NATIONAL LAW INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY BHOPAL

HISTORY-I

V TERIMESTER

PROJECT ON:

POLICIES AND REFORMS OF AKBAR

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Prof. (Dr.) Uday Pratap Singh Gaurav Singh

2018BALL.B34

1
 Table of Contents
CERTIFICATE..........................................................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEGMENT...............................................................................................................4
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.........................................................................................5
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES......................................................................................................5
HYPOTHESIS...........................................................................................................................5
RESEARCH QUESTIONS........................................................................................................5
METHOD OF STUDY..............................................................................................................5
REVIEW OF LITERATURE....................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................7
Religious Policies and Reforms.................................................................................................7
ABOLITION OF PILGRIM’S TAX, 1563............................................................................8
REMOVAL OF JIZYA, 1564................................................................................................8
DIN ILAHI.............................................................................................................................8
AKBAR’S INTERACTION WITH OTHER RELIGION.........................................................9
1. Akbar and Christianity....................................................................................................9
2. Akbar and Jainism...........................................................................................................9
IBADAT KAHANA..................................................................................................................9
OTHER POINTS.....................................................................................................................10
Social Reforms.........................................................................................................................11
 CHILD MARRIAGE....................................................................................................11
 PROHIBITING ANIMAL KILLING TO AN EXTENT.............................................11
 EDUCATION WAS OPEN TO ALL...........................................................................12
 LIMITING THE USE OF LIQUOR.............................................................................12
 AN ATTEMPT TO PACIFY THE EFFECTS OF GAMBLING.................................12
 PASSING FARMANS AGAINST SATI.....................................................................12
 DISAPPROVING THE SYSTEM OF HIGH DOWRIES AND POLYGAMY..........13
 ABOLISHING THE JAGIR SYSTEM........................................................................13
 CENSUS FORMULATION.........................................................................................13
 CEASING THE PRACTISE OF PROSTITUTION.....................................................13
 MANUMISSION OF SLAVES....................................................................................14
 RETURNING BACK TO OWN RELIGION...............................................................14
Law, order and justice..............................................................................................................14
THE COMMON SYSTEM OF JUDUCIARY UNDER AKBAR.......................................14
AKBAR ACTING AS A DESIROUS JUDGE....................................................................15
CERTAIN CHANGES IN JUDICIARY BROUGHT BY AKBAR....................................16
POLICE SYSTEM...............................................................................................................16

2
ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES & REFORMS.....................................................................17
THE SOVEREIGN, HIS POWERS AND DUTIES............................................................17
ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES & REFORMS..................................................................17
THE SOVEREIGN, HIS POWERS AND DUTIES............................................................17
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION........................................................................................18
THE ARMY: MANSABDARI SYSTEM...............................................................................19
Zat, Sawar & Three Grades..................................................................................................20
Method of Recruitment.........................................................................................................20
Salary Structure....................................................................................................................21
LAND REVENUE REFORMS...............................................................................................21
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................23
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................23

3
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project titled “POLICIES AND REFORMS OF AKBAR”, has been
prepared and submitted by Gaurav Singh currently pursuing their B.A. LL.B. (Hons.) at
National Law Institute University, Bhopal in fulfilment of History- I course. It is also
certified that this is their original research project and this project has not been submitted to
any other University, nor published in any journal.

4
 ACKNOWLEGMENT

This project work has been done with a lot of efforts, I would like to thank all the members
who directly or indirectly helped in the completion of this project, and I would like to thank
our subject teacher Prof. (Dr.) Uday Pratap Singh , who constantly helped me in the
completion of this project, by her effective guidance, I would also like to thank my friends
who helped me in the completion of the project, finally I would like to thank all the teaching
and non-teaching staff, without whom the project work wouldn’t have been completed.

5
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Akbar during his rule in India, he bringing many policies and social reforms for the welfare
of people. In this project we study what are the religious and administrative reform bring by
the Akbar during his rule in India.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The prime objective of the researcher is to:

1. To understand the religious reforms brings by the Akbar.

2. To understand new administrative policy, bring by the Akbar.
3. To understand social reform made by the Akbar.

HYPOTHESIS

The hypothesis taken by the researcher in this project is to that the Mughal king Akbar had
made many social and religious reform for Hindus and he also made administrative work
more effective.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The primary objective of the present work-

1. What was the religious reform made by the Akbar for the Hindus?
2. How he made administrative work more effectively for people?
3. What was news policy bring by the Akbar in Judicial work?

METHOD OF STUDY

The various books, various articles, websites, Law journals, Acts, Treatises, are referred for
this topic. The sources from which the material for this research collected are primary &
secondary. The methodology used in the research has been Doctrinal. No non-doctrinal
method has been used by the researcher in this project work.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

6
 History of India Part 1 by Hv Sreenivasa Murthy; The major topics discussed are
history and its territory, polity, state & government, social organization, status &
position of women, economic structure, legal system and administration of justice in
ancient India, medieval India and Indian society and law and legal institutions &
judicial organizations.

