THE FOLLOWING ARE THE NOTES FOR THIS UNIT.

  READ, ANALYZE AND

UNDERSTAND THEM. IF YOU HAVE QUESTIONS AND CLARIFICATIONS ABOUT
THE TOPIC THEN PROCEED TO THE DISCUSSION THAT FOLLOWS THIS ITEM IN
THE MODULE. 
A. Research Problem
 Problem is any significant, challenging and perplexing phenomenon that requires
study, investigation or inquiry for its solution.
 A problem is a set of conditions or some difficulty that needs discussion, analysis, and
information to turn into a desired solution.
B. Sources of Problems
1. Readings
2. Academic experience
3. Personal interests and observations
4. Pressing or current problems needing solutions
5. Existing theories
6. Critical appraisal of literature
7. Previous research completed: theses and dissertations
8. Consultations/suggestions from colleagues and professors
C. Research Agenda in Politics
1. Policy analysis such as formulations, implementations, and evaluations of policies
and laws
3. Power structures and relations (local, national and international)
4. Perceptions, attitudes and behaviors towards policies, programs, legislations, public
issues.
5. Indigenous political practices and relations.
6. Correlations and comparisons of political variables and units.
D. Sharpening Skills for Discovering and Identifying a Problem
1. Reading a lot of literature in your field of concentration and being critical of what you
read
2. Being close observant of situations and happenings around you
3. Thinking out the possibility of research for most topics or lessons taken in class
4. Visiting various libraries
E. Elements of a Research Problem
1. What- the subject matter/topic/focus of analysis
2. Why- the purpose/aim
3. Where- location/place
4. When- time or period
5. Who/from whom – respondent/participants/unit of analysis
6. How- approach/method/design
F. Identifying the Unit of Analysis
 Unit of analysis refers to the “what or whom” the researcher want to study. The major
entity that will be analyzed in the study
 Those unit or things we examine in order to create a description of all such unit and to
explain differences among them.
The unit of analysis includes: 
1. Individuals (studying individuals within the group)
2. Groups: ex. geographical unit (barangays, cities), gangs, families, married couples,
terrorists, etc.
3. Organizations: corporations, churches, army divisions, malls, etc. (all or several of
them)
4. Social Artifacts: a) social objects- paintings, books, newspapers; b) social
interactions- court cases, traffic accidents, congressional hearings, etc.

G. Identifying the Focus of Analysis

 Point of focus refers to the aspects of the unit of analysis that is being characterized
and described
1. Characteristic- gender, marital status: size, structure, location, aggregate descriptions
2. Orientations- attitudes, beliefs, personal trait: religious, liberal, superstitious:
purposes, policies, regulations: theme or message (social artifacts)
3. Actions- Being observed directly or accepted second hand accounts: ex. Voting or as
registered voter, sponsoring of concert, political campaigns, merging of corporations,
acquittal or convictions, etc.

H. Formulation of the Research Problem

 Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas into research questions and
objectives.
 Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research
problem/topic/idea into a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with
specifying exactly what the research problem is.
 Problem definition or problem statement is a clear, precise and succinct statement of
the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or
solution.
I. Differences among Topic, Problem, Purpose and Questions

 A research problem is an issue or problem in the study

 A research topic is the broad subject matter being addressed in a study.
 A purpose is the major intent or objective of the study.
 Research questions are questions that the researcher would like answered or
addressed in the study.
J. Criteria in Selecting Research Problem
1. Internal / Personal Criteria
a. Researcher’s Interest
 Does the researcher have the interest in choosing the research problem being
studied such he has no difficulty in putting his heart and soul in it?
b. Researcher’s Competence, Capabilities and Limitations
 Is the researcher capable and qualified to plan and carry out a proposed study?
c. Researcher’s Own Resource:
 Does the researcher have the enough time to complete the research at a given time
frame as well as enough financial resources to fund the study?
2. External Criteria or Factors
a. "Researchability"  of the Problem
 Is there a gap of knowledge?
 Does it require mental struggle?
 Does the problem imply the possibilities of testing? Are there identifiable variables or
indicators that can be measured using any of the four levels or scales of measurements
(nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio)?
b. Importance/Social relevance
 Is it worth studying?
 Does it provide practical and/or theoretical value to the researcher and the significant
others?
 Does it contribute to the solutions of problem, refinement of theory or knowledge?
 Are there benefits that can be derived from the research process
c. Novelty/Uniqueness of the Problem
 Is the problem a new one or if the answer is already available or it has been studied
before, is the replication of the research problem necessary and appropriate?
 It is necessary and appropriate to replicate a study when the researcher intends to: 1)
verify its conclusion, 2) extend the validity of its findings to a different situation.
d. Feasibility
 Are the pertinent data accessible?
 Are the target respondents/subjects and significant others (family, officials,
administrators) very willing to cooperate?
 Are the resources needed available?
e. Ethical
 Does the research involve physical or psychological harm or damage to human
beings or organizations or to the natural and social environment of which they are part?
 “To do good” and “to do no harm” to the participant.
K. Component of the statement of the problem to be discussed in the introduction
or background of the study
  
