Model of an electric vehicle powered by a PV cell – a
case study
Adrian Chmielewski*, Przemysław Szulim, Mariusz Gregorczyk, Robert Gumiński, Tomasz Mydłowski, Jędrzej
Mączak
Faculty of Automotive and Construction Machinery Engineering, Institute of Vehicles
Warsaw University of Technology,
Warsaw, Poland
E-mail: a.chmielewski@mechatronika.net.pl
Abstract—The paper presents a model of an electric vehicle
with a thin flexible photovoltaic cell installed on the roof. The
vehicle’s model consists of the following sub-models: a set of
batteries (LiFePO4), an electric machine, converters, resistance
to motion and the gearbox model. Based on the analysis of an
equivalent schematic for a photovoltaic cell, equations have been
derived which account for the losses that occur in a real-life
object. A simulation model has been developed in the
Matlab&Simulink program while using the results of the analysis
conducted for the physical models of the above-mentioned
components of the electric vehicle – photovoltaic cell system. The
driving cycle has been adopted on the basis of the road conditions
while accounting for the changes in irradiance during the drive
from Jelenia Góra to Olsztyn. While using the derived equations
of the vehicle’s movement, the equivalent schematic diagram of
the power transmission system (the description of the vehicle’s
movement which has been accomplished while using a system of
d’Alambert’s equations), the system of equations for an electric
machine, the set of equations for the battery (using the Peukert’s
relationship) and the system of equations for the photovoltaic
cell, we have been able to present the driving cycle (which
accounts for fast charging along the driven route in a situation
when the battery charging level went below 0.2), the vehicle’s
inertia, the sum of the resistance to motion, moment of resistance
to motion, the electric motor’s angular velocity, the voltage in the
electric motor, the battery’s voltage (current), change of voltage
on the battery’s terminals, change of state of charge of the
battery, change of SEM of the battery as well as changes of
values of the current, voltage and power in a photovoltaic cell.
The paper presents the influence that a photovoltaic cell mounted
on a vehicle’s roof has on its range. The results presented in this
paper provide practical information regarding the properties of
an electric vehicle equipped with roof-mounted photovoltaic cell.
Keywords—electric vehicle; battery model; PV model with
losses; irradiance.
I. INTRODUCTION
Changes are currently occurring on both, the electrical
energy as well as the vehicles’ markets [1]. Both, the
environmental norms and the climate-and-energy policy of the
European Union rely on low-emission and innovative economy
which in turn is based on highly-efficient, dispersed co-
generation technologies [2-9] as well as on the technologies of
production of electricity from renewable sources to energy [1,
10]. The purpose is to form the optimum energy mix [1, 11-13]
978-1-5386-2402-9/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE
with a simultaneous balanced, supplementary development of
the electrical and hybrid vehicles market [12]. The factors
behind these changes are the emission norms and the energy-
and-climate package which sets specific obligations for the
European Union member states, including increase of the share
of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in the energy market to
nearly 20% of the total energy consumption, as stated in the
directive 2009/28/EC. However, the obligatory level for Poland
is 15.3% [1].
Many studies demonstrate increasing interest in the
development of simulation models of electric vehicles [14-20],
which interwork with photovoltaic cells [21-29]. Various
configurations of integration of PV cells with electric vehicles
are contemplated, including installation of flexible panels on a
vehicle’s roof or windshields [21], combining of a vehicle with
a PV panel to form a mobile energy store as part of the vehicle-
to-grid solutions [22, 24, 27].
The study presents the analysis of use of a photovoltaic cell
installed on the roof of an electric vehicle. It presents the
vehicle’s drive from Jelenia Góra to Olsztyn in the conditions