 A History of Medieval India Paperback by Satish Chandra; There are great amount of

historical moments strung together to bring India where it is today. A slice of these
events adds up to make this history book by Satish Chandra. The 1000-year period
covered in this book details about the sequence of events and the empires that
governed different parts of the country from the eighth to the eighteenth century.
 History of Medieval India by V D Mahajan; The book provides a comprehensive
account of the social, religious and economic conditions and policies from the
Sultanate to the Mughal period in early medieval India. it details the account of the
three centuries known for its Islamic influence and rule and the presence of
formidable dynasties. The book provides a sound understanding of the history of the
period and also evinces the learnings of mutual quarrels and internecine war.

7
 INTRODUCTION

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar also known as Akbar the Great (November 23, 1542 – October
17 or October 27, 1605) Born, Badr-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, his name was changed to
Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar and his birthdate was officially changed to October 15, 1542.
He was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun whom he succeeded as ruler of the Mughal Empire
from 1556 to 1605. He was the grandson of Babur who founded the Mughal dynasty. On the
eve of his death in 1605, the Mughal empire spanned almost 1 million square kilometres.

Akbar, widely considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors, was only 14 when he
ascended the throne in Delhi, following the death of his father Humayun. He was descended
from Turks, Mongols, and Iranians — the three peoples who predominated in the political
elites of northern India in medieval times. It took him the better part of two decades to
consolidate his power and bring parts of northern and central India into his realm. During his
reign, he reduced external military threats from the Pashtun (Afghan) descendants of Sher
Shah by waging wars against Afghan tribes, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he defeated
the Hindu king Samrat Hemu Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu.1 The emperor
solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Rajput caste, and by admitting
Rajput princesses in his harem.

Akbar was not only a warrior and an emperor but also a policy maker and a reformer. He
formulated several policies in various fields whether it maybe administrative, social or
political that not only made his kingship stronger but also gained support from his ‘praja’.
Many of his policies have gained the appreciation of many of the historians in today’s date.
The mansabari system that came into existence in Akbar’s reign is one such policy. Despite
being a foreign ruler, he reaped the love and support of the Hindu natives and this attained a
new height when he removed the pilgrimage tax that the Hindus had to pay since a long time.
He also founded his own religious cult, the Din-i-Ilahi. There are many reasons why ‘The
Great’ was appended in Akbar’s name.

Religious Policies and Reforms

1
http://www.ijrssh.com/images/short_pdf/Jul_2013_SOLE%20SANJAY%20SHRIVANT.pdf

8
Akbar was born and brought up in comparatively liberal surroundings. Bairam Khan, a
confirmed Shia and who became Akbar’s guardian and protector, was responsible for
moulding and shaping his policy. Akbar’s most notable tutor, Abul Latif, taught him the
principle of suleh-i-kul (universal peace) which Akbar never forgot. Thus, heredity and
environment combined to influence his religious views in direction of liberalism.

ABOLITION OF PILGRIM’S TAX, 1563

When Akbar reached his twentieth year, he experienced in himself a remarkable spiritual
change which produced a wholesome result on his attitude towards the people. By this time,
the young king had decided to be his own master and to map out his own policy for the
benefit of his dynasty and country, without being trammelled by any other consideration.

In 1563, he issued an order for the abolition of the pilgrim’s tax throughout his kingdom.
That year, while encamped at Mathura, it was brought to his notice that his government
levied a tax on the pilgrims who visited Hindu places of pilgrimage. 2 He felt this was against
god’s will that any person should be asked to pay tax for worshipping god.

REMOVAL OF JIZYA, 1564

The next concrete step taken by him was removal of ‘jizya’ which was mandatory for all no
Muslims to pay. Jizya or jizyah is a per capita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states
on certain non-Muslim subjects permanently residing in Muslim lands under Islamic
law.3While exempting women, children, elders, handicapped, the ill, the insane, monks,
hermits, slaves and musta'mins—non-Muslim foreigners who only temporarily reside in
Muslim lands. Tax was seen as a barrier by the Hindus on grounds of equality and repeatedly
reminded them they were inferior. Akbar, who had decided to remove all invidious
distinctions between various sections of his subject, caused a substantial loss to his treasury.
But he won the goodwill of the vast majority of the natives. In 1579 news came to Akbar that
jizya was still being practised in some parts of his kingdom, the king not only stopped it but
also issued new ‘Farman’s’ throughout the empire reiterating its permanent abolition.4

DIN ILAHI
Dissatisfied with tradition and authority, Akbar prescribed human reason as the sole basis of
religion and extended complete religious toleration to every creed in the empire. He was

2
A.Chakrobarthy & SK.Biswal, History of Medieval India, pg.146
3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizya
4
HV Sreenivasa Murthy, History of India, pg 249

