ETHICS [Summer 2020]

COURSE CODE: ETHICSX/GETHICS

COURSE NAME: ETHICS
CREDITS: 3 Units

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course is an introduction to moral philosophy. It provides a broad but reasonably detailed
examination of the central issues of moral philosophy and also considers how these can be applied to several
contemporary moral problems. The first part of the course deals on the basic concepts, theories and figures
of moral philosophy in order to develop a clear understanding of some ethical principles. The last part
attempts to apply ethical theories in engaging ethical deliberation to different professional disciplines

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

This course intends to:

1. Discuss the fundamentals of moral philosophy;
2. Identify the foundation in determining the morality of human action;
3. Demonstrate the role of moral philosophy in making ethical decision;
4. Make use of moral principles /standards in the process of ethical deliberation
5. Exemplify the role of values in ethical deliberations;
6. Recognize the function of ethical theories and figures of moral philosophy; and
7. Establish the relevance of ethics or moral philosophy to other (professional) disciplines.

FINAL COURSE OUTPUT:

Online or Homebased Learning System
Proposed Activities
1. Concept Mapping:
2. Reaction Paper
3. Case Analysis

GRADING SYSTEM:
Online or Homebased Learning System
Examinations 40 %
Quizzes 30 %
Written Output 15 %
Class Involvement 15 %
Total 100%

FINAL GRADE = MTG + PFG

2

Note:

1. For Home Based Learning Strategy Materials and Written Activities will be sent to the Students.
Detailed information of the course and its activities will be printed

2. Online Learning Strategy will utilize canvas in all its Activities. Announcement and schedule of
activities likewise will be posted on the said site.

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 ETHICS [Summer 2020]

Introduction

Ethics or Moral Philosophy is a branch of philosophy which is concerned with questions of how one
ought to act (in a particular situation), and the search for a definition of right conduct (identified as the one
causing the greatest good) and the good life (in the sense of a life worth living or a life that is satisfying or
happy).
Ethics differs from morals and morality in that ethics denotes the theory of right action and the greater
good, while morals indicate their practice. Ethics is not limited to specific acts and defined moral codes,
but encompasses the whole of moral ideals and behaviors, a person's philosophy of life. (Mastin, 2008)

It asks questions like:

1. How should people act? Normative or Prescriptive
Ethics
2. What do people think is right? Descriptive Ethics
3. What does 'right' even mean? Meta-Ethics
4. How do we take moral knowledge Applied Ethics
and put it into practice?

Etymology and Basic Concepts

The word "ethics" is derived from the Greek “ethos” which means “characteristics way of acting” and
from the Latin word “mos” or “mores” which means tradition or custom. “Ethos” as an action includes
cultural mannerisms, religion, politics, laws, and social aspirations of a group of people. (Glenn, 1998)

Nature and Meaning of Ethics

Ethics is a philosophy of human conduct with due emphasis on the determination of right and wrong
(actions). A discipline considered as a philosophy of life as it answers the Whys and where’s of life.

Foundation of Ethics
This discipline is the basis of how to do an activity. Similar to other sciences, it accepts the idea that
before one has to do something; one has to believe he needs some acceptable basis.

Scope of Ethics
Ethics is interested both in human acts and human conduct.

Object of the study of Ethics

Material Object (material object) is the study of human conduct.

Formal Object (special interest in the material object’s study) is the rectitude of human acts.

With material object, Ethics deals with the broader concept of human conduct or human acts. Topics
regarding the Nature of Human Acts, Ends of Human Acts and Norms of Human Acts are herein
covered. On the other hand, the topic regarding Morality of Human Acts is part of the Formal Object
of Ethics.

Ethical vs. Moral.

The two terms originated from two different languages. Ethics came from the Greek term “ethos”
while Morality is from the Latin term”mos”. Coincidentally, both “ethos” and “mos” have the English
meaning of a customary form of behavior. Thus, some moralists believe that they are interchangeable
in usage.
However, in a narrow sense, Ethics as a term refers to the study about how human conduct can be
right or wrong. Here, the principles of the study are considered while Morality is the quality of the

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actions adherence to the principles and norms which guide human conduct. Thus, technically Ethics
is not the same as Morality.

