 ± 0.38, and
color b* varied from 37.90 ± 0.89–43.17 ± 1.50 (Table 3). The
color parameter b*, positive, indicates more yellowish tones.
Another observation can be noted by the color a*, in which
the values of ozonized and dry samples increased consider-
ably compared to control (p < 0.05). In this context, as the
color parameter a*, negative, indicates greenish tones, the
control sample presented coloration in the region between
green and yellow, with more influence of yellow. The color
parameter L was negatively affected (p < 0.05) by the use of
higher ozone concentrations and higher drying temperatures.
This means that the increase in ozone concentration made
the peel samples darker, with L* values ranging from 62.98 ±
0.43–74.86 ± 0.12. Control samples obtained an L* value of 78.87
± 0.18.
 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89 85

Table 2 – The effective moisture diffusion coefficient and

0.45
0.29
0.37
RSS
activation energy for ozonized and dried orange peels.
Ozone Drying Fickean Anomalous
pretreatment Temperature diffusion diffusion
(␮g L−1 ) (◦ C)
Deff ×10−8 Deff ×10−8

0.51
0.56
0.58
RSS

RMSE×10−2
(m2 s −1 ) (m2 s− 1 )

40 0.23 ± 0.05 2.34 ± 0.75

1.58
0.67
1.73
4 50 1.15 ± 0.11 11.34 ± 1.23
60 1.33 ± 0.02 6.53 ± 2.11
40 0.94 ± 0.06 2.63 ± 0.61
RMSE*×10−2

40 50 1.08 ± 0.08 2.05 ± 0.45

60 1.52 ± 0.01 3.82 ± 0.33

0.994
0.997
0.996
3.33
4.18
3.76

R2
Table 1 – Coefficient values obtained for each drying curve modeling of the ozonized orange peels and their respective statistical parameters.

The phenolic content, fungi count (CF), and pectin pro-

duction had similar behavior among treated and untreated
samples (Fig. 4). All treatments decreased significantly (p <
Ozone pretreatment at 40 ␮g L−1
1.15 ± 0.02
1.27 ± 0.05
1.19 ± 0.04

0.05) compared to the control. Our results showed a reduction

0.982
0.967
0.976

in phenolic content (Fig. 4a) after ozone exposure (at 4 – 40

R2

␮g L−1 ) for 2 h and orange peel drying at 40–60 ◦ C, with val-

n
Page model, n variable

ues ranging from 6.89 ± 0.05–8.05 ± 0.14 ␮g GAE mg−1 , while

the phenolic content of the control samples was 9.81 ± 0.25
−1

0.0029 ± 0.0004
0.0016 ± 0.0009
0.0039 ± 0.0011

␮g GAE mg−1 . The fungal count was also influenced by ozone

Ozone pretreatment at 40 ␮g L

treatments and drying with a negative effect. Therefore, the

highest values of fungal reduction of the orange peels were
obtained when the highest ozone dose was applied (40 ␮g l−1 )
k2

(Fig. 4b), with reduction values in the range of 26–29 % com-

0.0059 ± 0.0006
0.0068 ± 0.0002
0.0087 ± 0.0011

pared to the control. The values of pectin yield varied from

Fick model

21.03 ± 0.49–24.57 ± 0.54 g 100 g−1 among the treated samples

(Fig. 4c), being significantly lower (p < 0.05) than that of the
0.28
0.49
0.26
RSS

control samples (25.96 ± 0.72 g 100 g−1 ).

k2

5. Discussion

The results of the present work can help to understand a pos-

RMSE×10−2
0.38
0.23
0.45
RSS

sible indirect influence of ozone on water diffusivity during

the orange peel drying process. These results are consistent
1.24
2.92
2.42

with our previous researches (Granella et al., 2019a; Granella

et al., 2019b) using ozone with drying air for grain preserva-
tion (wheat, corn, and soybean), and now confirmed by the
−2

values obtained from n between 1.06 ± 0.03 and 1.27 ± 0.05

RMSE×10

from the anomalous modeling, which characterized the pro-

0.996
0.989
0.993
2.83
2.98
2.71

cess as super-diffuse. According to the reactive characteristic

R2

of ozone with the organic constituents in the most superfi-

cial layer of the product (orange peel), ozone can act on both
microbiological degradation and loss of peel texture. Degrada-
tion by ozone of the cell wall depends on concentration, flow,
0.976
0.983
0.981

and time of application; it also facilitates the loss of hygro-

1.14 ± 0.02
1.06 ± 0.03
1.18 ± 0.02
−1

Ozone pretreatment at 4 ␮g L−1

2
R

Ozone pretreatment at 4 ␮g L

scopic water to the most superficial layers of the product, in

other words, cell wall degradation results in increased water
n

diffusion. Likewise, due to the action of ozone, micro-ruptures

Page model, n variable

of the trichomes and swelling of the albedo can also occur. It

leads to an increase in the area available for water adsorption,
0.0056 ± 0.0002
0.0075 ± 0.0005
0.0081 ± 0.0003

