Revision Guide

2nd Edition

CHEMISTRY
IGCSE & O Level

SHAHZAD ZIA
PUBLICATIONS
IGCSE & O Level

CHEMISTRY
Revision Guide

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Shahzad Zia

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Contents
Section Unit Page
1. Experimental Chemistry 1.1 Experimental Design 5
1.2 Methods of Purification and Analysis 11
1.3 Identification of Ions and Gases 21
2. The Particulate Nature of 2.1 Kinetic Particle Theory 25
Matter 2.2 Atomic Structure 35
2.3 Structure and Properties of Materials 39
2.4 Ionic Bonding 49
2.5 Covalent Bonding & Metallic Bonding 55
3. Formulae, Stoichiometry 3. Formulae, Stoichiometry and the Mole 63
and the Mole Concept Concept
4. Electrolysis 4. Electrolysis 81
5. Energy from Chemicals 5. Energy from Chemicals 93
6. Chemical Reactions 6.1 Rate of Reaction 101
6.2 Redox 105
6.3 Reversible Reactions 109
7. The Chemistry and Uses of 7.1 The Characteristic Properties of Acids and Bases 113
Acids, Bases and Salts 7.2 Preparation of Salts 121
7.3 Properties and Uses of Ammonia 127
7.4 Sulfuric Acid 131
8. The Periodic Table 8.1 Periodic Trends 133
8.2 Group Properties 137
8.3 Transition Elements 143
9. Metals 9.1 Properties of Metals 145
9.2 Reactivity Series 147
9.3 Extraction of Metals 153
9.4 Iron 155
9.5 Aluminium 159
10. Atmosphere and Environment 10.1 Air 161
10.2 Water 169
11. Organic Chemistry 11.1a Organic Chemistry 173
11.1b Alkanes 177
11.2 Alkenes 183
11.3 Alcohols 187
11.4 Carboxylic Acids 191
11.5 Polymers 195
Appendix I Full Syllabus Formulae 201
Appendix II Variations in O Level & IGCSE Syllabus 203
The Periodic Table of Elements 204
Index 205
Revision Planner 207

4
1.1 Experimental Design
After reading this unit, you will be able to

(a) name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume,
including burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders and gas syringes.
(b) suggest suitable apparatus for collection and drying of gases.

Key Definitions

mass amount of matter a substance contains

volume amount of space a substance occupies

meniscus the curved surface of a liquid in a container

drying agent a substance that removes water present in a gas

1.1.1 Experimental Design

EN
- The subject of chemistry involves
Quantities SI Units Symbols
measurement of various physical
IM
quantities, like time, temperature, mass kilogram kg
mass, volume and density etc. time second s
- Scientists all over the world use SI temperature Kelvin K
EC

units and their sub-units for the volume cubic meter m3

measurement of various physical density kilogram/cubic meter kg m-3
quantities. table 1.1.1
SP

Measurement of Time
- In laboratory, time intervals are measured using stopwatches.
- SI unit for time is second (s). Other units such as minutes (min)
and hours (h) are used to measure longer intervals of time.
Remember that

1 min = 60 s
1 h = 60 min = 3600 s

- A common stopwatch can measure a time interval correct upto 0.01s.

fig. 1.1.2

Measurement of Temperature
- In laboratory, the temperature of a substance is measured using a mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Unit 1.1 Experimental Chemistry 5

Downward Delivery
- This method is suitable for collecting gases that are soluble gas air escapes
in water and denser than air such as chlorine (Cl2) and
hydrogen chloride (HCl). In this method, the gas is introduced
in a gas jar. Being heavier it starts settling to the bottom while
the air escapes from the mouth of the jar.
gas collected
This method is also called upward displacement of air.
fig. 1.1.9

Upward Delivery
- This method is suitable for collecting gases that are soluble in
water and lighter than air such as ammonia (NH3). In this gas collected

method, the gas is introduced into an upside down gas jar.

Being lighter than air, the gas starts rising to the top while
the air escapes from the bottom end of the jar.
This method is also called downward displacement of air.
gas air escapes
Note that a gas is considered to be less dense than air if its fig. 1.1.10
molecular mass is less than 30.

- The table 1.1.11 shows the solubility and density of some common gases.
EN
Gas Solubility in Water Density
hydrogen insoluble less denser
oxygen slightly soluble slightly denser
IM
chlorine soluble denser
carbon dioxide slightly soluble denser
ammonia extremely soluble less denser
hydrogen chloride very soluble denser
EC

table 1.1.11

Drying of Gases (for O Level only)

SP

- Some gases when collected over water contain water vapour as impurity. In order to collect a dry
sample of a gas, it should be passed through a drying agent.
- Some commonly used drying agents are
i. conc. sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
ii. quicklime i.e. calcium oxide (CaO)
iii. sodalime (mixture of sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide)
iv. fused calcium chloride (CaCl2) i.e. calcium chloride that has been previously heated

Use of Conc. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

- To dry a gas with concentrated sulfuric acid, a double neck bottle or a conical flask with two delivery
tubes (see fig. 1.1.12) are used. The tube introducing the gas should be immersed in the acid while
the exiting tube should remain out of the acid.

8 Unit 1.1 Experimental Chemistry

 Aq. Sodium Hydroxide Aq. Ammonia
Cation on adding a on adding in on adding a on adding in
few drops excess few drops excess
copper (II) ion (Cu2+) light blue ppt. insoluble in light blue ppt. soluble in
excess excess, giving
a deep blue
solution
iron (II) ion (Fe2+) green ppt. insoluble in green ppt. insoluble in
excess excess
iron (III) ion (Fe3+) red brown ppt. insoluble in red brown ppt. insoluble in
excess excess
chromium (III) ion (Cr3+) green ppt. soluble in green ppt. insoluble in
excess, giving excess
a green
solution
aluminium ion (Al3+) white ppt. soluble in white ppt. insoluble in
excess, giving excess
a colour-less
solution
zinc ion (Zn2+) white ppt. soluble in white ppt. soluble in
excess, giving excess, giving
a colour-less a colour-less
solution solution
calcium ion (Ca2+) white ppt. insoluble in no ppt. no ppt.
excess
ammonium ion (NH4+) no ppt. no ppt.

table 1.3.1

- The following schematic diagrams are easy to remember the rules for the identification of cations.