 

7.2.1.1. Topic Presentation and Notes

These are topics under this unit for your perusal. Understand them well for you to be
guided in conducting literate reviews  
A. What is a Literature Review?
 A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant
to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a
description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research
problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of
sources you have explored while researching a topic and to demonstrate to your
readers how your research fits within a larger field of study.

B. Purposes of Literature Review

 It gives us a background knowledge about what others have investigated and found
out or otherwise regarding the research problem being considered.
 It develops general explanations about a phenomenon and identification of the
potential relationships between concepts and variables as well as the identification of
the research hypotheses,
 It helps in the identification of appropriate methodology, research design, methods of
measuring concepts and techniques of analysis and data sources.
 To learn how others structured their reports by learning how they have defined and
measured key concepts, identifying data, developing alternative research designs, and
discovering how a research project is related to the work of others.
 It places each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research
problem being studied.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
 It reveals any gaps that exist in the literature and point the way in fulfilling a need for
additional research
 Resolve conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 It locates your own research within the context of existing literature
 It paves the way for better research, and it can help in identifying the relevance of the
research
C. Types of Literature Reviews
1. Argumentative Review
 This form examines literature selectively to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature.
The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint.
2. Integrative Review
 Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative
literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on
the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related
or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the
same standards as primary research regarding clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the
most common form of review in the social sciences.
2. Historical Review
 Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews
focus on examining research throughout a period, often starting with the first time an
issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution
within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical
context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely
directions for future research.
3. Methodological Review
 A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came
about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis
provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory,
substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques],
how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual
level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and
epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling,
interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical
issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.
4. Systematic Review
 This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly
formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to
identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data
from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document,
critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all the research about a clearly defined
research problem. Typically, it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often
posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"
This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in
clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social
sciences.
5. Theoretical Review
 The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated
regarding an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps
to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree
the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be
tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal
that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems.
The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.
D. Sources of Literature
1. Books and journals
2. Electronic databases: bibliographic databases; abstract databases; full-text
databases
3. Government and industry reports
4. Research dissertations / thesis
E. Layers of the Review of Literature
1. Primary sources- studies that researchers conduct and publish; it is the description of
the study prepared by the researcher who conducted it
2. Secondary sources- studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from
and often extending beyond the primary studies; description of the study by a person
not connected with the investigation
3. Tertiary sources- perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are
shared informally that become part of the lore of field such as those from broadcasts,
seminars, conversations, email, etc.

F. How to Review and Write Related Literature

1. First, define well your research problem
2. Determine which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues,
then draw out the important construct or variables as these will become the main topics
of your library search.
3. Find the materials relevant to the subject being explored, then read through the table
of contents first for every material you get hold of, then scan the pages and read
subtopics.
4. Take down all important notes paying attention to the author, title of source,
publisher, date, and pages. You will need this when you write your proposal for
references and recall of your topics and ideas.
5. Make an analysis and interpretation by discussing the findings and conclusions of
pertinent literature.

G. Writing the literature review:

a. Use Evidence- interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with
evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid
b. Be Critical- Do not uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and
interpretations as valid, but rather examine critically all aspects of the research design
and analysis; Do not rely exclusively on secondary analytical sources but rather include
relevant primary research studies or data; Do not just include research that validates
assumptions and but does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations
found in the literature
b. Be Selective- Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the
review. Sources in your literature review must clearly relate to the research problem,
hence, take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the
literature review related to the research problem
c. Use Quotes Sparingly-- Some short quotes are okay if you want to emphasize a
point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may
need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, not common
knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute
for your own summary and interpretation of the literature.
d. Summarize and Synthesize - Recapitulate important features of a research study, but
then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work.
e. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice
[the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other
sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending
the paragraph with your own ideas and wording.
f. Use Caution When Paraphrasing- When paraphrasing a source that is not your own,
be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own
words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to
that work.
 