0.0020 ± 0.0003
0.0067 ± 0.0014
0.0049 ± 0.0006

thereby increasing the rate of moisture diffusion.

Fick model

The effective diffusion coefficients obtained in the drying

temperature range studied (40−60 ◦ C) ranged from 2.34 ± 0.75
× 10−8 to 11.02 ± 1.23 × 10-8 m2 s-1 for orange peels pretreated
k2

k2

with 4 ␮g L-1 of O3 , and 2.05 ± 0.45 × 10-8 to 3.82 ± 0.33 × 10−8

m2 s-1 for orange peels pretreated with 40 ␮g L-1 de O3 . Com-
paring these values with those of Garau et al. (2006), for which
Temperature

Temperature

Deff ranged from 0.81 × 10-10 to 5.11 × 10-9 m2 s-1 , obtained

for drying orange peels (Citrus aurantium) at temperatures of
40 C
50 ◦ C
60 ◦ C

40 ◦ C
50 ◦ C
60 ◦ C

30−90 ◦ C, it is possible to verify lower values of Deff , also con-

◦

sidering the use of higher drying temperatures. Thus, the use

86 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89

Table 3 – Essential oil yield, antioxidant activity by the DPPH method, color parameters of ozonized and dried orange
peels, and control samples.
Ozone pretreatment Drying Temperature EO yield (g 100 g−1 Color
IC50 (mg mL−1 )
(␮g L−1 ) (◦ C) dried peel)
L* a* b*

Control 4.25 ± 0.08b 4.31 ± 0.20d 78.87 ± 0.18a 1.11 ± 0.14a 57.12 ± 0.90a
4 40 4.18 ± 0.07b 5.21 ± 0.21b 69.78 ± 0.28c 9.04 ± 0.38e 42.32 ± 3.05b
4 50 4.08 ± 0.06c 4.57 ± 0.01c 74.86 ± 0.12b 5.67 ± 0.24b 43.17 ± 1.50b
4 60 3.19 ± 0.01d 4.09 ± 0.12e 73.20 ± 0.18b 6.64 ± 0.52c 37.90 ± 0.89d
40 40 4.48 ± 0.07a 5.70 ± 0.04a 62.98 ± 0.43d 8.91 ± 0.19e 39.07 ± 0.75c,d
40 50 4.22 ± 0.02b 5.34 ± 0.02b 73.81 ± 0.42b 6.93 ± 0.39c 40.93 ± 0.58b,c
40 60 3.37 ± 0.05d 4.41 ± 0.28c,d 72.75 ± 0.57b 8.22 ± 0.33d 40.19 ± 1.05c

IC50 : concentration of the peel extract necessary to inhibit the formation of DPPH radicals in 50%.
Results expressed with the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different letters in each row indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05) according
to the LSD’s test.

Fig. 4 – Phenolic content, fungal count, and pectin yield of ozonized and dried orange peels, and control samples. Vertical
bars are the standard deviation obtained from the three replicates. Different letters indicate significant differences among
treatments (p < 0.05).