Importance of Ethics
1. Ethics is an indispensable knowledge. For without the concept of morality or ethics, man as a rational
being is a failure. Morality too is the foundation of every human society.
2. Ethics is a means of right living and a way of developing good moral character, which every man aims
to attain since these situations serve as requirements in becoming a member of a society.
3. Ethics is very relevant in the education process since the primary objective of education is the moral
development of the will.
4. Ethics is the investigation of the meaning of life (Felix M. Montemayor, 1994). This has been
confirmed in the statement of Socrates when he said, “the unexamined life is not worth living for man.”
The Division of Ethics
As a branch of philosophy, Ethics has four (4) main subdivisions:

1. Meta-Ethics 3. Descriptive, and

2. Normative Ethics 4. Applied Ethics

This discipline deals on the following questions: What is an ethical statements? In what ways are
they the same as, and in what way do they differ from, non-ethical statements? Do ethical statements
have objective truth, or are they merely subjective expressions of opinion or emotion? Are ethical
statements ultimately reducible to non-ethical statements? How can we know what is ethical and what
is not?
Mastin suggests:
…that “Meta-Ethics is concerned primarily with the meaning of ethical judgments, and seeks
to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments and how
they may be supported or defended. A meta-ethical theory, unlike a normative ethical theory,
does not attempt to evaluate specific choices as being better, worse, good, bad or evil; rather it
tries to define the essential meaning and nature of the problem being discussed. It concerns
itself with second order questions, specifically the semantics, epistemology, and ontology of
ethics”. (Mastin: 2008)

It gives emphasis on two (2) major meta-ethical theories:

1. Moral Realism and
2. Moral Anti-Realism.

Moral Realism (or Moral Objectivism) holds that there are objective moral values, so that
evaluative statements are essentially factual claims, which are either true or false, and that their truth
or falsity are independent of our beliefs, feelings or other attitudes towards the things being evaluated.
It is a Cognitivist view in that it holds that ethical sentences express valid propositions and are
therefore truth-apt. Variants of this theory are a) Ethical Naturalism; b) Ethical Non-Naturalism.
Moral Anti-Realism holds that there are no objective moral values, and comes in one of three
forms, depending on whether ethical statements are believed to be subjective claims (a. Ethical
Subjectivism), not genuine claims at all (b. Non-Cognitivism) or mistaken objective claims (c. Moral
Nihilism or d. Moral Skepticism). (Mastin: 2008)

1. Normative Ethics
It inquires on what are the basic principles of right or wrong: is morality fundamentally about the
consequences of our actions, the inherent nature of the acts we perform, or our character as actors?
Normative Ethics (or Prescriptive Ethics) is the branch of ethics concerned with establishing how
things should or ought to be, how to value them, which things are good or bad, and which actions
are right or wrong. It attempts to develop a set of rules governing human conduct, or a set of norms for
action.
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Normative ethical theories are usually split into three main

categories: Consequentialism, Deontology, and Virtue ethics (Mastin: 2008)

2. Descriptive Ethics
Descriptive Ethics is a value-free approach to ethics which examines ethics from the perspective
of observations of actual choices made by moral agents in practice. It is the study of
people's beliefs about morality, and implies the existence of, rather than explicitly prescribing, theories
of value or of conduct. It is not designed to provide guidance to people in making moral decisions, nor
is it designed to evaluate the reasonableness of moral norms.
It is more likely to be investigated by those working in the fields of evolutionary
biology, psychology, sociology, history or anthropology, although information that comes from
descriptive ethics is also used in philosophical arguments.
Descriptive Ethics is sometimes referred to as Comparative Ethics because so much activity can
involve comparing ethical systems: comparing the ethics of the past to the present; comparing the ethics
of one society to another; and comparing the ethics which people claim to follow with the actual rules
of conduct which do describe their actions. (Mastin: 2008)

3. Applied Ethics
It seeks to apply ethical principles to concrete social issues, such as abortion, euthanasia, human
sexuality, animal welfare, the environment, poverty, business, management, marketing, advertising and
others. Applied ethics inevitably depends on the positions one adopts in the areas of normative ethics
and meta-ethics
This discipline follows and adopts meta-ethics and normative ethics. It gives attention to different
issues like life issues, economic issues, environmental issues, and other forms of social issues.

Ethical Issues Ethical Questions

life issues • is abortion morally permissible? what
about euthanasia?
economic issues • what is the most ethical economic
system, capitalism or socialism?
environmental • what are our ethical obligations to
issues the environment? how do we balance
those obligations against the needs of
economic development?