9
grieved to see narrow-minded zealots preaching hatred against each other. In his anxiety to
do away with this religious discord he made an attempt to bring about a synthesis of all the
various religions known to him. It was a socio religious order, designed to cement diverse
communities in the land. It was based on the principle of ‘Sulh – i – kulh’ and comprised
good points of all the religions investigated by the emperor himself. It believed in the unity of
God and some of the important Hindu, Jain and Parsee doctrines found a prominent place in
it. However, it amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar, and quickly dissolved
after his death.5

AKBAR’S INTERACTION WITH OTHER RELIGION

1. Akbar and Christianity –

Akbar sent for Portuguese missionaries from Goa to be able to make a close study of
the doctrines of Christianity. In one of these missions consisting of Jerome Xavier and
Emmanuel Pinherio reached Lahore. As the king was desirous of acquiring the
complete knowledge of this religion, he not only behaved like an apt pupil but also
showed reverence to the images of Mary and Jesus and often attended the Chapel and
other ceremonies held by the Portuguese fathers.
2. Akbar and Jainism –
Jainism exercised even a more profound influence on Akbar. He came in contact with
Jain Scholars very early due to his alliance with the ruling families of Rajasthan. He
even arranged a religious disputation between two Jain scholars of two rival schools
of thought. He invited living Jain divines, Hiravijay Suri of Tapa-Gachha from
Gujarat to explain to him the principles of his religion. He was received with all
possible honour and so impressed Akbar by his profound learning and ascetic
character that the emperor practically gave up his meat diet, released many prisoners
and prohibited slaughter of animals and birds for many days in a year.6

IBADAT KAHANA

This period is also characterized by the discussions held at the Ibadat Khana, established by
Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575, after the Gujarat campaign. It is also known as House of
Worship. The main aim of Ibadat khana was to resolve disputes within groups through
5
Bharat Bhushan, Medieval India, pg. 215
6
A.Chakrobarthy & SK.Biswal, History of Medieval India, pg.168

10
discussions. Initially, it was open only for the Muslim sects, but later it was opened to the
representatives of other religions and faiths also. Akbar had a keen interest in the religious
and intellectual debates and discussions, and thus took part in them in the hope that he would
educate himself in spite of the fact that he never got a chance to formally educate himself.
These deliberations were not conducted only for the sake of inquiry and search but most of
the participants hoped for a way to obtain favours and promotions from the court.

Contemporary historians like Badayuni often criticize the concept of Ibadat Khana and calls
it a place of worthless discussions. However, Abu Fazl, gives us an opposite picture and finds
these discussions very useful, which according to him guided the people away from the
darkness and enlightened them. As far as the composition of the intellectuals is concerned,
Ibadat khana included scholars from across the religions. The debates were open to the Shias
as well, Hindus were also being favoured as the new alliance was budding between the crown
and the Rajput’s. Akbar also invited Zoroastrian priests, Jesuit missionaries and Jain priests
to widen the scope of discussions. However, later we find that the confluence of different
ideas led to confusion and led the debate to no conclusion. Thus, as professor R.P Tripathi
says,” Instead of bringing credit, the Ibadat Khana brought growing discredit. Thus, Akbar
himself became convinced of the futility of these debates, and finally closed the Ibadat
Khana.7

OTHER POINTS

Other than the above-mentioned heads, the emperor adopted many Hindu beliefs and
practices, such as, the transmigration of Soul and the doctrine of Karma. He began to
celebrate many Hindu festivals, such as Raksha Bandhan, Dushera, Diwali, Shivratri and
Vasant. Sometimes he would put the Hindu paint-mark (Tilak) on his forehead. He opened
the highest services to non- Muslims. Thus, he inaugurated an era of complete religious
toleration.

Akbar held discussions with the Brahmin scholars, Purushottam and Devi, and reputed
theologians of other faiths in the balcony of his bedroom during the night. He had respect for
all the faiths including Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and Christianity.

He also believed in the principle of Sulh-i-kul which is an Arabic term literally meaning
“peace with all,” “universal peace,” or “absolute peace,” drawn from a Sufi mystic principle.

7
http://www.sansarlochan.in/en/akbars-religious-policies-and-ideologies/

11
It described a peaceful and harmonious relationship among different religions. In keeping
with efforts to mesh the diverse populations of his realm, Akbar proposed unity and peace
among all human beings – sulh-i kul. The concept implies not just tolerance, but also the sorts
of balance, civility, respect, and compromise required to maintain harmony among a diverse
population.8

Mughal Emperor Akbar was highly influenced by Hinduism. Akbar was acquainted with
many Hindu beliefs and practices. But as Akbar was anxious to acquire first-hand knowledge
of the principles and doctrines, of that religion as given in the Shrutis and Smritis, he
associated himself with prominent Hindu scholars, notable among them being Purushottam
and Devi. They were drawn to the balcony of the private apartments of the royal palace
during the night in order to explain to the emperor the mysteries of Hindu religion.

The Hindus but their scholars and chiefs looked upon the great emperor Akbar as one of
themselves. The religious policy of Akbar served the interests of all the religion and culture.

Social Reforms

Akbar is also known because of the many social reforms he made at a time when caste
system and discrimination were at their peak.