Salt Solution
add a few drops of NaOH(aq)

check ppt. formed or not ?

no ppt. ppt. formed
check the colour
NH4+ of ppt. formed

white ppt. reddish brown ppt. light

lightblue
blueppt.
ppt. green ppt.
Add NaOH(aq) Add NaOH(aq)
in excess Fe3+ Cu2+ in excess

ppt. dissolved ppt. undissolved ppt. dissolved ppt. undissolved

Al3+ Zn2+ Ca2+ Cr3+ Fe2+

fig 1.3.2

22 Unit 1.3 Identification of Ions and Gases

Gases
- According to kinetic particle theory,
i. Arrangement of Particles: The particles of a gas are spread far apart from one another. They
move about freely trying to fill all available space available in the container. If an external
pressure is applied on them, they come closer. For this reason,
gases have low densities and are compressible.
ii. Movement of Particles: The particles of a gas have almost
insignificant intermolecular forces of attraction. So they move
randomly in all directions. For this reason, gases don’t have
fixed shapes and fixed volumes and they need closed containers. fig. 2.1.4
- A quick comparison of all the three phases of matter are given in the table 2.1.5

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Shape fixed not fixed not fixed
Volume fixed fixed not fixed
Density very high high low
Motion of Particles vibratory random random
Intermolecular Forces very strong strong weak
Compressibility incompressible incompressible compressible
Arrangement of orderly and disorderly but disorderly and
Particles closely packed
EN
closely packed far apart

table 2.1.5
IM
Changes in States of Matter
solid solidification liquid
- The physical state of a substance depends on the temperature melting
and pressure of the surroundings. Any suitable change in
EC

n o
de lim

ap tion
su

temperature or pressure can lead to change in state. Melting,

ati
po ati
b

or
/ev sa
sit on

ng en

boiling, solidification, condensation, sublimation and

ion

ili nd
bo co

evaporation are some examples of changes in state.

SP

gas
Melting
- Changing a substance from a solid to a liquid upon heating fig. 2.1.6
is called melting. The temperature at which a solid melts i.e.
changes from solid to liquid is called melting point.
- A pure substance always melts at a definite and constant temperature.
For example, pure ice melts exactly at 0 °C, pure wax at 57 °C and
pure iron at 1535 °C.
- According to kinetic particle theory, the particles in a solid are held
together by strong intermolecular forces of attraction. When a solid
substance is heated, its particles absorb heat energy and convert it
into kinetic energy. As a result, the particles start vibrating faster
about their fixed positions. If the solid is continuously heated, then fig. 2.1.7

28 Unit 2.1 Kinetic Particle Theory

- Higher is the temperature, the faster is the rate of diffusion. This is because the particles gain more
kinetic energy and thus move faster.
- Gases with lower molecular masses diffuse faster than those with higher molecular masses. The
difference in the rates of diffusion can be demonstrated by the following experiment:

Experiment
Take two cotton plugs, one soaked in concentrated ammonia solution and the other soaked
in concentrated hydrochloric acid. Place them simultaneously at the two ends of a long glass
tube as shown in the fig.
Close the two ends of the tube immediately with rubber bungs. The molecules of ammonia
and hydrogen chloride start diffusing into each other by moving in opposite directions.
When they meet, they react and form white ring of ammonium chloride. It is observed that
the white ring is formed nearer
to the end where cotton soaked in rubber rubber
bung bung
hydrochloric acid is placed. This
fact shows that the molecules cotton wool soaked white ring of cotton wool soaked
of ammonia (Mr = 17) having lower in conc. ammonia ammonium chloride in conc. hydrochloric
solution acid
molecular mass diffuse faster than
those of hydrogen chloride (Mr = 36.5). EN
Note that hydrogen (Mr = 2) is the lightest of all gases. It is about 20 times lighter than air.

Pressure of Gases
IM
- All gases exert pressure when the their particles collide with
the walls of a closed container.
- The particles of a gas are free to move because the forces of
attraction between them are almost negligible. When a gas is
EC

filled in a container, the gas particles not only collide with

each other but also with the walls of the container due to their
continuous random motion. Each individual hitting of a gas
SP

particle exert some force on the wall of the container. In this

way, their combined action develop the pressure on the walls
of the container. fig. 2.1.22
- The pressure of a gas depends upon three factors:
i. Quantity of Gas Particles: Increasing the quantity of a gas in a container means there will be
more collisions of the gas particles against the walls and hence pressure will also increase.
ii. Volume of Container: For a fixed quantity of a gas enclosed in a container, any increase in
volume of the gas causes the gas particles to move longer distances in order to collide against
the walls of the container. If the temperature of the gas is kept constant, there will be less
chances of collisions of the gas particles against the walls and hence pressure will decrease.
iii. Temperature: For a fixed quantity of a gas enclosed in a container, any rise in temperature
causes the gas particles to move more vigorously. If the volume of the gas is kept constant
there will be more chances of collisions of the gas particles against the walls and, hence,
pressure will also increase.

Unit 2.1 Kinetic Particle Theory 33

- The atoms of some elements do not exist as individual atoms. So two or more atoms of the same or
different elements combine together and form a molecule.
- A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically combined to get greater stability.
- A molecule formed by the combination of two atoms is called diatomic molecule, the one formed
by the combination of three atoms is called triatomic molecule and the one formed by the combination
of four or more atoms is called polyatomic molecule.
- Some molecules are made up of a large number of repeating units of atoms. They are called macro-
molecules.
- An element that contains molecules made up of two or more atoms is called molecular element.
Examples of molecular elements are H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, O3 etc.