On the Relevance of Ethics

Ethics is pertinent to other discipline or sciences. The fact, ethics is concerned with the study of man,
its action and conduct, thus this discipline is related to any sciences, which is interested also with the study
of human nature, human living and its behavior and activities.
1. Ethics and Logic
Logic is the science of right thinking, while ethics is the science of right living. The two aim at
rectitude: one aims at right doing and the other is at right thinking.
2. Ethics and Psychology
Both subjects deal with the study of man, human nature, and human behavior. Psychology studies
how man behaves while ethics studies how man ought to behave, though one is not interested with the
morality of human behavior. Nevertheless, it discerns how and why a behavior become such.
3. Ethics and Sociology.
Ethics deals with the moral order, which include social order while sociology deals with human
relations in society. The relations of the two rest on the fact that human relations are based on proper
order and proper order comes only with proper observance of moral laws and principles, which regulate
man’s action in the society.
4. Ethics and Economics.
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Economics and morality are two aspects of one and the same human nature. Economics deals with
wages, labor, production and distribution of wealth. And, what determines any relations in business are
moral principles.
5. Ethics and Law.
Ethics studies human motivation: actions, thoughts and feelings. Law, on the other hand, requires
that we perform the required action regardless of our feelings towards any action. Morality, therefore,
has a wider implication than law, because law can either be moral or immoral. Thus, what is legal is not
necessarily moral; but what is moral is necessarily worth legalizing. Also, Ethics aims to develop right
disposition for accepting what is lawful.
6. Ethics and Religion.
Ethics is a science and depends upon rational investigation of its truths. Religion is a system of beliefs
and practices based on faith or revelation. Ethics teaches the value of religion, presenting it as a duty to
the Almighty. Religion, on the other hand, as an organized church, contributes to the teaching of ethics
and continues to enrich with its moral insights.

Human Acts: Its Description, Elements and Classification

Human act is an act, which proceeds from the deliberate will of man. This means that any sort of
activity, internal or external, bodily or spiritual performed by a human being is considered as a human
action. Human act, however, is understood based on the presence of the three elements it has.

Distinction between Human acts and Acts of Man

Human acts are those actions which man performs knowingly, freely, and voluntarily. These actions
are the result of conscious knowledge and are subject to the control of the will. While, the Acts of Man are
those actions, which happen in, man, and they are instinctive and are not within the control of the will.
Examples: metabolism, fear, anger, love, and jealousy.
Elements of Human Act
1. Knowledge
A human act proceeds from the deliberate will; it requires deliberation. It must be done by a
conscious doer who is aware of what he is doing and of its consciousness.
2. Freedom
A human act is determined by the will and by nothing else. It has to be an act, which must be free,
done under the control of the will, and performed by a doer who is acting freely, that is, by his own
reason.
3. Voluntariness
A human act is a will-act. It must be done by a doer who decides willfully to perform the act.

Classification of Human Acts

I. Human Acts are either Elicited or Commanded Acts
Elicited Acts are those performed by the will and are not bodily executed.
1. Wish is the tendency of will towards something, whether realized or not.
2. Intention is the tendency of the will towards something attainable but without necessarily committing
oneself to attain it.
3. Consent is the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the intention.
4. Election is the selection of the will of those means effective enough to carry out the intention.
5. Use is the command of the will to make use of those means elected to carry out the intention.
6. Fruition is the enjoyment of the will derived from the attainment of the thing he had desired earlier.

Commanded Acts are actions done either by man’s mental or bodily powers under the command of the will.
1. Internal Acts.
Actions done by internal mental powers under the command of the will. Example: reasoning,
recalling, and controlling emotions.
2. External Acts.

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Actions which are effected by bodily powers under the command of the will. Example:
walking, eating, and dancing.
3. Mixed Acts.
Acts that involve the employment of bodily powers and the mental powers. Example: listening,
reading, writing.

II. Human acts and their relation to the dictates of reason

Human acts are either in agreement or in disagreement with the dictates of reason, and this relation
with reason constitutes their morality.
1. Good/Moral
A human act, which is in harmony or agreement with the dictates of reason. It conforms to
the norm of morality. Example: working, studying, or telling the truth.
2. Evil/Immoral
A human act which is not in agreement with the dictates of reason. It does not conform to
the norm of morality. Example: murder, adultery, stealing.
3. Indifferent or A moral
An action which stands no positive relation to the dictates of reason. An action that is
neutral to the norm of morality. It is neither good nor bad in itself. Example: Playing basketball,
but if ones plays basketball wherein, he is supposed to attend his class is wrong. On the other
hand, if one plays basketball in order to perform his duty to help his team win is good.