 CHILD MARRIAGE –
Akbar was against child marriage which was prevalent both among the Hindus and
the Muslims. Orders prohibiting marriage before the age of 12 and between cousins
though permissible under Muslim law were passed by Akbar. Later the lowest age for
marriage was raised to 16 for the boys and 14 for the girls. Akbar seemed to have
possessed a very modern mind. Consent of the parents of the boy and the girl to be
married and also their mutual consent was made obligatory before marriage was
performed. A token marriage tax at varying rates was realized. Two officers called
Turbegs were appointed in big towns to inquire into the circumstances of the bride
and bridegroom. The Emperor took a tax from both the parties according to their
status.

8
https://centerforinterculturaldialogue.files.wordpress.com/2016/01/kc75-sulh-i-kul.pdf

12
  PROHIBITING ANIMAL KILLING TO AN EXTENT

He gave up hunting on Jumma Days (Fridays). He even remarked “It is not right that a
man should make his stomach the grave of animals”. A decree was passed by him
recommending that his subjects should refrain from eating meat on the day of his
accession as thanks-giving to Almighty in order that the year may pass in prosperity.
Badaoni deplored Akbar’s certain orders by observing that he “promulgated some of his
new-fangled decrees. The killing of animals on the first day of the week was strictly
prohibited, because the day is sacred to the Sun, and during the eighteen days of the
month of Fawardin, the whole month of Aban (the month in which his Majesty was born)
and on sacred days to please the Hindus”.9

 EDUCATION WAS OPEN TO ALL

Akbar’s emphasis on secular studies was not liked by orthodox school of thought but
there was no intention on Akbar’s part to destroy Arabic literature. The Imperial Library
in fact, contained a great many works in Arabic. Akbar not only widened the curriculum
of studies but also threw open the gates of educational institutions which had hitherto
before been exclusively reserved for the Muslims. For the first time under him Hindu and
Muslim children sat side by side in the same educational institutions. Sialkot was a
famous seat of learning during his time.

 LIMITING THE USE OF LIQUOR

Akbar recognized the social evils of intoxicants, drinks or otherwise, but he also realized
that it would be impossible to enforce total prohibition and he made a compromise. He
permitted wine-taking by only those whom doctors would certify it to be necessary.
Excessive drinking, disorderly behaviour after drinking or to booze were made
punishable. The names of the purchasers of wine had to be recorded in the shop at the
time buying wine.

 AN ATTEMPT TO PACIFY THE EFFECTS OF GAMBLING

Akbar recognized the evil of gambling but it was so wide spread that he found it
impossible to suppress the evil. Gambling brought ruin to families, resulted in strife, yet it

9
http://www.importantindia.com/12878/social-reforms-of-akbar/

13
 was almost universal. Akbar set up a state bank from which loans might be taken by the
gamblers and every gambling den was made liable to pay a fixed charge.

 PASSING FARMANS AGAINST SATI

Though the practice of Sati was abolished completely during the modern times when
British came to India, one cannot forget the contribution of Akbar. Akbar was the first
Mughal emperor who made an attempt to stop the Hindu custom of Sati. He put a check
on the infanticide and the prohibited the custom of sati. In 1590-91 when he sensed
opposition from the orthodox Hindus, he ordered that no woman can be burnt against her
will. He had also appointed special inspectors keep a watch on the forced as well as
voluntary Sati.10

 DISAPPROVING THE SYSTEM OF HIGH DOWRIES AND POLYGAMY

While the dowry system is still here even in the modern India, Akbar himself disapproved
the system of giving or receiving high dowries. It is interesting to note that Akbar also
condemned the system of polygamy. According to him it not only ruined the happiness
and the health but also the tranquillity of a person’s mind. Here he based his arguments
on economic and health grounds. His argument was it is difficult for a man with ordinary
means to maintain one wife and how much it is difficult to maintain four wives. Even on
health grounds, he argued that it is not desirable to have more than one wife. It is said that
Akbar in his later days realized how he should have married only once instead of
marrying several times.

 ABOLISHING THE JAGIR SYSTEM

Akbar abolished the Jagir system, thus ending the problems of the farmers. After this
reform the state directly collected the taxes and the officers carrying out the duty was paid
salaries for their job. All Jagirs were converted into Crownlands.

 CENSUS FORMULATION

From 1581 several reform measures were undertaken in quick succession. In the same
year on his way to Kabul expedition Akbar passed an order from Sirhind that a census of
population should be taken. The Jagirdars, Siqdars, Daroghas of all provinces were to

10
http://www.preservearticles.com/2012031026033/comprehensive-essay-on-the-reforms-made-by-
akbar.html

14
 record the number of the people, their trade, occupation, income, and also the residents,
i.e. not permanent inhabitants of the area. The good inhabitants were to be classified from
the bad. It is difficult, in absence of detailed evidence, the extent to which this order for
census was actually executed in those days when there was lack of proper
communication, conveyance etc.