Ne N2 O3 P4 S8 C
monatomic diatomic triatomic tetraatomic octaatomic macromolecule
molecule molecule molecule molecule molecule
fig. 2.3.7

Note that some non-metals such as sulfur, phosphorous, carbon etc. exist as polyatomic molecules,
but in stoichiometric calculations they are considered monatomic.
EN
2.3.2 Compounds
- A compound is a pure substance that can be further decomposed into even simpler substances using
IM
chemical means or by electrolysis.
- A compound is produced when two or more elements are chemically
combined in a fixed ratio by mass or number. For example, water (H2O)
EC

is a compound made up of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen. A

water (H2O)
molecule of water is formed when two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom joined together. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in
SP

water is always fixed i.e. 2:1. If this ratio is changed, the compound will
not be water. For example, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) also contains the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
same elements, but it is a different compound because the ratio of fig. 2.3.8
hydrogen to oxygen atoms in hydrogen peroxide is 1:1.
- The formation of a compound is always accompanied by an energy change i.e. energy is either
absorbed or lost when a new compound is formed.
- Some other examples of compounds are sugar, salt, carbon dioxide and sulphuric acid.

Note that both physical and chemical properties of a compound are different from the elements from
which it is formed.

Types of Compounds
- There are two major classes of compounds:
i. covalent or molecular compounds
ii. ionic compounds

44 Unit 2.3 Structure and Properties of Materials

Covalent Elements and Covalent Compounds
- Elements whose molecules are formed by the mutual sharing of electrons are called covalent elements
or molecular elements e.g. hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) etc.
- Compounds formed by the mutual sharing of electrons between atoms of two different elements are
called covalent compounds or molecular compounds e.g. water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
ammonia (NH3) etc.

Molecular Structural Dot and Cross Ball & Stick Space-Filling

Formula Formula Formula Diagram Model Model

H2 H H H H H H

Cl2 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl

O2 O O O O O O

HCl H Cl H Cl H Cl
EN
IM
N2 N N N N N N

O O O
EC

H2O
H H H H H H

O C O
SP

CO2 O C O O C O

H H H H
CH4 H C H H C H C
H H H H

H H H H H H
C2H4 H C C H H C C H H C C H
H H H H H H
table 2.5.4

Properties of Covalent Compounds

- Covalent compounds show the following properties,
i. Covalent compounds exist in all physical states i.e. gases, liquids and solids.

Unit 2.5 Covalent & Metallic Bonding 57

3 Formulae, Stoichiometry
and the Mole Concept
After reading this unit, you will be able to

(a) interpret and construct chemical equations, with state symbols, including ionic equations.
(b) define relative atomic mass, Ar.
(c) define relative molecular mass, Mr, and calculate relative molecular mass and relative
formula mass as the sum of relative atomic masses.
(d) calculate the percentage mass of an element in a compound when given appropriate
information.
(e) calculate empirical and molecular formulae from relevant data.
(f) calculate stoichiometric reacting masses; use Avogadro’s law in calculations involving
gas volume.
(g) apply the concept of solution concentration (in mol/dm3 or g/dm3) to process the results
of volumetric experiments and to solve simple problems.
(i) calculate percentage yield and percentage purity.
EN
Key Definitions

chemical reaction rearrangement of atoms of one or more substances to form new

IM
substances

reactants starting substances for a chemical reaction

EC

products the substances produced as a result of a chemical reaction

addition reaction a type of chemical reaction in which two or more simpler

substances combine to form a single compound
SP

decomposition reaction a type of chemical reaction in which a single compound breaks

down into two or more simpler substances

displacement reaction a type of chemical reaction in which a more reactive element takes
the place of a less reactive one in a compound

double displacement reaction a type of chemical reaction in which the reacting substances
exchange their ions to form products

neutralization a reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water

combustion reaction the burning of a fuel in the presence of oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water along with release of heat energy

Unit 3 Formulae, Stoichiometry and the Mole Concept 63

 i.e. they influence the ionic discharge by taking part in electrolytic reactions.
- Platinum or carbon (graphite) electrodes are examples of inert electrodes while copper and zinc
electrodes are examples of reactive electrodes.
- The electrolysis of the following types of aqueous solutions are worth discussing:

Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution (brine) using inert electrodes

step 1 Na+ and Cl- ions from sodium chloride
H+ and OH- ions from water molecules. O2 gas H2 gas

step 2 At the anode, OH- ions are preferentially discharged to form water and
oxygen.
4OH-(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e-

step 3 At the cathode, H+ ions are preferentially discharged to form hydrogen

platinum platinum
gas. This is because hydrogen ranks below sodium in the reactivity series. anode cathode
4H+(aq) + 4e- 2H (g)2
+
step 4 The overall reaction is:
2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) It must be noted that twice as
much hydrogen is produced as
The equation shows that the electrolysis of dil. sodium chloride solution
oxygen during the electrolysis of
is, in fact, the electrolysis of water. dil. NaCl solution.
step 5 As more and more H+ and OH- ions are removed from solution, the
concentration of sodium chloride solution gradually increases.

table 4.10

Electrolysis of conc. sodium chloride (brine) solution using inert electrodes

step 1 Na+ and Cl- ions from sodium chloride
H+ and OH- ions from water molecules. Cl2 gas H2 gas

step 2 At the anode, Cl- ions are discharged because of their higher concentration
in the solution.
2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-

step 3 At the cathode, H+ ions are preferentially discharged to form hydrogen

carbon carbon
gas. This is because hydrogen ranks below sodium in the reactivity series. anode cathode
2H+(aq) + 2e- H (g)
2
+
step 4 The overall reaction is:
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)
Equal volumes of hydrogen gas
The equation shows that the electrolysis of conc. sodium chloride solution and chlorine gas are produced
yields hydrogen gas and chlorine gas, and aqueous sodium hydroxide. during the electrolysis of
The presence of Na+ and OH- ions make the remaining solution alkaline. conc. NaCl solution.
step 5
So aqueous sodium hydroxide is by-product of the electrolysis of the
conc. NaOH solution.

table 4.11

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88 Unit 4 Electrolysis
 Note that if a reaction in the forward direction evolves heat then the same amount of heat is absorbed
when the reaction proceeds in the backward direction.