of small portions of ozone (4 ␮g L-1 ) as a pretreatment was suf-
ficient to increase water diffusivity during the drying process
of the orange peels.
In convective drying, the transport of moisture (liquid and
vapor) occurs in several ways. The liquid transport is slower,
and a higher temperature gradient is needed to accelerate the
moisture diffusion. However, the increase in temperature of
convective drying can affect the chemical constituents of the
materials (Chua et al., 2019). The volatile molecules that form
the oils present in some biological materials are more sensitive
to heat. Thus, the loss of aromatic compounds due to the use
of higher drying temperatures helped to decrease the EO yield
of orange peels verified in our work.
On the other hand, the weakening of the orange peel struc-
tures by ozone may also have influenced the yield of extracted
essential oil. Although oil is not found in more internal regions
like water, the weakening of the superficial layers that make
up the peel was sufficient to increase this yield. During the
hydrodistillation process, the heating of the plant material is
not sufficient to break entirely the structures accommodating
the fragrant molecules that are carried in the resulting steam;
the use of an oxidizing agent like ozone, in this case, helps
break down the oil glands located on the exocarp of the fruit
and release these compounds under exogenous effect.
Antioxidants are sometimes defined as agents capable of
reacting with radicals, quantified in this work by the hydrogen
transfer reaction mechanism between the DPPH radical and
the antioxidant (AH). However, a better definition would be of
compounds capable of retarding the oxidation of an oxidizable
material (Amorati et al., 2013), focusing on biological mate-
rials, in particular orange peel, the organic constituents to
protect against oxidation would be most essential oils. Thus,
as oxidation may occur by a peroxyl radical interceded chain
•
reaction (ROO ), the applied ozone may accelerate the chain
reaction by the ease of dissociation, accumulating peroxyl rad-
icals. The superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase
(APX), and catalase (CAT) enzymes are considered the main
response mechanisms for stress-induced by ozone (Gutiérrez
et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2019), due to the accumulation of ROO
radicals. Due to the advancement of ozone-induced product
senescence, the increased activity of these enzymes gener-
ates ROS, which, in turn, improves antioxidant mechanisms
for their protection. A hypothetical schema exhibiting possible
induction of some antioxidant enzymes by ozone treatment
is shown in Fig. 5. Our results are also in agreement with
those of Sudheer et al. (2016), where the application of 9 ␮l
O3 L−1 for 1 h was sufficient for a slight increase in antioxi-
dant activity in mushrooms, and utilization of 100 mg O3 L−1
for 90 min improved Juniper berries antioxidant status after
gas application (Brodowska et al., 2015). Regarding convective
drying, higher drying temperatures (60 ◦ C) best retained the
antioxidant activity of the orange peel than the temperature
at 40 ◦ C. As also reported in the convective drying of strawber-
ries by Méndez-Lagunas et al. (2017). Heat treatments, such as
hot-air drying, can induce antioxidant enzymes POD and CAT
(Wahid et al., 2007). The physiological response to heat can
come with the accumulation of carotenoid and terpenoid com-
pounds involved in the photoprotection of cells (Nisar et al.,
2015).
Phenolic compounds are one of the primary phytochemi-
cals with the antioxidant activity present in citrus peels. The
increased level of these compounds in ozone-treated products
may be due to the activation of the enzyme phenylalanine
ammonium lyase (PAL) (Toivonen and Brummell, 2008), which
 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89
Fig. 5 – Hypothetical model representing the oxidative stress caused by ozone treatment on orange peel and induction of
some antioxidant enzymes.
is stimulated by several stress-causing abiotic factors. Our
results showed a reduction in phenolic content after ozone
application and convective drying, suggesting that the appli-
cation time of 2 h may have been considerably high. The
plant’s antioxidant system should rapidly eliminate excess
oxidation or increase in ozone-induced ROS; the phenolic
compounds are the main actions in this case. The positive
impact of ozone is often observed on bioactive compounds
of fruits, as in papaya (Yeoh et al., 2014), and raspberry
(Piechowiak et al., 2019). The increase in the temperature of
convective drying may also have influenced the degradation of
phenolic compounds of the orange peels. The influence of dry-
ing temperature on the degradation of phenolic compounds
was reported in Bunchosia glandulifera (Blank et al., 2018) and
strawberry (Méndez-Lagunas et al., 2017). The release of bound
phenolic compounds and the partial degradation of lignin
during drying may have resulted in more considerable degra-
dation of phenolic compounds (Maillard and Berset, 1995).
The fungal reduction by ozone present on food is often
discussed in the literature. Exposure time and concentration
are considered the main factors for gas effectiveness against
contaminants. Secondary determinant factors are water activ-
ity, temperature, contamination level, and gas application
method. Although ozone treatment retarded the most super-
ficial fungal incidence of bark, it may not have been fully
effective against wound-inoculated fungus spores, corrobo-
rating with the results of Boonkorn et al. (2012), where the
application of 200 ␮L L−1 (271 ␮g L−1 ) ozone for 2 h did not con-
trol the incidence of Penicillium digitatum on infected tangerine
fruit.
The softening of the peels that occur during the ozone
application can be attributed to the disintegration of the cell
wall, which is mainly due to the degradation of the pectic
polysaccharides contributing to the reduction of the orange
peel’s firmness. However, this same effect resulted in a satis-
factory increase in oil extraction yield and moisture diffusivity
during the subsequent drying process. Thus, small doses of
ozone may be sufficient to improve the drying process, oil
yield, and antioxidant potential of the orange peels.
87
6. Conclusion
The results of this study demonstrate the applicability and
viability of ozone applied in citrus by-products. Depending on
the dose of ozone used, different effects may occur on the
orange peel, including increasing moisture diffusion during
drying. Ozone has made the drying process super-diffuse and
improved the antioxidant potential of the product, activat-
ing its protection system against oxidative stress. After ozone
and convective drying treatments, a slight increase in oil yield
was found, which might play a promoter role of the hydrodis-
tillation. Also, a reduction in microbiological contaminants
present on the surface of the peel was reported, which might
effectively improve the delay of the decay, and prolong the
shelf life. Thus, application depending on the ozone dose and
post-drying of citrus by-products makes a significant contri-
bution to our knowledge of alternatives for agricultural waste
processing.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Capes/Brazil for supporting part of
this research. The authors also would like to thank the Editors
and anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments, which
helped improve the paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be
found, in the online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.fbp.2020.06.012.
88 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89