The Modifiers of Human Acts

The modifiers are factors that may lessen the accountability of a certain action.
1. Ignorance
Ignorance is the absence of knowledge, which a person ought to possess. It could be vincible,
invincible or affected ignorance:
a) Vincible ignorance does not destroy, but lessen the voluntariness of the corresponding
accountability over the act.
b) Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary.
c) Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, it increases the accountability over the
reluctant act.
2. Passions or Concupiscence
Passions are either tendencies towards desirable objects (a positive emotion), or tendencies away
from undesirable or harmful things (a negative emotion). Positive emotions: love, desire, or hope;
Negative emotions: hatred, fear, anger.
Passions are psychic responses; they are neither moral nor immoral. But insofar as man has
intellect, he is bound to regulate his emotions and submit them to the control of reason.
3. Fear
Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person (who is) confronted by an impending danger or harm
to himself or loved ones. It is an instinct for self-preservation. But action done with fear is involuntary,
because the doer is in full control of his faculties and acts in spite of fear. However, action done out
of fear, compels a person to act without careful deliberation.
Fear modifies the freedom of the doer, inducing him to act in a certain predetermined manner, often
without his full consent.
4. Violence
Violence refers to any external force applied by a person for purposes of compelling another person
to act against his will. Torture, maltreatment, and mutilation are examples of violence against persons.
5. Habits
A lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain manner.
These are acquired inclinations towards something to be done. These are acts done against the will but
if these acts are allowed by the doer to stay, it becomes voluntary.

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The ENDS of Human Acts

Every action is directed towards an end. An act, consequently, is always performed for an end. This end
of an act explains the purpose why the act is done.
This chapter discusses ends in general, and the ultimate end of human acts in particular.

Ends of Human Acts: Its Description

An end is both a termination and a goal of an activity (action). An end is that which completes or
finishes a thing (or action) and it is that for which the thing is finished. In a human act the end is the final
cause, that is to say, that on account of which, or to attain which the act is performed, and which is, in
consequence, apprehended as a good sufficiently desirable to motivate the agent (the actor or doer) in
performing the act.

By simple apprehension, every activity, then, tends toward an end. Every activity is a tendency where
an act is directed to an end known as desirable, that is to say, as good to attain. Every tendency may also
be called as Appetite, or more properly, Appetency.

Appetency and Its Forms:

1. Natural Appetency
These are normal tendency toward a certain activity. These are not planned, but an inherent activity
being performed. This form of appetency exists without any sort of knowledge, like plants which
undergoes the process of growing and man reaching the stage of maturity.
When appetency comes with knowledge, it happens under sensual and will /or rational appetency,
just as knowledge itself is of two kinds.
2. Sense Appetency
This is a kind of appetency which is stirred (or stimulated) into action by sensation (man’s sensual
faculty – the senses). When man is hungry, his senses direct him to look for food; and if man is thirsty
it directs his sense to look for water.
3. Will / Rational Appetency
The last form of appetency is where man’s will, reason, or intelligence is at work. When man
performs an action, he/she is being guided and directed by his/her will, reason, or intelligence.
The end of human act is the purpose for which the act is done. An act is directed to an end because
it is desirable, that is, there is something good in it.
“An act is performed because of something good in it”. Thus, one performs the act due to the
presence of certain goodness.

Kinds of Ends
Ends can be grouped into:
I. End of the Act and End of the Agent (Performer)
II. Proximate and Remote End
III. Intermediate and Ultimate End

I. End of the Act, and End of the Agent (Performer)

The end of the act is the end toward which the act of its own nature tends. Thus, the act of giving
food and shelter to destitute persons tends of its nature toward the relief of distress, and we say that
relief of distress is the end of the act.
The end of the agent is the end which the agent intends to achieve by his/her act. Thus, the act of
giving food and shelter to destitute persons maybe be performed by the agent to increase his merit to
God or the act is performed by the agent in order to gain reputation of a beneficent person. This kind
of end specifically deals on the Purpose of Act and the Agent (Performer).

II. Proximate and Remote End

Proximate End is the end intended as the immediate outcome of an act. A proximate end is a “Result
Oriented” form of end.
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Remote End is that which the agent wishes to achieve later on, and toward the attainment of which
he employs the present act as a means. A remote end is “Expectation Oriented” form of end.
An end, whether proximate or remote, is willed either for its own sake or as a means to an end more
remote. If it is willed for its own sake, it is a last or ultimate end, and if it is willed as a means to a
further end, it is an intermediate end.

III. Intermediate and Ultimate End

Intermediate End is an End willed as a means to a further End. This end works as Instrument
Oriented form of end.
Ultimate End is an End willed for its own sake, also considered as the last End. This is a Result
Oriented form of end.