Energy Level Diagrams

- Energy level diagrams show the heat
reactants products
change in an exothermic or endo-
energy energy
thermic reaction. The difference heat of reaction heat of reaction
between the energy levels of the (DH = -ve) (DH = +ve)

products and the reactants is equal

products reactants
to the amount of energy given out
Exothermic Reactions Endothermic Reactions
or absorbed by the reaction.
fig. 5.3

Bond Breaking and Bond Making

- All chemical reactions involve either the breaking of bonds or the making of new bonds, or both.
- When bonds between atoms are broken, heat energy is absorbed and when bonds between atoms
are formed, heat energy is given out. In short,
bond breaking is endothermic, while bond making is exothermic.
- Bond energy is the amount of energy required to break a chemical bond. The same amount of energy
is released when the same bond is formed. It is measured in kJ/mol.
- To find whether a chemical reaction is exothermic or endothermic, the net enthalpy change must be
first calculated using the formula given as follows:
EN
D H = H bond breaking - H bond making

- When a chemical reaction involves both breaking and making of bonds simultaneously, then it can
IM
be
i. exothermic if D H bond breaking < D H bond making
ii. endothermic if D H bond breaking > D H bond making
EC

Worked Example
In order to find whether a reaction is exothermic or Bond Bond Energy
endothermic, let us consider the formation of hydrogen H - H 436 kJ/mol
SP

chloride using the reaction between hydrogen and Cl - Cl 242 kJ/mol

chlorine gases. H - Cl 431 kJ/mol
H2 (g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
Solution
energy
total energy absorbed for bond breaking = 436 kJ + 242 kJ
= 678 kJ H2 (g) + Cl2(g)
reactants
total energy released for bond making = 2 × 431 kJ
= 862 kJ DH = - 184 kj/mol
net energy change = D H = H bond breaking - H bond making
= 678 kJ - 862 kJ 2HCl(g)
products
= - 184 kJ
Negative (-) sign indicates that the reaction between hydrogen Energy Level Diagram
and chlorine to form hydrogen chloride is exothermic.

96 Unit 5 Energy from Chemicals

Effect of Change in Concentration of Reactants or Products in the Reaction Mixture
- In equilibrium reactions, any change in the concentration or amounts of reactants or products shifts
the position of equilibrium to the side where the equilibrium concentrations can be restored.
- When a reaction is in equilibrium, then decreasing the concentration of products shifts the position
of equilibrium to the right i.e. the reaction goes forward causing more yield.
On the contrary, when a reaction is in equilibrium, then
decreasing the concentration of reactants shifts the position products
of equilibrium to the left i.e. the reaction goes backward reactants
causing more yield.
For example, in contact process sulfur trioxide gas is
produced as shown by the equation below.
reactants
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
products
A mixture in dynamic equilibrium is present at 300 °C. At
this stage, an increase in the amount of oxygen and sulfur
dioxide (or removal of sulfur trioxide gas) would increase
the amount of yield in the equilibrium mixture. fig. 6.3.3

Effect of Introducing or Changing a Catalyst

- A catalyst does not change the position of equilibrium. It only speeds up the forward and backward
EN
reactions equally. In other words, a catalyst causes the reaction to reach the equilibrium faster but
does not affect the amount of products.
IM
EC
SP

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112 Unit 6.3 Reversible Reactions

7.1 The Characteristic Properties
of Acids and Bases
After reading this unit, you will be able to

(a) describe the meanings of the terms acid and alkali in terms of the ions they produce in
aqueous solution
(b) describe various physical properties of acids and alkalis
(c) describe the characteristic properties of acids in reactions with metals, alkalis and carbonates
(d) describe the characteristic properties of alkalis in reactions with acids and ammonium
salts
(e) describe everyday uses of acids and alkalis
(f) describe how to test hydrogen ion concentration and hence relative acidity using indicators
and pH scale
(g) difference between the terms concentration and strength
(g) describe qualitative difference between strong and weak acids/alkalis
(h) describe what pH scale is and how it is used to find the strength of an acid and an alkali
EN
(i) describe the importance of controlling the pH in soils and how excess acidity can be
treated using calcium hydroxide
(j) classify oxides as acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral based on their metallic/non-metallic
character
IM

Key Definitions
EC

acid a substance that dissociates to produce hydrogen ( H+ ) ions when

dissolved in water

base a substance that reacts with an acid and produces a salt and water
SP

alkali a water soluble base; a substance that gives hydroxide ions, OH-
when dissolved in water

neutralization an acid-base reaction that produces neutral products i.e. salt and
water

strength the ability of an electrolyte to dissociate into ions when dissolved

in water

pH scale a scale to measure the strength of an acid or alkali

indicator a coloured compound that changes its colour at different pH

values

Unit 7.1 The Characteristic Properties of Acids and Bases 113

 7.1.1 Acids
- An acid is a substance that dissociates to produce hydrogen ( H+ ) ions
when dissolved in water.
- Acids are categorized in two types:
i. Organic Acids: These are the acids which naturally occur and
are produced in living things, e.g. ethanoic acid, tartaric acid,
citric acid etc.
ii. Inorganic Acids: These are man-made acids e.g. sulfuric acid
warning for corrosive material
(H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfurus fig. 7.1.1
acid (H2SO3), carbonic acid (H2CO3) etc. They are also called
mineral acids.
- Acids show their properties only when they are dissolved in water. This is because acids dissociate
in water and produce hydrogen ( H+ ) ions which are responsible for their characteristic properties.