References essential oils from orange peel. J. Chromatogr. A 1112,

121–126, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2005.12.030.
Ferhat, M.A., Meklati, B.Y., Visinoni, F., Vian, M.A., Chemat, F.,
Granella, S.J., Raquel Bechlin, T., Christ, D., Machado Coelho, S.R.,
2008. Solvent free microwave extraction of essential oils Green
2019a. Kinetic and physicochemical properties of
chemistry in the teaching laboratory. Chim. Oggi 26, 48–50.
drying-ozonation process on wheat grain. J. Food Process.
Galaz, P., Valdenegro, M., Ramírez, C., Nuñez, H., Almonacid, S.,
Preserv. 43, e14057, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14057.
Simpson, R., 2017. Effect of drum drying temperature on
Alwi, N.A., Ali, A., 2014. Dose-dependent effect of ozone
drying kinetic and polyphenol contents in pomegranate peel.
fumigation on physiological characteristics, ascorbic acid
J. Food Eng. 208, 19–27,
content and disease development on bell pepper (Capsicum
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.04.002.
annuum L.) during storage. Food Bioprocess Technol. 8,
Garau, M.C., Simal, S., Femenia, A., Rosselló, C., 2006. Drying of
558–566, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-014-1419-2.
orange skin: drying kinetics modelling and functional
Amaral, D.D., Leticia, A.N.A., Monteiro, R., Inácio, E., Silva, D.A.,
properties. J. Food Eng. 75, 288–295,
Lins, R.D.E.O., Maria, S., Oliveira, A.D.E., 2017. Frequency of
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.04.017.
quiescent Fungi and post - harvest alternative management
Gutiérrez, D.R., Chaves, A.R., Rodríguez, S., del, C., 2018. UV-C and
of stem end rot in Papaya 1. Rev. Caatinga 30, 786–793,
ozone treatment influences on the antioxidant capacity and
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1983-21252017v30n327rc.
antioxidant system of minimally processed rocket (Eruca
Amorati, R., Foti, M.C., Valgimigli, L., 2013. Antioxidant activity of
sativa Mill.). Postharvest Biol. Technol. 138, 107–113,
essential oils. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61, 10835–10847,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2017.12.014.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf403496k.
Hashem, M., Alamri, S., 2010. Contamination of common spices
Granella, S.J., Bechlin, T.R., Christ, D., Zanardi, B., Rego, J.M.,
in Saudi Arabia markets with potential mycotoxin-producing
Machado Coelho, S.R., 2019b. Improvement of heat & mass
fungi. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 17, 167–175,
transfer with added ozone into drying air on corn-soy. Eng.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2010.02.011.
Agric. Environ. Food. 12, 427–434,
Isik, A., Ozdemir, M., Doymaz, I., 2019. Effect of hot air drying on
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eaef.2019.07.001.
quality characteristics and physicochemical properties of bee
Berna, A., Tárrega, A., Blasco, M., Subirats, S., 2000. Supercritical
pollen. Food Sci. Technol. 39, 224–231,
CO2 extraction of essential oil from orange peel; effect of the
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/fst.02818.
height of the bed. J. Supercrit. Fluids 18, 227–237,
Ivanovic, J., Ristic, M., Skala, D., 2011. Supercritical CO2 extraction
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0896-8446(00)00082-6.
of Helichrysum italicum: influence of CO2 density and
Blank, D.E., Bellaver, M., Fraga, S., Lopes, T.J., de Moura, N.F., 2018.
moisture content of plant material. J. Supercrit. Fluids 57,
Drying kinetics and bioactive compounds of Bunchosia
129–136, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2011.02.013.
glandulifera. J. Food Process Eng. 41, e12676,
Kammoun Bejar, A., Ghanem, N., Mihoubi, D., Kechaou, N.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12676.
Boudhrioua Mihoubi, N., 2011. Effect of infrared drying on
Boonkorn, P., Gemma, H., Sugaya, S., Setha, S., Uthaibutra, J.,
drying kinetics, color, total phenols and water and oil holding
Whangchai, K., 2012. Impact of high-dose, short periods of