 CEASING THE PRACTISE OF PROSTITUTION

Akbar wanted to put an end to the institute of prostitution. But he soon realized that it was
being patronized by his own officials and nobles. He decided to regulate it. When he built
the new capital at Fatehpur Sikri a separate extension called ‘Saitangarh’ was formed to
house the prostitutes. An office was set up at the main gates where the states officials
were asked to make note of addresses of the people who frequented the extension.11

 MANUMISSION OF SLAVES

The long barbaric process of enslaving prisoners of war which was started from the time
man first hold a weapon was brought to an end in India and that to by a foreign ruler.
Akbar abolished the system of enslavement of the wives and children of the conquered
people. All persons in India were to be free.12

 RETURNING BACK TO OWN RELIGION

Unlike his predecessors, Akbar was more farsighted and original. He possessed a large
measure of humanity in his character. In his desire to emancipate India from the thraldom
of the religion of a minority and extricate her from the clamps of theocracy h repealed the
Islamic law in relation to non – Muslims. In 1580 he passed an ordinance according to
which the Hindus who were forcibly converted into Islam were permitted to revert back
to their own religion.

Law, order and justice

THE COMMON SYSTEM OF JUDUCIARY UNDER AKBAR

The judicial system of the under Akbar was very similar to that of the sultanate. As
compared with the judicial structure of British India, it was very simple, being based on a
different approach to many categories of disputes. Normally no lawyers were allowed to
11
HV Sreenivasa Murthy, History of India, pg. 249
12
VD Mahajan, History of Medieval India, pg. 111

15
 appear. The disputes were speedily settled, often on the basis of equity and natural justice,
though of course in the case of Muslims the injunctions and precedents of Islamic law
applied where they existed. Many crimes—including murder—were treated as individual
grievances rather than crimes against society. The complaints in such cases were initiated
by the individuals aggrieved, rather than by the police, and could be compounded on
payment of compensation. The aim of the judicial system was primarily to settle
individual complaints and disputes rather than to enforce a legal code.

All foreign travellers have commented on the speedy justice of the Mughal court under
Akbar and the comparatively few cases coming before them. It was partly due to the
general prejudice against litigation, but even more to the fact that a large number of
disputes, particularly those affecting the Hindus, were settled by the village and caste
panchayats, and did not come before the official courts. 13 The Hindus were not debarred
from taking cases before the qazi or the governor—and frequently did so where other
arrangements did not prove effective—but normally they had their own arrangements for
settling their disputes. Badauni has recorded that according to Akbar's orders the cases of
Hindus were to be decided by the Hindu judges and not by the qazis. The Jesuit Father
Monserrate says that "Brachmane (Brahmans) governed liberally through a senate and a
council of the common people" — referring presumably to the administration of justice
by these agencies. Akbar used to spend several hours of the day disposing of judicial
cases, and governors followed the same procedure in the provinces. In the Ain-i-Akbari
we find the instructions issued to a governor detailing the judicial procedure he should
follow.

Governors of provinces were empowered to pass the sentence of death on persons guilty
of heinous crimes; they generally forwarded such cases to the emperor who inflicted the
punishment in extreme cases.

AKBAR ACTING AS A DESIROUS JUDGE

The king was the highest judge in the empire. According to the immemorial custom of the
East, he held court and decided cases in person. Usually the king’s court was the highest
court of appeal; but sometimes, he decided initial cases also. Akbar spent some time
every day in listening to the complaints from the people and settling their disputes in a
summary fashion. On Thursdays he held a formal court of justice to hear and decide

13
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_16.html#judiciary

16
 major cases, when besides parties to a suit only high judicial officials and a few nobles
for their probity and integrity were allowed.

As a practical statesman with a keen sense of justice and unprejudiced mind, he was
always eager to enhance his reputation as the just monarch. Being the khalifa of the age,
‘the foundation of all justice’; his court constituted the highest civil and criminal court of
justice which took up original as well as appellate cases. He personally heard the disputes
and administered even handed justice with the assistance of muftis and pandits who
interpreted the personal law of the Muslims and Hindus for him. 14 Akbar introduced
minor changes in the judicial structure of the state and appointed right thinking men as
the justices of peace so as to make the system more efficient and purposeful.

CERTAIN CHANGES IN JUDICIARY BROUGHT BY AKBAR

 He restricted the scope of Islamic law and extended the general or customary law of
the land so as to make it include as many causes as possible.

 Royal orders from Akbar had to be taken three times before the capital punishment
could be executed.

 A far more revolutionary ordinance led to the repeal of the law imposing punishment
of death for criticising the religion of Islam or the conduct of Prophet Muhammad.

 He introduced vital amendments relating to remarriage. Akbar ordered that a

musalman can take second wife only if the first one is barren. A Muslim woman was
not allowed to remarry if she ceased to have menses.15

 Akbar introduced all legal disabilities imposed on the Hindus and extended the scope
of the common law by prescribing uniform rates of land revenue and other taxes.
Correspondingly the scope of the Muslim jurisprudence began to shrink paving the
way for the establishment of one common legal system.