H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO4- (aq)

Note that all acids must contain hydrogen but not all hydrogen containing compounds are acids.

- All acids have some common properties which are,

i. They give hydrogen ( H+ ) ions or protons in water.
ii. They have sour taste.
EN
iii. Aqueous solutions of acids conduct electricity.
iv. They turn blue litmus paper (or solution) to red and
IM
methyl orange to red.
v. Their pH value is less than 7.
vi. Strong acids destroy fabric and cause burn on skin.
vii. Acids react with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen
EC

gas. fig. 7.1.2

metal + acid salt + hydrogen

SP

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Not all metals react with acids in the same way. Some metals react violently, some react
moderately while there are some others which do not react at all.

Reaction of Acids with Examples Observation

reactive metals K, Na, Ca violent & explosive reaction

moderately reactive metals Mg, Zn, Fe normal reaction

less reactive metals Cu, Ag, Au no reaction

table 7.1.3

114 Unit 7.1 The Characteristic Properties of Acids and Bases

- Many salts exist in the form of crystals. They, in fact, contain water molecules incorporated in the
crystal lattice of the ionic compound. These water molecules are called water of crystallisation or
water of hydration.

Note that a crystal is a solid that contains atoms, molecules, or ions arranged in a highly regular,
repeated, and geometrical pattern.

- On the basis of structure, salts are classified into two types:

i. Hydrated (or crystalline) salts
ii. Anhydrous (or amorphous) salts
- Hydrated or crystalline salts contain water of crystallisation and,
therefore, exist in the form of definite shaped crystals.
- Anhydrous or amorphous salts do not contain water of crystallisation.
They are found in powder form or non-crystalline form.
- Hydrated ionic compounds have a specific number of water molecules fig. 7.2.2
in their chemical formulas. The formulas of hydrated salts are written
with a dot (.) followed by number of water molecules. Greek prefixes such as mono-, di-, tri-, tetra,
penta-, hexa-, hepta-, octa, nona-, deca- etc. are attached to the word hydrate to indicate the number
of water molecules per formula unit for the compound.

Anhydrous Salt Formula Hydrated Salt

EN Formula
sodium carbonate Na2CO3 sodium carbonate decahydrate Na2CO3.10H2O
magnesium sulfate MgSO4 magnesium sulfate heptahydrate MgSO4.7H2O
copper (II) sulfate CuSO4 copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
IM
zinc sulfate ZnSO4 zinc sulfate heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O

table 7.2.3
- Water of crystallisation can be removed by heating the crystalline salt. Removing the water of
EC

crystallisation by heating does not affect the essential chemical composition of the salt. It just turns
the salt from crystalline from into anhydrous form.

endothermic
SP

hydrated copper (II) sulfate Anhydrous copper sulfate + water

exothermic
CuSO4 .5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

heating

blue crystals white powder

crystallisation

fig. 7.2.4

Solubility of Salts
- Many salts are soluble in water, they are called soluble salts. Some salts are insoluble in water, they
are called insoluble salts. Some salts dissolve in water partially or in a little quantity. They are called
sparingly soluble salts. Calcium sulphate is such an example.

122 Unit 7.2 Preparation of Salts

7.4 Sulfuric Acid
After reading this unit, you will be able to

(a) describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid from the raw materials sulfur, air and water
in the contact process
(b) state the use of sulfur dioxide as a bleach, in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper
and as a food preservative (by killing bacteria)
(c) state the uses of sulfuric acid in the manufacture of detergents and fertilisers, and as a
battery acid

7.4.1 Sulfuric Acid

- Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive mineral acid with molecular formula H2SO4.
- Sulfuric acid has the following features:
i. In a molecule of sulphuric acid, four oxygen atoms
H
are covalently bonded to one sulfur atom; two oxygen
atoms through double covalent bonding while the O
O
remaining through single covalent bonding.
EN H
Two hydrogen atoms are also covalently bonded to S
two oxygen atoms as shown in fig. 7.4.1.
ii. It is slightly yellow in colour. O O
IM
iii. It has a pungent smell.
fig. 7.4.1
iv. It is a slightly viscous liquid.
v. It is very much soluble in water.
EC

Contact Process
- Sulfuric acid is produced from sulfur, oxygen and water through a method called Contact process.
SP

The Contact process can be divided into four stages:

temperature: 450 °C
pressure: 1-2 atm
burns in air catalyst: vanadium (V) oxide
sulfur sulfur dioxide sulfur trioxide

dissoloves in
conc. H2SO4

dissoloves in water
sulfuric acid oleum

fig. 7.4.2

Unit 7.4 Sulfuric Acid 131

 v. Elements become more metallic because they can lose electrons more easily down the group.
vi. Metals become more reactive down the group while non-metals become less reactive down
the group. So the most reactive metal is caesium (Cs) whereas the most reactive non-metal
is fluorine (F).
vii. Melting and boiling points gradually change down the group.
- In any period of the periodic table, the following patterns and trends can be observed,
i. Elements in the same period have same number of electron shells. The table 8.1.2 testifies
this fact.