capacities of orange (Citrus Sinensis) peel and leaves. IJFER 7, 5,
ozone exposure on green mold and antioxidant enzyme
http://dx.doi.org/10.2202/1556-3758.2222.
activity of tangerine fruit. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 67, 25–28,
Kumar, P., Mahato, D.K., Kamle, M., Mohanta, T.K., Kang, S.G.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2011.12.012.
2017. Aflatoxins: a global concern for food safety, human
Braun, L., Cohen, M., 2015. Herbs and Natural Supplements: an
health and their management. Front. Microbiol. 7, 2170,
Evidence-based Guide, fourth ed. Churchill Livingstone,
http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.02170.
Australia.
Lee, A., 2013. Commercial and novel solutions for fresh produce
Brodowska, A.J., Smigielski, K., Nowak, A., Czyzowska, A.,
safety. In: Hoorfar, J. (Ed.), Global Safety of Fresh Produce: A
Otlewska, A., 2015. The impact of ozone treatment in dynamic
Handbook of Best Practice, Innovative Commercial Solutions
bed parameters on changes in biologically active substances
and Case Studies. , first ed. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge,
of juniper berries. PLoS One 10, e0144855,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781782420279.3.203.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144855.
Maillard, M.N., Berset, C., 1995. Evolution of antioxidant activity
Bustamante, J., van Stempvoort, S., García-Gallarreta, M.,
during kilning: role of insoluble bound phenolic acids of
Houghton, J.A., Briers, H.K., Budarin, V.L., Matharu, A.S., Clark,
barley and malt. J. Agric. Food Chem. 43, 1789–1793,
J.H., 2016. Microwave assisted hydro-distillation of essential
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf00055a008.
oils from wet citrus peel waste. J. Clean. Prod. 137, 598–605,
MAPA, 2003. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply of
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.108.
Brazil. Normative Instruction No. 62. Brasília, Brazil.
Casso-Hartmann, L.M., Polanía-Rivera, A.M., Ayala-Aponte, A.A.,
Méndez-Lagunas, L., Rodríguez-Ramírez, J., Cruz-Gracida, M.,
2016. Evaluation of the drying hydro technique on orange
Sandoval-Torres, S., Barriada-Bernal, G., 2017. Convective
peels (Citrus Sinensis). Vitae. 23, 375–378.
drying kinetics of strawberry (Fragaria ananassa): effects on
Choi, C.W., Kim, S.C., Hwang, S.S., Choi, B.K., Ahn, H.J., Lee, M.Y.,
antioxidant activity, anthocyanins and total phenolic content.
Park, S.H., Kim, S.K., 2002. Antioxidant activity and free
Food Chem. 230, 174–181,
radical scavenging capacity between Korean medicinal plants
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.03.010.
and flavonoids by assay-guided comparison. Plant Sci. 163,
Mujumdar, A.S., 2015. Principles, classification, and selection of
1161–1168, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9452(02)00332-1.
dryers. In: Mujumdar, A.S. (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial
Chua, L.Y.W., Chong, C.H., Chua, B.L., Figiel, A., 2019. Influence of
Drying. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
drying methods on the antibacterial, antioxidant and
Nisar, N., Li, L., Lu, S., Khin, N.C., Pogson, B.J., 2015. Carotenoid
essential oil volatile composition of herbs: a review. Food
metabolism in plants. Mol. Plant 8, 68–82,
Bioprocess Technol. 12, 450–476,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molp.2014.12.007.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2227-x.
Piechowiak, T., Antos, P., Kosowski, P., Skrobacz, K., Józefczyk, R.,
Crank, J., 1975. The Mathematics of Diffusion, 2nd ed. Clarendon
Balawejder, M., 2019. Impact of ozonation process on the
Press, Oxford.
microbiological and antioxidant status of raspberries (Rubus
Fakayode, O.A., Abobi, K.E., 2018. Optimization of oil and pectin
ideaeus L.) during storage at room temperature. Agric. Food
extraction from orange (Citrus sinensis) peels: a response
Sci. 28, 35–44, http://dx.doi.org/10.23986/afsci.70291.
surface approach. J. Anal. Sci. Technol. 9, 20,
Rodoni, L., Casadei, N., Concellón, A., Chaves Alicia, A.R., Vicente,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40543-018-0151-3.
