ME2134-2 FLOW & ENERGY LOSS

VENTURI METER & ELBOW

(WS2-02-46)

SEMESTER 3

2017/2018

NOTE TO STUDENTS:

Students are requested to find out in advance the exact location and directions to the
lab. Latecomers who are more than 15 minutes late will not be permitted to perform
the experiments.

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 CONTENTS

Page

TABLE OF CONTENTS i

LIST OF SYMBOLS ii and iii

INTRODUCTION 1

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT 1

THEORY OF OPERATION 2

PROCEDURE 6

A BRIEF NOTE ON FLOW MEASUREMENTS 8

REFERENCES 9

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of flow measuring apparatus 2

Table 1 Raw Data Sheet 10

Table 2 Processed Data Sheet 1 11

Table 3 Processed Data Sheet 2 12

SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS 13

i
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

A Cross-sectional area of flow (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)

Cd Discharge coefficient

D Diameter of pipe

F Fluid force acting on rotameter float

g Gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2

P P*
h *
Piezometric head  Z . (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)
g g

HE Head loss in 90o elbow

HV Head loss in venturi-meter

K Loss factor (subscripts V and E denote the venturi-meter and respectively)

VD
Re Reynolds Number =


P Pressure (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)

P* Piezometric pressure = P + gZ

QA Actual volumetric flow rate

QT Theoretical volumetric flow rate

Q'T Quasi-theoretical volumetric flow rate in orifice plate meter

V Average velocity = Q/A (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)

v Local velocity

Z Potential head (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)

Greek Symbols:

 Density of fluid

 Specific weight of fluid = g

ii
 1
AV 3 A
 Kinetic energy correction factor given by   v 3 dA

 Dynamic viscosity


 Kinematic viscosity =


iii
 INTRODUCTION

There are many measurements which need to be taken in fluid flow experiments. The setup in
this experiment features some typical flow devices: (a) venturi meter, (b) orifice plate meter,
(c) rotameter, (d) diffuser and (e) a 90 elbow, but measurements will only focus on two of
these.

Objectives

This experiment is prepared for students taking ME2134 - Fluid Mechanics I with the
following objectives:

a) To become familiar with some flow measuring devices, such as the venturi meter.

b) To determine the energy losses and pressure drops or losses for two of the
abovementioned devices: venturi meter and elbow.

c) To determine the coefficient of discharge for the venturi.

Scope

This manual contains a detailed description of the equipment, theory of operation and the
procedure for conducting the experiment in a systematic manner.

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

A schematic diagram of the flow measuring apparatus is shown in Figure 1. The experiment
is conducted using water, which is an incompressible fluid. Water enters the equipment
through a perspex Venturi meter having pressure tappings at inlet (1), throat (2) and exit (3).
After a change in cross-section through a diffuser and another pressure measuring station (4),
the flow continues down a settling length and through an orifice plate meter having pressure
tappings at (5) and (6).

After a further settling length and a 90o Elbow with pressure tappings at (7) and (8), the flow
enters the rotameter which consists of a transparent tapered tube having a float which takes
up an equilibrium position. The position of the float, estimated from the scale on the wall of
the rotameter, provides an indication of the flow rate. The pressure drop across the rotameter
can be derived from the pressure readings at (8) and (9). The water flowing past the rotameter
returns to the reservoir after flowing through a control valve and the weighing tank.

All the pressure tappings are connected to a bank of vertically inverted water-air manometers
which give the piezometric pressure head. Note that the piezometric pressure head is the
same as the pressure head if the elevation head Z is zero.