H. The structure of a literature review should include the following:
a. An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the
objectives of the literature review.
b. Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a
position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
c. An explanation of how each work is like and how it varies from the others
d. Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most
convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding
and development of their area of research

I. The critical evaluation of each work should consider:

1. Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments
supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives,
statistics, recent scientific findings]?
2. Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data
appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate?
Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
3. Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data
considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
4. Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least
convincing?
5. Value -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work
ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

7.2.1.3. APA FORMAT: In-text Citation and Referencing

In writing your review of literature and theoretical framework, the APA format will be the
official format to be used in your in-text citation and referencing. Be guided by the
following notes. This not exhaustive, so look the attached file or online sources for other
specific citations which are not in the notes.  
APA IN-TEXT CITATIONS
In-text citations are brief references in the running text that direct readers to the full
reference entry at the end of the paper. You include them every time you quote or
paraphrase someone else’s ideas or words.

APA IN-TEXT CITATIONS WITH MULTIPLE AUTHORS

Multiple author names are separated using a comma. Only the final name in the list is
preceded by an ampersand (“&”), for example: (Taylor, Johnson, & Parker, 2019). Use
“et al.” to shorten in-text citations of sources with 6+ authors (first in-text citations) and
3+ authors (subsequent in-text citations), for example: (Taylor et al., 2019).

EXAMPLES OF CITING MULTIPLE AOUTHORS (PARENTHETICAL CITATION)

1. No author: (“Title of the Work,” 2020)
2. 1 author: (Montero, 2020)
3. 2 authors: (Montero & Caberra, 2020)
4. 3 – 5 authors (Montero, Caberra, John, & Parker, 2020), Now if you are to cite this
again for the second, third, or so time, the subsequent in-text citation would be:
(Montero et al., 2020)
5. 6+ authors (Montero et al., 2020)
6. Organization (identified through abbreviation) (Centers for Political Science and
Development [CPSD], 2020), Now if you are to cite this again for the second, third, or so
time, the subsequent in-text citation would be: (CPSD, 2020)
7. Organization (no abbreviation): (POLISAY, 2020)
NARRATIVE CITATION
1. Montero (2020) declares that….
2. Covid 19 has been determined by Montero and Caberra (2020)….
3. Montero et al. (2020) mentioned that….

USING “ET AL.” IN APA IN-TEXT CITATIONS

Sources with three, four or five authors are shortened after the first citation. From the
second citation onwards, include only the first author name followed by “et al.” (“and
others”). Sources with six or more authors are always shortened, including in the first
citation.

PUNCTUATION IN APA IN-TEXT CITATIONS

1. When using the abbreviation “et al.,” always include a period (“.”).
2. Include a comma between “et al.” and the publication date (e.g. Montero et al., 2020).
3. There should be no punctuation between “et al.” and the author’s name preceding it.
4. The period ending the sentence always comes after the citation (even when quoting).
5. Never use an ampersand symbol (“&”) in the running text. Instead, use the full word
“and.”
EXAMPLE: THIS IS WRONG: According to research by Montero & Caberra … (2020).
THIS IS THE CORRECT WAY: Montero and Caberra conclude … (2020).
WHEN TO INCLUDE PAGE NUMBERS
Including the page number(s) in the in-text citation is required when quoting a source. It
is encouraged, but not required, when paraphrasing a source. Do not include page
numbers when referring to a work as a whole, e.g. “the study shows…”.
If the quote or paraphrase covers just one page, use “p. 16.” If it covers two or more
pages, use a double ‘p’ followed by a page range (e.g. pp. 16-18).
THE IN-TEXT CITATION CAN BE INCLUDED IN THREE DIFFERENT WAYS:
This is also confirmed by the business plan: “creating an APA Citation Generator is a lot
of work but many students benefit from it” (Smith, 2014, pp. 14-15).
Smith (2014) states: “making an APA Citation Generator is a lot of work but many
students benefit from it” (pp. 14-15).
In 2014, Smith wrote: “making an APA Citation Generator is a lot of work but many
students benefit from it” (pp. 14-15).

SOURCES WITH NO PAGE NUMBERS

When quoting a source that has no pages or page numbers, you can include a chapter
or paragraph number instead.
If the source uses headings, cite the heading and the paragraph number following it.
Long headings may be shortened, but then they should be enclosed in quotation marks.
(Johnson, 2019, Chapter 3)
(McCombes, 2016, para. 4)
(Smith, 2014, Conclusion, para. 2)
(Streefkerk, 2019, “No Page Numbers,” para. 2)
APA IN-TEXT CITATIONS WITH LISTS
If the cited list originates from one source, put the in-text citation after the last list item. If
the list comes from several different sources, add the in-text citations after each list
item.
List from one source
The following factors are identified:
Wired lifestyle
Time pressure
Risk aversion
Internet experience
Social interaction (Johnson, 2016, p. 18).
List from several sources
The following two basic characteristics were found in the literature:
Consumers experience greater risk for online purchases (Writers et al., 2016, p. 47).
Young consumers experience no risk for online purchases (Porter, 2016, pp. 63-64).