POLICE SYSTEM
Akbar’s police administration was well organized and efficient. The police may be
divided into three categories of urban, district and village police. In all the cities and

14
Jl Mehta, Advanced Study in The History of Medieval India, Volume 2, Pg. 371
15
Ak Chakrobarthy And Sk Biswal, History of Medieval India, Pg. 193-194

17
 towns of the empire there were kotwals charged with the duty of maintaining public order
and decency. Kotwal’s main duty was to see that the life of the city remains undisturbed
and at same time apprehend thieves, robbers and other petty criminals and to punish them.
He was held personally responsible for the value of the property stolen in case he failed to
discover the thief. In the district, law and order was maintained by the faujdar. 16 His main
work was the policing of roads of the district and suppressing disorders of all kinds.

As for the police administration of the villages, Akbar, following the immemorial custom
of the country, established the principle of local authority. This authority was in the hand
of village headman. There was also a chaukidar for every village for normal police work.

The police arrangement under Akbar was fairly efficient and maintained a high standard
of public order and peace. It will, however, be idle to imagine that there were no cases of
theft, immorality, cheating or disturbances of public peace. There were professional
thieves and robbers living in the hills and the jungles who descended to the plains to ply
their trade when the local police administration lacked vigilance.

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES & REFORMS

Akbar was not only a great empire builder but also a good administrator. His
administration saw the mixture of the Indian system and some ideas which the Mughals
borrowed from Central Asia and Persia.

THE SOVEREIGN, HIS POWERS AND DUTIES

Akbar was an all-powerful monarch. In fact, he was a despot, but enlightened and a
benevolent one. He was the head of the State, the supreme commander of the forces, and
the chief executive and possessed the supreme legislative authority. In spite of having
such wide powers, Akbar felt it binding to ascertain the wishes of the people and hardly
went against their interests. But this was more or less a matter of personal discretion of
the king. There was no written constitution to prescribe his duties, lay down his
limitations and keep a check on his despotism.

As for the police administration of the villages, Akbar, following the immemorial custom
of the country, established the principle of local authority. This authority was in the hand
of village headman. There was also a chaukidar for every village for normal police work.

16
Ak Chakrobarthy And Sk Biswal, History of Medieval India, Pg. 196

18
 The police arrangement under Akbar was fairly efficient and maintained a high standard
of public order and peace. It will, however, be idle to imagine that there were no cases of
theft, immorality, cheating or disturbances of public peace. There were professional
thieves and robbers living in the hills and the jungles who descended to the plains to ply
their trade when the local police administration lacked vigilance.

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES & REFORMS

Akbar was not only a great empire builder but also a good administrator. His
administration saw the mixture of the Indian system and some ideas which the Mughals
borrowed from Central Asia and Persia.

THE SOVEREIGN, HIS POWERS AND DUTIES

Akbar was an all-powerful monarch. In fact, he was a despot, but enlightened and a
benevolent one. He was the head of the State, the supreme commander of the forces, and the
chief executive and possessed the supreme legislative authority. In spite of having such wide
powers, Akbar felt it binding to ascertain the wishes of the people and hardly went against
their interests. But this was more or less a matter of personal discretion of the king. There
was no written constitution to prescribe his duties, lay down his limitations and keep a check
on his despotism.

Early at sunrise, he was ready for jharokha dharshanto show himself to his people. Here he
was accessible to the natives and listened to their complaints and transacted state business.
Next, he held an open court which generally lasted for four and half hours. Akbar devoted
about 16 hours a day to state business but he was wise enough to delegate much of the work
to his ministers, keeping in his hand initiation of policy and issue of instructions.17

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The central govt consisted of four departments each presided by a minister which are –

1. The Prime Minister (Vakil) – Formerly he was the de-facto head of all the
departments of the central govt and had the power to appoint or dismiss other
ministers. But after the dismissal of Bairam Khan, the Vakil was gradually deprived
of his powers. First of all, the finance department was taken from and a separate
minister called diwan was appointed for it. Next, he was ceased to have full control
over other departments. The Vakil then ceased to exist. For many years, the post of
Vakil was not filled and Akbar himself took the post of prime minister. When the
17
A chakrobarthy & sk biswal, history of medieval India, pg. 178