of regular traffic, which includes the necessity of recharging
the vehicle due to its restricted range. For the needs of the
article, historical irradiance levels (for july 2016) were used for
the area across which the vehicle drove. A line has been cut out
from this area which corresponds to the specific route driven
through consecutive towns and cities (including the time at
which respective points were reached as well as irradiance
level at these points –Fig. 2.). The influence of using a PV cell
to increase the range of an electric vehicle has been presented
in the paper.
Irradiance for different cities [W/m2]
july2016
600 The irradiance on the simulated road [W/m2]
july2016
Irradiance
[W/m 2]
400
Stop driving
200
0
Płońsk
Sochaczew
Start driving
Łódź
Sieradz
City
Wrocław
Jelenia Góra 18:00 20:00
04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00
The next hours of the day [h]
Fig. 1. Irradiance for various cities – July 2016 [30].
1009
 550
500
Irradiance [W/m2]
450
Driving cycle V [km/h]
400
350
300
250
08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
The next hour of the day [h]
Fig. 2. Irradiance at the time of the test drive– July 2016 (the curve created
on the surface presented in Fig. 1).
II. MODEL OF AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE WITH A
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
The chapter presents the analytical description of individual
components of the simulation model. Sub-chapter A presents
the description of the driving cycle, sub-chapter B presents the
description of resistance to motion and the vehicle’s dynamics,
sub-chapter C presents the description of the electrical
machine, sub-chapter D presents the analytical description for
the battery, while sub-chapter E presents the relationships for
the contemplated photovoltaic cell.
A. The driving cycle –the assumptions for the route driven
For the simulation, the driving cycle has been adopted on
the basis of the road conditions while accounting for the
changes in irradiance during the drive from Jelenia Góra -
Forteczna Street to Olsztyn - Jan Pawel II Square (Fig.3).
Fig. 3. Actual route driven by the vehicle –based on Google Maps.
The driving cycle (Fig. 4) was developed to provide the most
accurate mapping of actual road conditions in the simulation
model. The developed cycle includes driving in the city (the
fragments of NEDC cycle), suburban driving, national roads
(DK 3, DK 7, DK 50, DK 51, DK 70, DK 92), as well as
express roads (S7, S51 – V=120km/h) and highways (A1, A2,
A4, A8 – V=140km/h). During the test drive we planned 3 fast
stops for charging (2 stops of 40 minutes each and 1 stop of 20
minutes during which typical, universal 50kWe [31] charging
stations were used). The time for driving the distance without
1010
charging is about 7 hours, while the time with stops for
charging was 8 hours and 40minutes.
150 Fast Fast Fast
charge charge charge
100
50
0
08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
The next hours of the day [h]
Fig. 4. Assumed driving cycle for an electric vehicle.
B. Resistance to motion and vehicle’s dynamics
The vehicle’s driving cycles, which include such items as:
Mmr(t) – moment of resistance to motion, have been defined on
the basis of V(t) distribution presented in sub-chapter A. To
perform the energy calculations it has become necessary to
take into account the model of the power transmission system
which assumes infinitely big angular rigidity, with the driving
motor and the final drive attenuation equal to zero.
Fig. 5. Equivalent diagram of the power transmission system [14-16].
In general, if such an assumption is taken into account, the
vehicle’s movement (Fig. 5.) can be expressed by the following
system of d’Alembert’s equations [14]:
 d 2ψ ( mr )
(J e + J wh + J veh ) dt 2 = M e − M 'mr
 ( mr )
ψ e = ψ wh = ψ veh = ψ
( mr ) ( mr ) ( mr ) (1)
 dψ ( mr )
M 'mr = a + b
 dt
where: Je- the moment of inertia of the driving motor’s rotor;
Jwh- the moment of inertia of the wheels which is transmitted to
the motor’s shaft; Jveh – the moment of inertia associated with
the overall mass of the vehicle, transmitted to the motor’s
shaft; ψe(mr) – the angle of rotation of the driving motor’s shaft;
ψwh(mr) – the angle of rotation of the wheels, transmitted to the
