6

SUPPLY AND DEMAND I: HOW MARKETS WORK

 SUPPLY AND DEMAND
TOGETHER

• Equilibrium refers to a situation in which the

price has reached the level where quantity
supplied equals quantity demanded.
 SUPPLY AND DEMAND
TOGETHER
• Equilibrium Price
• The price that balances quantity supplied and
quantity demanded.
• On a graph, it is the price at which the supply and
demand curves intersect.
• Equilibrium Quantity
• The quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at
the equilibrium price.
• On a graph it is the quantity at which the supply and
demand curves intersect.
 SUPPLY AND DEMAND
TOGETHER
Demand Schedule Supply Schedule

At $2.00, the quantity demanded

is equal to the quantity supplied!
 Figure 8 The Equilibrium of Supply and Demand

Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone Supply

Equilibrium price Equilibrium

$2.00

Equilibrium Demand
quantity

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Figure 9 Markets Not in Equilibrium

(a) Excess Supply

Price of
Ice-Cream Supply
Cone Surplus
$2.50

2.00

Demand

0 4 7 10 Quantity of
Quantity Quantity Ice-Cream
demanded supplied Cones
Equilibrium

• Surplus
• When price > equilibrium price, then quantity
supplied > quantity demanded.
• There is excess supply or a surplus.
• Suppliers will lower the price to increase sales, thereby
moving toward equilibrium.
Equilibrium

• Shortage
• When price < equilibrium price, then quantity
demanded > the quantity supplied.
• There is excess demand or a shortage.
• Suppliers will raise the price due to too many buyers
chasing too few goods, thereby moving toward
equilibrium.
Figure 9 Markets Not in Equilibrium

(b) Excess Demand

Price of
Ice-Cream Supply
Cone

$2.00

1.50
Shortage

Demand

0 4 7 10 Quantity of
Quantity Quantity Ice-Cream
supplied demanded Cones
Equilibrium

• Law of supply and demand

• The claim that the price of any good adjusts to bring
the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded for
that good into balance.
Three Steps to Analyzing Changes in
Equilibrium
• Decide whether the event shifts the supply or
demand curve (or both).
• Decide whether the curve(s) shift(s) to the left
or to the right.
• Use the supply-and-demand diagram to see how
the shift affects equilibrium price and quantity.
 Figure 10 How an Increase in Demand Affects the
Equilibrium
Price of
Ice-Cream 1. Hot weather increases
Cone the demand for ice cream . . .

Supply

$2.50 New equilibrium

2.00
2. . . . resulting
Initial
in a higher equilibrium
price . . .
D

0 7 10 Quantity of
3. . . . and a higher Ice-Cream Cones
quantity sold.
Three Steps to Analyzing Changes in
Equilibrium
• Shifts in Curves versus Movements along
Curves
• A shift in the supply curve is called a change in
supply.
• A movement along a fixed supply curve is called a
change in quantity supplied.
• A shift in the demand curve is called a change in
demand.
• A movement along a fixed demand curve is called a
change in quantity demanded.
 Figure 11 How a Decrease in Supply Affects the
Equilibrium

Price of
Ice-Cream 1. An increase in the
Cone price of sugar reduces
the supply of ice cream. . .
S2
S1

New
$2.50 equilibrium

2.00 Initial equilibrium

2. . . . resulting
in a higher
price of ice
cream . . . Demand

0 4 7 Quantity of
3. . . . and a lower Ice-Cream Cones
quantity sold.
Table 4 What Happens to Price and Quantity When Supply
or Demand Shifts?
 SURPLUS
PRODUSEN
DAN
KONSUMEN
 CONSUMER SURPLUS

• Consumer surplus is the buyer’s

willingness to pay for a good minus the
amount the buyer actually pays for it.
Figure How the Price Affects Consumer Surplus

(a) Consumer Surplus at Price P

Price
A

Consumer
surplus
P1
B C

Demand

0 Q1 Quantity
Figure How the Price Affects Consumer Surplus

(b) Consumer Surplus at Price P

Price
A

Initial
consumer
surplus
C Consumer surplus
P1
B to new consumers

F
P2
D E
Additional consumer Demand
surplus to initial
consumers
0 Q1 Q2 Quantity
 PRODUCER SURPLUS
• Producer surplus is the amount a seller is paid
for a good minus the seller’s cost.
• It measures the benefit to sellers participating in
a market.
Figure How the Price Affects Producer Surplus

(a) Producer Surplus at Price P

Price
Supply

B
P1
C
Producer
surplus

0 Q1 Quantity
Figure How the Price Affects Producer Surplus

(b) Producer Surplus at Price P

Price
Additional producer Supply
surplus to initial
producers

D E
P2 F

B
P1
Initial C
Producer surplus
producer to new producers
surplus

0 Q1 Q2 Quantity
 MARKET EFFICIENCY
• Consumer surplus and producer surplus may be
used to address the following question:

• Is the allocation of resources determined by free

markets in any way desirable?
 MARKET EFFICIENCY
Consumer Surplus
= Value to buyers – Amount paid by buyers

and

Producer Surplus
= Amount received by sellers – Cost to sellers
 MARKET EFFICIENCY
Total surplus
= Consumer surplus + Producer surplus

or

Total surplus
= Value to buyers – Cost to sellers
 MARKET EFFICIENCY
• Efficiency is the property of a resource
allocation of maximizing the total surplus
received by all members of society.
 MARKET EFFICIENCY
• In addition to market efficiency, a social
planner might also care about equity – the
fairness of the distribution of well-being among
the various buyers and sellers.
 Figure 7 Consumer and Producer Surplus in the Market
Equilibrium
Price A

D
Supply

Consumer
surplus

Equilibrium E
price
Producer
surplus

Demand
B

0 Equilibrium Quantity
quantity
 MARKET EFFICIENCY
• Three Insights Concerning Market Outcomes
• Free markets allocate the supply of goods to the
buyers who value them most highly, as measured by
their willingness to pay.
• Free markets allocate the demand for goods to the
sellers who can produce them at least cost.
• Free markets produce the quantity of goods that
maximizes the sum of consumer and producer
surplus.
Figure 8 The Efficiency of the Equilibrium Quantity

Price
Supply

Value Cost
to to
buyers sellers

Cost Value
to to
sellers buyers Demand

0 Equilibrium Quantity
quantity

Value to buyers is greater Value to buyers is less

than cost to sellers. than cost to sellers.
Evaluating the Market Equilibrium

• Because the equilibrium outcome is an efficient

allocation of resources, the social planner can
leave the market outcome as he/she finds it.
• This policy of leaving well enough alone goes
by the French expression laissez faire.
Evaluating the Market Equilibrium

• Market Power
• If a market system is not perfectly competitive,
market power may result.
• Market power is the ability to influence prices.
• Market power can cause markets to be inefficient because
it keeps price and quantity from the equilibrium of supply
and demand.
Evaluating the Market Equilibrium

• Externalities
• created when a market outcome affects individuals
other than buyers and sellers in that market.
• cause welfare in a market to depend on more than
just the value to the buyers and cost to the sellers.
• When buyers and sellers do not take
externalities into account when deciding how
much to consume and produce, the equilibrium
in the market can be inefficient.