Element C O Ne Na Al Cl Ca
Proton No. 6 8 10 11 13 17 20
Electronic
2,4 2,6 2,8 2,8,1 2,8,3 2,8,7 2,8,8,2
Configuration
Group IV VI VIII I III VII II
Period 2 2 2 3 3 3 4

table 8.1.2

ii. The valency of the atoms increases by 1.

iii. The size of atoms decreases across a period from left to right. This is because the pull of
EN
nucleus on electrons increases due to increasing number of protons. As a result, the atom
reduces its size.
iv. Reactivity of metals decreases while reactivity of non-metals increases.
v. Metals are located on the left side while non-metals are located on the right side.
IM
vi. Across a period from left to right, there is a decrease in metallic properties and an increase
in non-metallic properties. The table 8.1.3 shows how the metallic character changes to
non-metallic across period 3 of the periodic table.
EC

Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Element
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
SP

Symbol

Atomic No. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Valency +1 +2 +3 +4 -3 -2 -1 0

Atomic
Size

Reactivity
reactivity decreases least reactivity increases inert
Trend
Properties metallic metalloid non-metallic
Metallic
metallic properties decreases non-metallic properties increases
Trend
table 8.1.3

Unit 8.1 Periodic Trends 135

 9.4.1 Extraction of Iron
- Iron is mainly extracted from an ore called haematite. Haematite contains iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3)
along with impurities such as sand (SiO2) and clay. charge containing
haematite, coke
- Since, iron is below carbon in the reactivity series, so and limestone
haematite can be reduced to iron by using carbon.
waste gases waste gases
- The reduction of iron oxide is carried out in a containing containing
blast furnace. The height of blast furnace is CO2, CO & N2 CO2, CO & N2

about 30 metres. It is made of steel but,

internally, it is lined with fire bricks to resist
high temperature.
- A mixture of haematite, coke (carbon) and
500 °C
limestone (calcium carbonate) called charge
is added through the top of the furnace. Hot air
is blasted in through the bottom. After a series
of reactions, impurities in the form of slag are
separated while liquid iron collects at the
1900 °C
bottom of the furnace.

hot air hot air

Chemical Reactions Inside Blast Furnace
- The following chemical reactions take place inside
EN
outlet for
slag
the blast furnace:
outlet for
i. The carbon in coke burns with the blast iron
IM
of hot air to form carbon dioxide. fig. 9.4.1

C(s) + O2(g) heat CO2(g)

haematite, coke, limestone
This reaction produces a lot of heat which
EC

raises the temperature of the blast furnace hot air (oxygen) waste gases
to about 1900 °C.
ii. As the carbon dioxide rises up, it reacts
SP

with more coke to form carbon monoxide. blast furnace

heat
C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)

iii. Both coke and carbon monoxide are good

slag molten iron
reducing agents. At high temperature they
reduce, iron (III) oxide in haematite to iron. fig. 9.4.2
heat
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

The iron formed is in molten state. It trickles to the bottom of the furnace. The waste gases
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen are escaped from the top of the furnace.
iv. In the presence of extreme heat inside the furnace, limestone (calcium carbonate) decomposes
to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:

CaCO3(s) heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)

156 Unit 9.4 Iron

 9.4.3 Rust
- Rust is a reddish-brown, flaky substance that is formed when an iron object is exposed to moist air.
The chemical name of rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide and its chemical formula is Fe2O3.nH2O.
- The chemical reaction that causes an object of iron to rust is called rusting. Rusting is, in fact, a slow
oxidation of iron in the presence of water or moist air.
The chemical equation for rusting is

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + n[H2O(l)] 2Fe2O3 . nH2O(s)

where n indicates the number of water molecules present in the compound.

- For rusting to occur, the presence of both air (oxygen) and water is necessary. Moreover, the presence
of sodium chloride or acidic substances such as sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide also speed up the
process of rusting.
- There are three ways by which rusting can be avoided:
i. Using a Protective Layer: Rusting can be prevented by applying a protective layer over the
metal. This includes painting, greasing, plastic covering, electroplating it with a less reactive
metal or dip-plating it in molten zinc (galvanization).
ii. Sacrificial Protection: This method involves the fixing of
a more reactive metal such as zinc or magnesium to those
parts of iron objects that are exposed to moisture e.g. ships magnesium
pieces
EN
and underground pipes. The reactive metal gets corroded
but saves iron or steel from rusting.
iii. Using Stainless Steel: Stainless steel is a rust-resistant
fig. 9.4.5
alloy. It contains nickel, chromium iron and minute
IM
amounts of other metals or carbon. When exposed to air and water, a very hard layer of
chromium (III) oxide is formed on the surface of the object which protects it from further
corrosion.
EC

9.4.4 Extraction of Zinc (for IGCSE only)

SP

- Zinc is extracted form an ore called zinc blende. The main ingredient of zinc blende is zinc sulphide
(ZnS). Zinc is extracted from its ore by the following steps:
i. The ore of zinc (zinc blende) is concentrated by froth flotation. For this the crushed ore is
dumped into tanks of water containing special froth chemicals. Air is then blown through
the water to create froth. The rock impurities (i.e. waste materials) become soaked with water
and sink to the bottom of the tank while the zinc sulphide floats and is carried to the top.
Here it is skimmed off.
ii. The zinc sulphide is now fed into a furnace where it is roasted with oxygen so it converts
into zinc oxide (ZnO). This step removes the sulfur.

2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2

iii. Zinc oxide is then mixed with powdered coke (C) at a temperature of about 1400°C. The
carbon in the coke reduces the zinc oxide to zinc.
ZnO + C Zn + CO

158 Unit 9.4 Iron

- The composition by volume of dry, clean air is Composition
Gases
shown in table 10.1.1. by Volume
nitrogen 78%
Fractional Distillation of Air
oxygen 21%
- Air can be fractionally distilled to separate its
various components such as oxygen, nitrogen carbon dioxide 0.03%
and the noble gases. Various steps involved in noble gases
- argon 0.9%
fractional distillation are:
- neon & helium 0.02%
i. Filtration: First air is pumped into
other gases less than 0.1%
the plant, and filtered to remove dust
and smoke particles. table 10.1.1
ii. Removal of CO2 and Water Vapour: In the
second step, water vapour, carbon dioxide, and other pollutants are removed. For this
purpose, air is cooled until the water vapour condenses to water, then it is passed over beds
of adsorbent beads (made of NaOH) to trap the carbon dioxide, and any pollutants in it.
iii. Compression & Expansion Cycles: In the third step, the cleaned air is pumped into a small
space for compression. This makes the air hot. It is then cooled down. The cold, compressed
air is passed through a jet, into a larger space. When it expands rapidly, its temperature
further lowers. The compression and expansion cycles are repeated several times until at
-200 °C, it is fully liquified.
EN
iv. Fractional Distillation: In the last step, the liquid air is pumped into a fractionating column.
There it is slowly warmed up. The gases boil off one by one, and are collected in separated
tanks.
IM
air in
gas b.p.
pump
xenon (-108 °C)
filter
EC

krypton (-153 °C)

cooling
oxygen (-183 °C)
chamber
SP

argon (-186 °C)