1
 Figure 1 Schematic diagram of flow measuring apparatus. 1-9 denote locations
connected to manometers.

THEORY OF OPERATION

As fluid flows through the Venturi meter, the orifice meter, the rotameter, the diffuser and the
90° elbow, the continuity equation (which is a restatement of the principle of conservation
of mass) for a steady incompressible fluid flow between any two general locations x and y is
given by

Vx  A x  Vy  A y  Q , (volumetric flow rate) (I)

where A is the cross sectional area and V is the average velocity, which is related to the local
velocity v by
1 Q
V
AA vdA  .
A

As fluid flows through the flow measuring devices, the energy equation for steady
incompressible fluid flow between any two general points x and y can be written as

Hx  ΔH  H y (II)

2
 Px Vx2
where Hx   αx  Zx is the total head at point x (a measure of the
γ 2g
total energy state)
V2
H = Loss of energy, or head loss, generally expressed as H  K ,
2g
where K is the loss factor

 = Specific weight of fluid = g

1
3
 = Kinetic energy correction factor = v 3dA ,
AV A

A is the cross sectional area considered, v is the local velocity and V is the average velocity.
Note that for turbulent flow through pipes with circular cross sections,  = 1.06  1.

If viscous effects and other energy losses are neglected (the ideal case), the energy equation
(II) becomes H x  H y , and is identical to the Bernoulli’s equation:

Px Vx2 Py Vy2
  Zx    Zy . (III)
γ 2g γ 2g

(Note: the correction factor α  2 for fully-developed laminar flows)

Equations (I) and (II) are the two fundamental equations which will be applied repeatedly to
yield expressions for the head loss corresponding to the various flow measuring devices.

(i) Venturi Meter

Assuming negligible energy losses between locations 1 and 2, Bernoulli’s

equation (III) can be written as

P1 V12 P2 V22
   (Z1 = Z2 = 0)
γ 2g γ 2g

and the continuity equation (I) for steady incompressible flow is given by:

V1  A 1  V2  A 2  Q (volumetric flow rate)

The terms P1/ and P2/ are the pressure heads at locations 1 and 2,
respectively. P1/ and P2/ can be, respectively, represented by piezometric
heads h1* and h2* , which are the heights of the liquid column in the
manometric tubes 1 and 2, since the elevation head Z is zero.

The above equations can be simplified to yield an expression for the

theoretical flow rate of the form:

3
 1
 2g(h 1* h *2 )  2
Q T  A1   . (a.1)
 (A1 /A 2 ) 1
2

The actual discharge QA is determined from weighing tank measurements, and

is less than the theoretical discharge QT due to losses. The coefficient of
discharge Cd is defined as:

Cd  Q A QT . (a.2)

Head Loss for Venturi Meter

The loss of energy in terms of head loss H V can be found by applying the
energy equation (II) between pressure tappings at locations 1 and 3. Applying
the energy equation (II) between 1 and 3:

 P1 V12   P V2 
   Z1   ΔH v   3  3  Z 3  .
 γ 2g   γ 2g 

The head loss associated with the Venturi meter is thus given by

P1 P3
 ΔH V    h 1*  h *3 ,
γ γ

since V1 = V3 due to continuity and Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = 0. Hence,

H V h 1* h *3 . (a.3)

V22
Also, since ΔH V  K V , therefore:
2g
ΔH V
KV  , (a.4)
(V22 /2g)

where KV is the loss factor for the Venturi meter.

(ii) 90o Elbow

The inlet to the elbow is at location 7 and the outlet is at location 8.

Head Loss for 90o Elbow

The head loss is given by

4
 P V2   P V2 
H E  7  Z 7  7    8  Z 8  8 
 2g    2g 

V72 V82
= (h  h ) 
*
7  *
8
2g 2g

Q 2A  1 1 
ΔH E  (h  h ) 
* *
 2  2 . (e.1)
7 8
2g A 
 7 A8 

V72
Also, ΔH E  K E , where KE is the loss factor for the elbow.
2g

ΔH E
Hence, KE  . (e.2)
(V72 /2g)

A summary of the relevant equations for analysing the experimental results is

provided on the last page of this manual.

5
 PROCEDURE

Experiment

1. Close the delivery valve and open the exit valve after the rotameter fully.

2. Start the pump and control the flow rate through the apparatus by opening the
delivery valve slowly.

3. Bleed the air entrapped in the apparatus completely before taking any
measurement.

4. Pressurise the vertical inverted water manometer by means of a bicycle pump

to obtain a suitable reference pressure so that the variations of piezometric
heads are within the manometer range. The magnitude of this reference
pressure need not be known since it will be cancelled out when computing the
difference between the piezometric heads.