A.R., 2010. Effect of short-Term ozone treatments on tomato
FAO, Foodand Agriculture Organization, 2020. Food and
(Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit quality and cell wall
Agriculture Data. http://www.fao.org/faostat/.
degradation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58, 594–599,
Ferhat, M.A., Meklati, B.Y., Smadja, J., Chemat, F., 2006. An
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf9029145.
improved microwave Clevenger apparatus for distillation of
 Food and Bioproducts Processing 1 2 3 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 80–89
Shuping, D.S.S., Eloff, J.N., 2017. The use of plants to protect
plants and food against fungal pathogens: a review. Afr. J.
Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 14, 120–127,
http://dx.doi.org/10.21010/ajtcam.v14i4.14.
Simpson, R., Jaques, A., Nuñez, H., Ramirez, C., Almonacid, A.,
2013. Fractional Calculus as a mathematical tool to improve
the modeling of mass transfer phenomena in food processing.
Food Eng. Rev. 5, 45–55,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12393-012-9059-7.
Simpson, R., Ramírez, C., Birchmeier, V., Almonacid, A., Moreno,
J., Nuñez, H., Jaques, A., 2015. Diffusion mechanisms during
the osmotic dehydration of Granny Smith apples subjected to
a moderate electric field. J. Food Eng. 166, 204–211,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.05.027.
Singleton, V.L., Rossi, J.A.J., 1965. Colorimetry of total phenolics
with phosphomolyb-diphosphate-tungstic acid reagents. Am.
J. Enol. Vitic. 16, 44–58.
Steinmetz, K.A., Potter, J.D., 1996. Vegetables, fruit, and cancer
prevention: a review. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 96, 1027–1039,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(96)00273-8.
Stevic, T., Beric, T., Savikin, K., Sokovic, M., Godevac, D., Dimkic, I.,
Stankovic, S., 2014. Antifungal activity of selected essential
oils against fungi isolated from medicinal plant. Ind. Crops
Prod. 55, 116–122,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.02.011.
Sudheer, S., Yeoh, W.K., Manickam, S., Ali, A., 2016. Effect of
ozone gas as an elicitor to enhance the bioactive compounds
in Ganoderma lucidum. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 117, 81–88,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2016.01.014.
89
Toivonen, P.M.A., Brummell, D.A., 2008. Biochemical bases of
appearance and texture changes in fresh-cut fruit and
vegetables. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 48, 1–14,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2007.09.004.
Tola, M., Kebede, B., 2016. Occurrence, importance and control of
mycotoxins: a review. Cogent Food Agric. 2, 1191103,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2016.1191103.
Wahid, A., Gelani, S., Ashraf, M., Foolad, M.R., 2007. Heat
tolerance in plants: an overview. Environ. Exp. Bot. 61,
199–223, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2007.05.011.
Wu, Q., Zhu, X., Gao, H., Zhang, Z., Zhu, H., Duan, X., Qu, H., Yun,
Z., Jiang, Y., 2019. Comparative profiling of primary
metabolites and volatile compounds in Satsuma mandarin
peel after ozone treatment. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 153,
1–12, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2019.03.008.
Yeoh, S., Zhang, S., Shi, J., Langrish, T.A.G., 2008. A comparison of
different techniques for water-based extraction of pectin from
orange peels. Chem. Eng. Commun. 195, 511–520,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00986440701707479.
Yeoh, W.K., Ali, A., Forney, C.F., 2014. Effects of ozone on major
antioxidants and microbial populations of fresh-cut papaya.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 89, 56–58,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2013.11.006.
Zema, D.A., Calabrò, P.S., Folino, A., Tamburino, V., Zappia, G.,
Zimbone, S.M., 2018. Valorisation of citrus processing waste: a
review. Waste Manag. 80, 252–273,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.09.024.