EXCEPTIONS AND MISSING INFORMATION

The basic APA guidelines are not applicable to every source. Information can be
missing, confusing for the reader or simply different. The most common exceptions are
listed below.
No author
If the author is unknown, cite the first few words of the reference list entry instead
(usually the title). Enclose the title in double quotation marks when citing an article, web
page or book chapter. Italicize the title of periodicals, books, reports, and brochures.
(“U.S. Flood Risk Could Be Worse Than We Thought,” 2015)
(Thinking, Fast and Slow, 2017)
No date
For sources without a year of publication, use “n.d.” (no date) instead: (Johnson, n.d.).

MULTIPLE SOURCES IN THE SAME PARENTHESES

If you are using multiple sources to support a statement, you can combine the in-text
citations and separate them using semicolons. Order the sources alphabetically.
If you are using multiple sources from the same author, you do not have to repeat the
author. Just add the other years and separate them with a comma.
Several studies show that … (Brown & Brody, 2009; Porter, 2004; Swaen, 2015, 2017a,
2017b).

MULTIPLE PUBLICATIONS FROM THE SAME AUTHOR(S) IN THE SAME YEAR

To differentiate between two publications from the same author published in the same
year, add a suffix after the publication year.
Research by Swaen (2014a) shows that …

REPEATED USE OF THE SAME SOURCE

For citing the same source multiple times in a paragraph there are specific APA
guidelines. The first mention should include the author and publication year. For
subsequent mentions in the running text, you only must include the author’s last name,
not the year. However, citations in parentheses should always include the year.
Research by Swaen (2016) shows that students think the APA Citation Generator is a
useful tool. Swaen also states that universities are increasingly using the generator. 
Scribbr is therefore continuing to develop the APA Citation Generator (Swaen, 2016).

DIFFERENT AUTHORS WITH THE SAME LAST NAME

To differentiate between two (or more) authors with the same last name, include the
initials. This rule applies even if the year of publication is different.
B. Swaen (2017) states that … , as does G. H. Swaen (2008).

CITING A SOURCE WITHIN A SOURCE (SECONDARY SOURCE)

If you want to cite a source that you found in another source, you can do one of two
things. First, you should try to find the original source (primary source). If you are able to
find it, you can use regular APA guidelines.
If you are not able to find the primary source, you should cite it through the source that
led you to it (secondary source). The in-text citation looks like this:
Porter (as cited in Johnson, 2017) states that…
Note that you only need to include the publication year of the source you consulted
(here Johnson).

PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Personal communication such as phone calls, emails and conversations are not cited in
the reference list because they cannot be found anywhere. However, you should still
cite them using an in-text citation.
Give the initials and the last name of the person you communicated with and provide as
exact a date as possible.
Sales are declining in the second quarter (P. G. Brown, personal communication, June
13, 2018).
                                   
 
 
                                                                                 APA REFERECING

APA references generally include information about the author, publication date, title,
and source. Depending on the type of source, you may have to include extra
information that helps your reader locate the source.

1. WEBPAGE Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year, Month Day). Page title. Site
name. URL
Example:
McCombes, S. (2020, June 25). How to write a literature review.
Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/  (Links to an external
site.)
 
2. BOOK Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of the book (2nd ed., Vol.
4). Publisher. DOI
Example:
Ries, E. (2011). The lean startup (2nd ed.). Crown Publishing Group.
 
3. JOURNAL ARTICLE Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of the article.
Title of Periodical, Volume(issue), Page range. DOI
Example:
Huber, E., Rueschemeyer, D., & Stephens, J. D. (1993). The impact of economic
development on democracy. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7(3), 71–
86. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.7.3.71 (Links to an external site.)
 
4. ONLINE VIDEO Format: Channel name. (Year, Month Day). Title of the video
[Video]. Site name. URL
Example:
Scribbr. (2020, June 26). How to write a successful research proposal [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=166FXhGd9T4
 
5. REPORT Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year, Month Day). Title of the report
(Report No. xxx). Publisher. DOI or URL
Example:
Canada Council for the Arts. (2013). What we heard: Summary of key findings: 2013
Canada Council’s Inter-Arts Office consultation.
http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/canadacouncil/K23-65-2013-
eng.pdf