5. Determine the maximum and minimum flow rate in terms of maximum and
minimum rotameter and manometer readings. A total of 6 readings will be
taken in this range (steps 6-8).

6. Allow sufficient time for the flow to stabilise before taking the manometer
readings.

7. Record the time required for both 5 kg and 10 kg of water to be collected in

the weighing tank.

8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for another five different flow rates.

9. Close the delivery valve and then switch off the pump at the end of the
experiment.

10. Measure the temperature of the water and use interpolation to calculate its
kinematic viscosity .

T (oC) ν (m2 s-1)

20 1.004 x 10-6

30 0.801 x 10-6

Computation

1. From the experimental data recorded in Table 1, calculate the flow rates and
head losses required in Table 2 according to the equations given in THEORY
OF OPERATION (in particular, see the SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS on the

6
 last page) and enter the processed data in Table 2. Calculate the Reynolds
number and loss factors in Table 3.

2. For the venturi meter, plot QT [calculated using Equation (a.1)] as the abscissa
and QA as the ordinate, and then determine Cd using the slope of the graph [see
Equation (a.2)].

3. Plot the loss factors KV and KE against their corresponding Reynolds number
Re. Recall that the Reynolds number is given by Re = VD/, where  is the
kinematic viscosity. The Reynolds number should be computed based on the
average velocity and diameter at the local cross section.

4. Provide sample calculations for one set of readings.

Discussion

1. How does Cd for the venturi meter vary with throat Reynolds number and the
area ratio?

2. Is the use of correction factor α  1 in the above experiments justified?

3. Discuss/Comment on the leading mechanism(s) of head loss in the two flow

devices and where they occur.

4. How do you think changing the angle of the elbow would affect the head loss?

7
 A BRIEF NOTE ON FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Fluid flow measurements involve measurement of pressure, velocity, discharge, density,

viscosity and many other properties, and may be accomplished in a number of ways. These
are basically either direct or indirect methods using gravimetric, volumetric, electronic,
electromagnetic, optical and other new techniques. There are a number of parameters which
govern fluid flow. One important parameter is the quantity of flow or discharge. The flow is
generally expressed in terms of volumetric rate of flow for incompressible fluids and mass
rate of flow for compressible fluids. Direct methods of discharge measurement involve
determining the weight of fluid passing through a section in a given time interval. Indirect
methods of discharge measurement require determination of head, pressure differential, or
computing the discharge. The most precise ones are the gravimetric or volumetric
measurements in which the weight or volume is measured directly by a weighing scale or by
a calibrated tank for a time interval measured by a stopwatch.

Velocity measurements can be achieved, for example, by a simple Pitot-static tube or Prandtl
tube, current meter, hot wire anemometer, laser Doppler anemometer, etc. The flow of gas
can be measured using a gas flow meter.

Electromagnetic flow devices and laser Doppler devices are utilised for flow measurement in
conduits. For the case of free surface flows in open channels, weirs and notches are utilised
for the measurement of flow. Flow can also be measured using positive displacement meter
like disc meter or wobble meter employed in domestic water distribution systems. A number
of flowmeters like orifice meters, Venturi meters, etc. are standardised according to the test
codes given by the British Standards Institution, for example.

The following references might be useful for a better understanding of flow measurements.

8
 REFERENCES

British Standards Institution: BS 1042.

Dally J.W., Riley W.F. and McConnell K.G., “Instrumentation for Engineering
Measurements”, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd Edition, 1993.

Elrod Jr H.G. and Rouse R.R., “An Investigation of Electromagnetic Flowmeters”, Trans.
ASME Vol. 74, 589, May 1952.

Goldstein R.J., “Fluid Mechanics Measurements”, Taylor & Francis, 2nd Edition, 1996.

Holman J.P., “Experimental Methods for Engineers”, McGraw Hill, 6th Edition, 2001.