19
 office was revived, the Vakil was not entrusted with a portfolio. The post become
ornamental and did not carry with it serious duties except those of an advisor or of his
vicegerent during his illness or absence from capital.
2. Finance Minister (Diwan or Wazir) - As the head of the finance department diwan
was in charge of the revenues and expenditures of the kingdom. His main duties were
to formulate rules and regulations for the land revenue settlement and for fixing the
rates of other kinds of revenue, and to scrutinize and control disbursements. All
official records were sent to him for inspection and storage 18. He was also required to
recommend and appoint provincial diwans and to guide and control them. He affixed
his seal on all important revenue transactions, including grants of admission and free
grants of land.
3. Pay Master General (The Mir Bakshi) – HIS rank was next to that of imperial diwan.
He maintained the records of the names, ranks, salaries of mansabdars. All orders of
appointment to mansabs of all ranks were passed through his office. He had to be in
touch with every mansabdar. He attended the royal durbar and stand to right of the
king. He presented candidates for service in the military department and to present
also the soldiers and horses of the mansabdars before the king. He had to prepare a list
of the guards that will keep a watch round the royal palace and was also required to
post news writers and spies in different provinces. Though he was not the chief
commander of the forces, he was sometimes required to conduct important military
operations.19
4. Chief Sadr (Sar–Us–Sadur) – He was required to discharge three important functions,
namely, to act as the religious advisor to the king, disburse royal charity and to
function as the chief justice of the kingdom. As the chief religious’ advisor, he was
required to give authoritative ruling on conflicting interpretations of Share, and to
enforce them. It was his duty to assure that the king and kingdom did not astray from
the injections laid down in Quran and upheld the dignity of Islam. He was also
required to encourage Islamic learning and for this he was in touch with learned
Muslim divines and to encourage them grant by grant of scholarships, subsistence
allowances and free grants of lands. He was the second highest judicial authority, next
only to Akbar.

18
Jl Mehta, advanced study in the history of medieval India, volume 2, pg. 332
19
A chakrobarthy & sk biswal, history of medieval India, pg. 180

20
 After Akbar had reorganized his administrative and rejected the Islamic theory of
government, the chief Sadr naturally ceased to be his supreme religious advisor.
Under the new dispensation it was not necessary for the chief Sadr to be the upholder
of Islamic law. Akbar clipped his powers regarding grant of scholarships and religious
jagirs. He was required to recommend deserving scholars, pious men and indigent
people; but generally, this action was taken by king himself. Akbar took personal
interest and introduced several reforms in the department.

THE ARMY: MANSABDARI SYSTEM

The soldiers performed various police and military functions; they defended international
borders, manned the forts, and fought the battles like military men but in times of peace, they
were employed as police men to apprehend the robbers and thieves and maintain law and
order within the empire. So was the case with the government officials; almost all of them
had to perform military and civil duties simultaneously. With the natures of the things as they
were, Akbar, evolved out a unique system of regulating imperial services by the introduction
of what we call as the Mansabari system which was promulgated in 1570. The word mansab
has been derived from the Arabic term mansib which means a post, an office, rank or status; hence
mansabdar means holder of a rank or an officer. 20

Mansabari system determined the rank, pay scale and the position of the imperial officer in
the royal court in respect of the govt officers. Initially, mansabs above 5000 were reserved for
princes of royal blood; highest rank of 10000 was for the king himself. But later on, Akbar
raised the highest rank to 12000 and a couple of nobles related to royal family including Raja
Man Singh and Mirza Aziz Koka were also made mansabdars of 7000.

It appeared that the system of mansabs did not function properly and caused a lot of
confusion. It was impossible for the central government to ascertain that at a given point what
the exact no of soldiers that were under a given mansabdar. The difficulty was solved after
sometime by the introduction of 2 ranks, zat and sawar.

20
Hv Sreenivasa Murthy, History of India Part 1, Pg. 232

21
Zat, Sawar & Three Grades.
Zat indicated the number of troops which a mansabdar was expected to maintain, while sawar
meant the actual number of troops that were under the control of a mansabdar. However,
scholars had divergent opinions about the crystal meaning of zat and sawar.21

It has been pointed out that every mansab of 5000 and below comprised three grades,
namely, first grade, second grade and third grade. A mansabdar belonged to the first grade of
a particular rank, if his sawar rank was same as his zat rank. If on other hand, his sawar rank
was less than zat rank but did not fall below half of his zat rank, he was under the second
grade. But, if his sawar rank was less than half of his zat rank or he had no sawar rank at all,
he belonged to the third grade of rank. For example, a mansabdar of 5000 zat belonged to
first grade if his sawar rank was also 5000. He would come under second grade if his sawar
rank was between 2500 and 5000. And lastly, he would belong to the third grade if his sawar
rank was below 2500.

Method of Recruitment
They were appointed exclusively by the king. He could appoint anyone to as high as mansab
as he pleased and likewise, could promote, degrade or dismiss the officer without any reason.

Akbar had a special instinct for picking the right men for the right job; very often, he selected
promising men from the ranks and appointed directly to very high mansabs.22

Salary Structure
Mansabdar received cash salaries; even if some high-ranking general was to be granted jagir
in lieu of his salary to meet an emergency, he was not allowed to hold it indefinitely. Even
the personal jagirs of the royal members were also changed frequently. Every mansabdar
received a fixed rate according to his mansab and the class, out of which he had to defray cost
of his establishment, including cost of horses and burden etc. Nevertheless, after meeting the
expenditure, the mansabdar was left with a handsome amount of money.