motor’s shaft; ψveh(mr) – the vehicle’s movement vs. the
movement of the motor’s shaft; Me – the motor’s driving
torque; M’mr – the momentum of the vehicle’s resistance to
motion as transmitted to the motor’s shaft; a, b – the equation’s
parameters which depend on the relevant data related to the
vehicle and on the traffic conditions – transmitted to the
motor’s shaft. In the course of practical modeling it is
convenient to use the equation which describes the moment of
resistance to motion affecting the vehicle’s wheels [15]:
 M mr = (Fr + Fa + Fi + Fg )rd = Based on the analysis of figure 6 and [11, 14-16], one can
write the equation for the internal resistance of a battery, which
ς (2) includes activation and concentration polarization. The
AV1 + mEV δr a EV + mEV g sinϕ)rd
2
(mEV gf r + c x
2 equation will have the following form:
Where: mEV – the vehicle’s mass [kg]; g – acceleration of
R (i , T , Q) =
gravity [m/s2]; fr- rolling friction ratio [-]; A –face (area) [m2]; int b nom (8)
cx – drag ratio [-]; aEV – the vehicle’s acceleration [m/s2]; rd – R (T , Q ) + R (T , Q ) + bEMF (i , T , Q) I − 1
dynamic radius of a tire [-], V1 – the driving velocityV1=V/3.6 el _ de el _ yte b b nom nom
[m/s]; ϛ – the air density [kg/m3], Fi – force of inertia [N], Fr – Where b is the ratio which defines the relative change of the
rolling friction force [N], Fg – grade resistnce/climbing electromotive force of polarization during flow of nominal
resistance force[N]; φ – gradient angle [rad], it was assumed current Inom versus EMF for the nominal capacity of Qnom.
φ≈0; Fa – air resistance force (aerodynamic drag) [N]; δr – Experimental data has been used to determine Rint [11, 15]:
rotating masses ratio [-]:
j12 4 1 Rint = (Um − U m+1 ) /( I m +1 − I m ) (9)
δr = 1+ J e ηme +  J wh 2 (3)
rd2
1 mrd Where: Um>Um+1 and Im+1>Im. The family of Um, Um+1
characteristics was determined during testbed research,
Where: j – total gear ratio between the motor’s shaft and the described in [9, 11, 15]. Once Rint was determined, while
wheels [-]; ηme – power transmission system efficiency [-]. transforming the below equation (9), it became possible to
The magnitude of resistance to motion will be:
calculate the EMF, respectively for charging (+) and
V1 discharging (-):
N mr = M mr (4)
rd U term = EMF ± iload Rint (10)
C. Model of an electric machine Rint was determined while using the iteration-and-
The model of a DC-powered electric machine relying on approximation method [16] and subsequently it was used in the
Kirchoff’s 2nd law can be expressed in the following way: simulation model in order to account for the change of the
battery’s resistance depending on the change of its state of
di di charge. The properties of the electrochemical battery were
uterm = Ri + L + e = Ri + L + keω (5) defined while using the Peukert’s Kp relationship which is
dt dt
presented in equation (11) and discussed in detail in the
where: R – resistance of the stator’s winding [Ω]; i – the following publications [11, 14-16].
stator’s current [A]; L – inductance [H]; e – electromotive force
[V]; ke – electric constant [V/rad/s]; ω – the rotor’s angular K =i κ (T ) t (11)
p bat
speed [rad/s].
The equation related to the electrical motor’s torque can be Peukert’s Kp equation defines the battery’s discharge capacity.
presented in the following form: It combines the ibat discharge current of the battery with time t
while taking into account the external conditions κ(T) [11, 14-
M e = M a + M mr + M f (6) 16]. Normally battery manufacturers indicate the rated
where: Ma – the torque which is dependent on the angular capacity of a cell for standard conditions (T = 298K = 25oC,
acceleration and the rotor’s inertia [Nm], Mf = Bω ≈0 [Nm]. then T=Tnom). However κ(T) is the Peukert’s constant whose
By entering Ma=Jrdω/dt and Mf=Bω into (7), we can arrive at: value depends on battery type. It is worthwhile noting that for
κ(T)=1 the function expressed by equation (11) is linear. The
dω following relation has been used for the purpose of
k mi = J r + M mr + Bω (7)
dt mathematical modeling of a battery’s effective capacity:
where: Jr – the inertia moment of the rotor [kgm2], km – the t
(12)
Q (i , t , T ) = w (T )η (i , T )Q ± i (t )dt
electrical constant [Nm/A]. u bat T bat nom  bat
0