Phan-Thien, N., Lecture notes for ME2134: Fluid Mechanics I.

Massey B.S., “Mechanics of Fluids”, Taylor & Francis, 8th Edition, 2006.

Sabersky R.H., Acosta A.J., Haupymann E.G. and Gates E.M., “Fluid Flow”, Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 4th Edition, 1998.

Streeter V.L., Wylie E.D. and Bedford K.W., “Fluid Mechanics”, McGraw Hill, 9th Edition,
1997.

Ward-Smith A.J., “Internal fluid Flow, The Fluid Dynamics of Flow in Pipes and Ducts”,
Oxford, 1980.

Yuan S.W., “Foundations of Fluid Mechanics”, Prentice Hall, SI Unit Edition, 1970, pp. 157
- 166.

9
Table 1: Raw Data Sheet

Trial Manometer Reading at Location Rotameter Weight

Diameters Time (s)
No. 1 2 3 7 8 Reading (kg)
D1 = D3 = 1 5.0

D2 = 10.0

D7 = 2 5.0

D8 = 10.0

3 5.0

Areas 10.0

A3 = 4 5.0

A2 = 10.0

A7 = 5 5.0

A8 = 10.0

6 5.0

10.0

10
Table 2: Processed Data Sheet 1 (See SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS on last page)

Venturi
Elbow Loss
Rotameter QT Loss
Trial HE
Reading QA Venturi HV
No. (mm)
(mm) (mm3/s) (mm3/s) (mm)
[Eqn. e.1]
[Eqn. a.1] [Eqn. a.3]

11
Table 3: Processed data sheet 2 (See SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS on last page)
Estimation of loss factors

Trial Actual Velocity Reynolds Velocity Reynolds Loss Loss

No flow V2 No. V7 No. Factor Factor Remarks
QA [Eq f.1] Re2 [Eq f.5] Re7 KV KE
[Eq f.6] [Eq f.10] [Eq a.4] [Eq e.2]

VD
Temperature of water = Reynolds No. Re 


Kinematic Viscosity of water  =

12
SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS

Computation of energy loss or head loss between any two stations x and y:
 * Vx2   * Vy 
2

H xy   h x  
  h y  ,
2g  2g 
   
Q Q
where Vx  A and Vy  A .
Ax Ay

a. Venturi Meter (between 1 and 3):

1
H Q  2g(h 1* h *2 )  2
ΔH V  h  h (a.3)  K V  2 V (a.4), where
*
1
*
3 V2  A (f.1) Q T A 1   (a.1) C d  Q A Q T (a.2)
 (A1 /A 2 ) 1
2
(V2 / 2 g ) A2
b. Orifice Meter (between 5 and 6):
1
H  2g(h *5 h *6 )  2

H O  h  h 1  C
*
5
*
6  2
 (b.4)  K O  2 O (b.5), where
Q
VO  A (f.2) Q'T A O  2 
(b.1) Q A CQ'T (b.2)
(VO / 2g) AO 1(A O /A 5 ) 
1
 1(A O /A 5 ) 2  2
CCd  2 
(b.3)
1C d (A O /A 5 ) 
2

c. Rotameter (between 8 and 9):

H R QA
H R  h *8  h *9 (c.2)  K R  (c.3), where V8  (f.3)
(V82 / 2 g ) A8
d. Diffuser (between 3 and 4):
Q 2A  1 1 
ΔH D  h 3  h 4  
ΔH Q
* *
 2  2  (d.1)  K D  2 D (d.2), where V3  A (f.4)

2g  A 3 A 4   (V3 /2g) A3
e. 90° Elbow (between 7 and 8):
Q 2A  1 1  H Q
H E  (h 7  h 8 ) 
* *
 2  2  (e.1)  K E  2 E (e.2), where V7  A (f.5)

2g  A 7 A 8   (V7 / 2 g ) A7
Reynolds Number:
VD V D VD VD V7 D 7
Re 2  2 2 (f.6); Re O  O O (f.7); Re 8  8 8 (f.8); Re 3  3 3 (f.9); Re 7  (f.10)
    

13