Air expands and
Air is compressed gets very cold.
After many cycles nitrogen (-196 °C)
CO2 & water pump and cooled air liquifies
removed
liquid air at -200 °C Liquid air slowly
pump warms up
fig. 10.1.2

Uses of Oxygen
- Oxygen has some very important uses, some of which are described as follows:
i. Oxygen is essential for all forms of life. When we breathe, the oxygen through lungs absorbs
in our blood. The blood transfers this oxygen to all cells and releases energy from the absorbed
food.
ii. In hospitals and healthcare units, oxygen is given to patients who have difficulty in breathing
or who need surgery. For this purpose, oxygen masks or oxygen tents are used.

162 Unit 10.1 Air

Hydrocarbons
- Organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only are called hydrocarbons.
- Hydrocarbons are classified into two major groups
i. saturated hydrocarbons H H
ii. unsaturated hydrocarbons H C C H
- Saturated hydrocarbons are the hydrocarbons in which
two adjacent carbon atoms are joined by a single covalent H H
ethane - a saturated hydrocarbon
bond and all other bonds are satisfied by hydrogen atoms.
An example of saturated hydrocarbon is ethane (C2H6). H H
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons are the hydrocarbons which C C H C C H
have at least two carbon atoms that are joined by a H H
ethene ethyne
multiple covalent bond and all remaining bonds are
unsaturated hydrocarbons
satisfied by hydrogen atoms. An example of unsaturated
hydrocarbon is ethene (C2H4). fig. 11.1.4

11.1.2 Petroleum and its Various Fractions

- Petroleum also called crude oil or mineral oil, is a dark brown,
foul smelling complex mixture of saturated hydrocarbons formed
under ground by the chemical decomposition of plants and
animals by bacteria and heat.
EN
- Petroleum can be separated into its fractions by a process called
fractional distillation. During fractional distillation the various
petroleum fractions are separated according to the difference in
IM
their boiling points and by using evaporation and condensation
techniques.
- Fractional distillation of petroleum is carried out in a tower called
EC

fractionating tower or fractionating column. It can be of 30m

fig. 11.1.5
height. It is hottest at the bottom and cooler at the top.
The fractionating tower is divided into a number of chambers with bubble caps and drainage pipes.
SP

< 40o C
petroleum gas C1 to C4 Small Molecules
(LPG) low boiling point
40o - 75oC
petrol C5 to C10 more volatile
(gasoline) light in colour
75o - 150 oC
naphtha C7 to C14 easy to ignite
low density
150o - 240 oC easy to flow
paraffin C9 to C16
(kerosene)
220o - 250 oC
diesel C15 to C25 Large Molecules
high boiling point
250o - 350 oC less volatile
lubricating oils C20 to C35 dark in colour
crude oil hard to ignite
350o - 400 oC
fuel oil C35 to C70 high density
heater > 400 oC difficult to flow
bitumen > C70

fig. 11.1.6

Unit 11.1a Organic Chemistry 175

 iv. Reaction with Alcohols (Esterification)
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in the presence of sulfuric acid to form organic compounds
called esters.
carboxylic acid + alcohol ester + water
e.g.
H2SO4
2CH3COOH(aq) + CH3OH(l) CH3COOCH3(aq) + H2O(l)
ethanoic acid methyl ethanoate
(an ester)
Formation of Ethanoic Acid
- Ethanoic acid can be manufactured by using either of the following two ways:
i. In the laboratory, ethanoic acid is produced by heating a mixture of ethanol and oxidising
agents like potassium dichromate (VI).

heat
C2H5OH(l) + 2[O](g) CH3 COOH(l) + H2O
ethanol ethanoic acid

ii. On commercial scale, ethanoic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethenol using
atmospheric oxygen in the presence of certain bacteria. This type of fermentation is used to
make vinegar (a dilute solution of ethanoic acid).

11.4.2 Esters
EN
- Esters are the derivatives of carboxylic acids. They are formed O
when carboxylic acids react with alcohols. H
IM
H
For example, when ethanoic acid is warmed with ethanol in C C H
the presence of a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, H
H O
ethyl ethanoate (an ester) is formed.
EC

H
CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH(l) CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(l) fig. 11.4.3
ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate
(an ester)
SP

- Following are the key points about esters:

i. The formation of an ester from carboxylic acids and alcohols is called esterification.
ii. An ester is formed when the hydrogen of a carboxylic acid is replaced by an alkyl ( R)
group. O
iii. The functional group of an ester is called ester linkage ( COO or C O ).
iv. Their names end in -oate.
v. Esters have the general formula R’COOR, CH3COO H + C2H5 OH
where R’ may be a hydrogen atom or an alkyl
group and R must be an alkyl group.
CH3COO C2H5 + H2O
Note that while naming an ester, the alkyl part is
written first but in structural formula alkyl part is ethyl ethanoate
shown at the end. fig. 11.4.4

Unit 11.4 Carboxylic Acids 193

- Examples of some natural and synthetic Natural Polymers Synthetic Polymers
polymers are given in table 10.5.1. proteins polyethene
- The chemical reaction in which a DNA nylon
large number of monomers join wool terylene
together and form macromolecules silk perspex
is called polymerisation. starch polystyrene
cellulose teflon
- There are two types of polymerisation:
natural rubber polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
i. Addition Polymerisation
ii. Condensation Polymerisation table 11.5.1