D. Model of the electrochemical battery Knowing that the battery’s state of charge is the ratio of its
Figure 6 presents a diagram of the model of a physical effective capacity to nominal capacity, we can thus write:
t
battery wT (T )η (ibat , T )Qnom −  ibat (t )dt
Qu (13)
SOC = = 0

Qnom Qnom

SOC belongs to the range from 0 to 1. After reduction,

equation (13) can be expressed in the following way:
1 t (14)
SOC = wT (T )η (ibat , T ) −  ibat ( t ) dt
Qnom 0
Fig. 6. Diagram of a model of a physical battery [11].

1011
The EMF electromotive force, which depends on the battery’s U + Rs I
state of charge (SOC), can be expressed in the following form: Ip = (21)
Rp
[11, 14-16]:
However, in accordance with 1st Kirchoff law, the value of the
EMFb ( SOC) = EMFmin + ΔU term ⋅ SOC = current flowing through a resistance Rs is:
(15)
EMFmin + ( EMFmax − EMFmin ) ⋅ SOC
I=I ph − I d − I p (22)
EMFmin and EMFmax values have been determined on the basis
of experiments [9, 11]. By inserting relationships (7-21) to (22) we have arrived at the
final relationship:
The power supplied to/taken from the battery via the inverter
can be described by means of the following relationship:
G
Pbat = ηinv (iinv )(Ppv ± Pem ) (16)
I= (I z + J 0 (T − Tamb )) +
G0
However: ηinv – efficiency of the inverter, Ppv – power supplied (23)
  q (U + R s I )   U + R s I
to the battery from the PV cell, Pem – power supplied or taken − I 0  exp   − 1 −

from the battery via the electric machine (for charging +   N s αk b T   Rp
recuperation-based deceleration, for discharging – uniform
motion or acceleration). III. SIMULATION MODEL AND RESULTS OF SIMULATION
E. Model of a photovoltaic cell Based on the relationships (1-23), which are presented in
chapter II, we have built a simulation model which describes a
Figure 7 presents an equivalent diagram of a photovoltaic drive by an electric vehicle, equipped with photovoltaic cells
cell. mounted on its roof, on the route from Jelenia Góra to Olsztyn.
Below please find the selected results of the simulation
performed with the use of the developed model. First the
values of the factors causing main resistance to motion are
presented for the vehicle. This is followed by the
characteristics of operation of respective components of the
analyzed vehicle. Figure 8 presents the values of the fictitious
Fig. 7. Equivalent diagram of a photovoltaic cell. (inertial) resistance forces. The maximum value exceeds
2373N. The highest values of the fictitious (inertial) resistance
Based on the analysis of Fig. 7, the current obtained as a force appear during the vehicle’s acceleration and braking with
result of conversion of the solar energy to electric energy can recuperation of energy.
be expressed in the following way [32-35]:
The force of inertia resistance F [N]

3000
i

G
I ph = [I z + J 0 (T − Tamb )] (17)
2000

G0 1000

where: Iz – the stalling current in G0 conditions (Standard 0

Testing Conditions: T=298K and G0=1000W/m2) [A], Tamb – -1000

ambient temperature in STC conditions [K], G – solar radiation -2000
power density [W/m2]. The current flowing through the diode
can be presented in the following form: -3000
08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
The next hours of the day [h]
  q(U + Rs I )  
I d = I 0  exp  − 1 (18) Fig. 8. Fictitious (inertial) resitance forces affecting the vehicle.
 N αk T
  s b  
600
however:
500
The force of air resistance