Example:
“An aspiring politician man gives money to the poor”. The giving of money is done to gain
favorable notice to the public (newspaper, radio, television) this End serves as a proximate and
intermediate End and his willingness to give is for publicity, just to gain favors or votes from the public
(this is a remote and intermediate End). He wills election for the prominence, power, and wealth which
the office will give him (a remote and ultimate End). This example shows us the chain or series of
ends / or the relation of ends.
Thus, the ultimate End gives meaning to the intermediate Ends, and the intermediate Ends are
subordinated to the ultimate End.

The NORMS of MORALITY

These are the standards of right and wrong in human acts. It gives the reason why certain acts are
morally right and morally wrong.

The Norms of Morality could either be the:

1. Law
2. Conscience

Law
This standard is considered as the objective norm of morality. “This is objective in its nature since the
basis of determining the morality of human action is outside man and based on written principles of human
actions”. (acp: 2014)
Law is an ordinance of reason, created and promulgated for the common good by one who has charge
of a society.

Division and Classes of Laws

1. Eternal Law is defined by St. Augustine as the Divine Reason and Will commanding that the natural
order of things be preserved and forbidding that it be disturbed. It is God’s eternal plan and providence
for the universe. God, decreeing from eternity to create the world for an end, eternally plans and directs
all things toward that end. Thus, there is from eternity a “plan of Divine Wisdom as director of all acts
and movements” (Glenn, Paul: 79 – 83).
2. Natural Law suggests that man knows naturally, by the light of his understanding, that there are some
things evil in themselves, and some things which are necessarily good. Man has the knowledge of good
as a thing to be done, and evil as a thing to be avoided; for man’s reason shows him the natural order
as a thing to conserved and not disturbed. Man is aware of the general law: “Do good and avoid evil.”

3. Human Positive Law (Church and State)

This law is enacted by the church or state.
The church law is also called as ecclesiastical law. The law is created by the lawmakers of the
church.

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The state law is also known as the civil law. “This law is created by the lawmakers of the state:
senators, congressmen for the National Government Unit, and Board Members and Councilors of the
Local Government Unit.” (acp: 2014)
Conscience
Conscience refers to the act of practical judgment of reason deciding upon an individual action as good
(and to be performed) or as evil (and to be avoided). This law is also known as the subjective norm of
morality.
Kinds of Conscience

1. Certain
It leaves no doubt on the morality of the action. The performer of the act is convinced and firm of
the morality of his action.
2. Doubtful
The person is undecided to the morality of action. The performer is uncertain and has reservation
on the morality of his action.
3. Correct
This is a kind of conscience that reveals the true morality of the action. The performer follows the
rules or laws as the basis of the morality of his action.
4. False
It tells one that this present good action is evil and this present bad action is good. The performer
is misled on the truth, veracity, and morality of his action. It appears to the performer that a good action
is wrong and a bad action is right.
Type of Erroneous Conscience

1. Vincible Erroneous.
A type of conscience where the wrong about to happen can still be corrected. In this kind of
conscience, the performer has the time and opportunity to make amendments in correcting or rectifying
his action.
2. Invincible Erroneous
With this kind of conscience, circumstances about the action do not offer opportunity to the
performer in correcting his action.
The error committed cannot anymore be corrected in whatever manner.

Determinants of Human Acts (Morality of Action)

1. The Object of the act (The Act Itself)
It considers the nature of the act and the conformity or non-conformity of the act to the standard of
right conduct.
2. The Motive of the Act
It considers the purpose, or the intention of performing the act.
3. The Circumstances
It considers who (the person), what (quantity and quality), where (place), how (manner of doing
the act), and why (the intention, motive, or the end of the act).

Properties of Human Acts

Properties are the qualities or characteristics of human acts.
1. Imputability
It involves the notion of culpability or praiseworthiness.
2. Merit and Demerit
Merit is the quality, state or fact of deserving well.
Demerit is the quality of deserving ill.

Consequences of Human Acts

1. Virtues
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It means “manliness”; a mark and characteristics of true and upright man. A consequence of human
acts which is considered as good moral habit.
2. Vice
An opposite to the concept of virtue, known as an evil moral habit.

Reference:

Books
Agapay, Ramon. 2007. Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators. Manila:
National Book Store.
Glenn, Rev. Msgr. Paul J. Ph.D., S.T.D. 1968. Ethics: A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy. London: B.
Herder Book Co.
Montemayor, Felix M. 1994. Ethics, The Philosophy of Life. Navotas: National Book Store.

Electronic Sources
Ethics. (2008). Retrieved 22 June 2010. Web: <http://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/fall2008 /entries/ethics-
business/>
Mastin, Luke. (2008). The Basics of Philosophy. Retrieved November 4, 2015. Web:
http://www.philosophybasics.com/philosophers hobbes.html

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