Addition Polymerisation
- Addition polymerisation takes place when
unsaturated monomers join together without
losing any atoms or molecules.
- For addition polymerisation, the monomers
a macromolecule of polyethene
must be unsaturated i.e. they must have at
table 11.5.2
least one carbon-carbon double (C = C) bond.
- An example of addition polymerisation is the formation of polyethene (or polythene) from ethene
monomers. The various steps involved in the manufacturing of polyethene are given as follows:

i. At high temperature and pressure, and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, the
carbon-carbon double bonds of the ethene molecules break.
H H H H H H H H
........ + C C + C C + C C + C C + ........
H H H H H H H H

H H H H H H H H
........ + C C + C C + C C + C C + ........
H H H H H H H H

ii. Each monomer of ethene forms single bonds with two other monomers.
H H H H H H H H
........ C C C C C C C C ........
H H H H H H H H
iii. Finally, they join to form the polymer.
H H H H H H H H
........ C C C C C C C C ........
H H H H H H H H

- The equation for the polymerisation of ethene can be written as:

high temperature & pressure
n (CH2 CH2) ( CH2 CH2 )
catalyst n
ethene polyethene
or
H H H H
n high temperature & pressure
C C C C
H H catalyst H H n

196 Unit 11.5 Polymers

Index
A collision theory 102-103 F
acid 114-115 combustion 97, 166 fats 200
activation energy (Ea) 97 compound 44-45 fermentation 189
actual yield 79 concentration 75, 117 fertiliser 128
addition polymerisation 196-197 condensation 31 filter/filter medium 14
addition reaction 65-66, 184-185 condensation polymerisation 197 filtrate 14
alcohols 187-188 covalent bond 55-58 filtration 14
alkali 115-116 covalent compound 57-59 flame tests for metals 24
alkali metals 137-139 cracking 181 formula unit 53
alkanes 179-181 cryolite 90, 160 fractional distillation 17
alkene 183-185 crystal 122 fuel cell 98
allotrope 59 crystal lattice 53 functional group 177
alloy 48, 146, 157 crystalisation 15
alumina 159-160 G
analyte 77 D galvanization 158
anion 50-52 decomposition reaction 66 gas 28
anode 84 delocalised electrons 60 gas syringe 7
atom 36-38 desalination 15, 171 global warming 166
atomic number (Z) 36 desulfurisation 164 greenhouse gas 166
Avogadro’s Law 76 diffusion 32-33 group 177
Avogadro’s number 73 displacement of water 7
displacement reaction 66, 151, 180 H
B distillation 16 Haber process 127-128
balanced chemical equation 67 double displacement reaction 66 haematite 156
base 115 downward delivery 8
EN halogens 139-140
bauxite 159 drying agent 8, 9 hetrogeneous mixture 47
beaker 6 duplet 38, 49 homogeneous mixture 47
binary solution 47 homologous series 177-178
IM
boiling 30 E hydration 185
bond energy 96 effective collision 103 hydrocarbons 175
bromination 185 electric current 82 hydrogentation 185
Brownian motion 32 electrochemical reaction 83 hydrolysis 199
burette 7 electrochemical series 86
EC

electrochemistry 82 I
C electrode 83-84 identification of anions 23
carbohydrates 200 electrolysis 83-91 identification of cations 21-23
carbonates 152 electrolyte 84 identification of gases 24
SP

carbon cycle 165 electrolytic cell 83 immiscible liquids 16

carboxylic acids 191-193 electron 36 indicator 118
catalyst 103-104 electronic configuration 38 intermolecular forces 56
cathode 84 electroplating 91 ion 50
cation 50-52 element 41 ionic bond 52
charge 35 empirical formula 71-72 ionic compound 52
chemical bond 49 endothermic reaction 94 ionic equation 67-69
chemical equation 67 energy level diagram 96 irreversible reaction 109
chemical formula 45 energy profile diagram 97 isomer 182
chemical reaction 65 enthalpy 95 isomerism 182
chemical tests for water 24 enthalpy change (DH) 95 isotope 37
chlorination 171 enzymes 104
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 165 equilibrium reaction 110 K
chlorophyll 100 esters 193-194 kinetic particle theory 27
chromatogram 18-19 eutrophication 129, 170
chromatography 18-19 evaporation 30-31 L
coagulation 171 excess reactant 76 limiting reactant 76
collection of gases 24 exothermic reaction 94 liquid 27

Index 205
Revision Planner
Use the Revision Planner to plan your topic by topic revision. Tick each box when you have:
revised and understood a topic practised the past-year questions tested yourself

Topic Revised Past-Year Qs. Tested

1.1 Experimental Design
measuring devices
collection and drying of gases
1.2 Methods of Purification and Analysis
purification and separation techniques
chromatography
1.3 Identification of Ions and Gases
identification of cations and anions
identification of gases
flame tests for metal ions (IGCSE)
2.1 Kinetic Particle Theory
kinetic particle theory
diffusion of gases
2.2 Atomic Structure
subatomic particles
isotopes
arrangment of electrons in shells
2.3 Structure and Properties of Materials
elements
EN
compounds
mixtures
2.4 Ionic Bonding
IM
ionic bonding and ionic compounds
2.5 Covalent Bonding & Metallic Bonding
covalent bonding
molecular structure of covalent compounds
EC

metallic bonding
3. Formulae, Stoichiometry and the Mole Concept
chemical reactions and equations
relative masses of atoms and molecules
SP

empirical and molecular formulas

mole concept & stoichiometric calculations
4. Electrolysis
electrolysis
applications of electrolysis
electric cell
5. Energy from Chemicals
endothermic and exothermic reactions
combustion of fuels
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
6.1 Rate of Reaction
measurement of rate of reaction
factors affecting rate of reaction
catalysts
6.2 Redox
redox reactions
oxidation state

Revision Planner 207

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