The mansabdar system was not free from defects. Emperor began practising of inspecting the
army of every mansabdar once in a year or two. Yet some flaws still persisted till the end. As
the mansabdar recruited, trained, armed and paid his soldiers looked upon him as his real
master and were loyal to him than Akbar. Absence of direct control of the king led to many
serious handicaps. The general standard of morality among the aristocracy and the mansabdar

21
A chakrobarthy & sk biswal, history of medieval India, pg. 188
22
Jl Mehta, Advanced Study In The History Of Medieval India, Volume 2, Pg. 352

22
who imitated them was rather low. They started to take their wives and concubines with them
to the battlefield. Prostitutes both male and female followed them. There is no wonder if the
Mughal army after Akbar became inefficient and failed to give a good account of itself.23

LAND REVENUE REFORMS

Akbar was the first Mughal emperor to introduce far reaching reforms having particular
regard for the welfare of the peasants and revenues of the state. He was benefitted by Sher
Shah Suri’s policy who had adopted measurement as the normal method of assessment,
introduced classification of land on the basis of fertility of soil to determine the average yield
and state’s share in it. The principal objectives of both these rulers were the same, to
ameliorate the condition of the peasants and to stabilize the revenue of the states.

Instead of hempen rope which contracted and expanded according to weather conditions, land
was measured by bamboos which were joined together by iron things, so that its length
remained same. The unit of area for field was the bigha which was 60*60 yards. Peasants
were made the true owners; state’s right was just limited to demand tax only. Revenue was
realised season wise, just after the harvest and if the peasants failed to pay the whole amount,
they were not deprived of the land, but were realised on easy instalments. The collectors of
revenue were asked not to oppress the peasants for fear that the latter may desert their land
and no one may undertake to cultivate it.

Akbar attempted at the equitable distribution of burden of taxation by classifying the land
according to fertility and fixing rent in proportion to it. Accordingly, land was divided into 4
types –

Polaj, which was cultivated every year and brought annual revenue to the state; Parati, which
was sometimes left fallow for 1 or 2 years; Chachar, which was left uncultivated for 3 or 4
years; and the banjar, which had not been cultivated for 5 years or more. Each land was
further divided into 3 grades – good, bad and middling. Average yield per bigha of each kind
of land in respect of every crop was totalled and divided by three. Average was treated as
standard yield of all categories of polaj land. One third of this average was state’s revenue.24

The revenue demand was shown in kind, but king preferred payment in cash and this was met
by converting the grain demand to market rates prevailing at time of harvest. However, this
23
Hv Sreenivasa Murthy, History of India Part 1, Pg. 234
24
Hv Sreenivasa Murthy, History of India Part 1, Pg. 236

23
faced many difficulties and disaffection among the peasants. But every problem carries a
solution with it. In 1580, Todar Mal came up with a system which was called as dahsala or
zabti system25.

According to it, the average yield per bigha of each kind of land in respect of every crop was
ascertained Dastur-wise on the basis of past ten years produce and, on its basis, revenue was
fixed permanently.

This system proved beneficial to both peasants and the government. In the case of peasant, he
knew what he had to pay and could calculate it himself as soon as the sowings were over. The
state could save money as it did not require revenue collectors as was before. The state knew
its income and was in a position to plan in advance disbursements and launching of new
scheme. Thus, the policy introduced by Akbar continued to influence state policy even until
the end of British rule.

CONCLUSION

According to principal Sri Ram Sharma, “The greatest of monarchs in his time, Akbar is sure
of a high place among the rulers of mankind for his brilliant success in the great adventure of
governing man.” Among the rulers of India, he occupies a very high place, attempting to
bring Hindus and Muslims together which was praised by a lot of historians. Akbar
guaranteed peace not only to warring sects but also to different religions. In the modern age,
he was the first and almost the greatest experimenter in the field of religious toleration.

Akbar provided opportunities and inspiration to his officials and artisans to enrich the socio –
cultural life of the nation; he was like a sun round which a galaxy of patriotic and capable
warriors, statesmen, administrators, scholars, saints and pioneers in every walk of
sociocultural life revolved in perfect harmony and brought lustre and glory to the nation as a
whole. He strove every nerve to work for the material welfare as well as moral welfare of the
people. Akbar was no doubt the real founder of the empire which he transformed into the
nation-state of India by utilising its resources for the happiness and prosperity of all of its

25
VD Mahajan, History of Medieval India, pg. 101

24
people. He was the greatest monarch of medieval India and one of the most celebrated rulers
of history.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 History of India Part 1 by Hv Sreenivasa Murthy

 History of Medieval India by Vd Mahajan
 Advanced Study in The History Of Medieval India, Volume 2 by Jl Mehta
 History of Medieval India by A Chakrobarthy & Sk Biswal
 Medieval India by Bharat Bhushan
 http://www.preservearticles.com/2012041030124/get-complete-information-on-the-
judicial-administration-of-mughal-empire.html
 http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_16.html#judi
ciary
 http://www.preservearticles.com/2012031026033/comprehensive-essay-on-the-
reforms-made-by-akbar.html
 http://www.importantindia.com/12878/social-reforms-of-akbar/

25