3
 T   qE m  1 1  400
I 0 = I d 0   exp q  −   (19)
  300
 αk B  Tamb T  
F [N]

 Tamb 
a

200
where: the dark current of the diode is: 100

Iz 0
08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Id0 = (20) The next hours of the day [h]
 qU 0 
exp   − 1 Fig. 9. Air force resistane affecting the vehicle.
 N sαk BT 
Figure 9 presents the drag. The highest drag occured while
The current flowing via Rp shunt resistance can be stated as: driving on the motorway (V=140km/h). Then the value was

1012
Fa=529N. At speeds exceeding 120km/h the drag Figure 15 presents the values of SOC in a situation when a PV
substantially affects the car’s range. cell is employed and without a PV cell in an electric vehicle
Figure 10 presents the values of the moment of resistance to driving in accordance with a defined drive cycle
motion. The highest values of the moment of resistance to
SOC of the battery without PV module SOC of the battery with PV module
motion Mmr appear while accelerating and braking with 1 0.74
energy recuperation (Mmr_max=675.7Nm, which to a great 0.72

State of charge SOC [-]

extent results from the shape of the function of fictitious 0.8 0.70

resistance forces – Fig. 9). 0.68

14:00
The torque of the motion resistance

700 0.6
500
300 0.4
M [Nm]

100
0.2
mr

-100
08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
-300 The next hours of the day [h]
-500

-700
Fig. 14. State of charge with a PV cell and without a PV cell.
08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
The next hours of the day [h]
Use of a PV cell mounted on a vehicle’s roof (cell area
Fig. 10. Moment of resistance to motion. Apv=3m2) leads to increase of the vehicle’s range by up to
2.4% (~14.4km) in total.
Figure 11 presents the characteristics of the power of a
photovoltaic cell (maximum power Ppvmax=102.2W), for IV. CONCLUSIONS
Ipv=5.821A (Fig. 12) and Upv=17.56V.
The paper presents a drive from Jelenia Góra to Olsztyn
120 X: 17.56
Y: 102.2 while using an electric vehicle equipped with flexible PV
100 cells, having the area Apv=3m2 and mounted on the vehicle’s
roof. Use of a PV cell, mounted on a vehicle’s roof, leads to
PV power [W]

80

60
extension of the vehicle’s range, along the entire route of
627km by up to 2.4% (~14.4km). The obtained increase of
40
range is small and it is restricted by the area of the installed
20 PV cell. Use of PV cells is most favorable for coaches driving
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
on inter-city routes (including Man Neoplan Skyliner
PV voltage [V] coaches), in whose case the area of a PV cell is around 35m2
(36 its power is 3.6-4kWe, while the additional mass is around
Fig. 11. Characteristics of a PV cell’s power.
120kg/4kWe).
7 X: 17.56 At present the cost of purchase of a 1kWe PV cell
6 Y: 5.821
(PowerFLEX [37] type) is 3000PLN/kWe. Taking into
5 account the average price of electricity at the level of
PV current [A]

4 0.45PLN/kWh for transport businesses buying electricity from

3 the power grid [38] fast-charging station, and assuming the
2 PV cell’s capacity of 4kWe and the daily distance covered of
1 1200km, it is possible to extend the vehicle’s operating range
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 by maximum 100km (by up to 4%). In monthly perspective
PV Voltage [V] use of a PV cell results in increase of the operating range by
Fig. 12. Current-related to characteristics of a PV cell.
3000km, with the average energy consumption being 0.6 to
1.5kWh/km and the size of the battery pack - 250kWh. Based
Figure 13 presents the curve showing the values of the EMF on this, one could estimate the daily savings at 35-50PLN.
for an electric machine during a drive cycle. The theoretical analysis presented in this paper is based on
a consistent methodology demonstrating the way in which a
Electromotive force of electric machine

400
vehicle can be integrated with a thin photovoltaic cell while
300 taking into account variable road (driving) conditions.
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EMF [V]

200

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