They are widely distributed molecules in plant ans animal tissues.

In plants, and arthropods,

carbohydrates from the skeletal structures, they also serve as food reserves in plants and animals. They
are important energy source required for various metabolic activities, the energy is derived by oxidation.
Plants are richer in carbohydrates than animals. 
 
 
Carbohydrates Definition
Back to Top

Carbohydrate is a organic compound, it comprises of only oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. The
oxygen:hydrogen ratio is usually is 2:1. The empirical formula being Cm(H2O)n  (where m can be different
from n). Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon, technically they are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides, the word saccharide comes from Greek word sakkron
which means sugar.
Carbohydrates Classification
Back to Top

Carbohydrates are classified into three groups 

Monosaccharides or Monosachoroses
From Greek, mono=one; sakchron=sugar.

Monosaccharides are often called simple sugars, these are compound which possess a free aldehyde or
ketone group. They are the simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed. The general formula is C n(H2O)n or
CnH2nOn. The monosaccharides are subdivided into tiroses, tertrose, pentoses, hexoses, heptoses etc.,
and also as aldoses or ketoses depending upon whether they contian aldehyde or ketone group.

Examples of monosaccharides are Fructose, Erythrulose, Ribulose.

Oligosaccharides or Oligosaccharoses 
In Greek, Oligo means few. 

Oligosaccharides are compound sugars that yield 2 to 10 molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides on hydrolysis. 
Oligosaccharides yielding 2 molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis is known as a disaccharide, and
the ones yielding 3 or 4 monosaccharides are known as trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides respectively
and so on. The general formula of disaccharides is C n(H2O)n-1 and that of trisaccharides is Cn(H2O)n-2 and
so on.

Example of disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, maltose etc.

Trisaccharides are Raffinose, Rabinose.

Polysaccharides or Polysaccharoses
In Greek,  poly means many. 

Polysaccharides are compound sugars and yield more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides on

hydrolysis. Theya re further classified depending on they type of molecules produced as a  resullt of
hydrolysis. They may be homopolysaccharides i.e, monosaccharides of the same type or
heteropolysaccharides i.e., monosaccharides of different types. The general formula is (C6H10O5)x.

Example of homopolysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin.

Heteropolysaccharides are Hyaluronic acid, Chondrotin. 

Properties of Carbohydrates
Back to Top

General properties of carbohydrates 

 Carbohydrates act as energy reserves, also stores fuels, and

metabolic intermediates. 
 Ribose and deoxyribose sugars forms the structural frame of
the genetic material, RNA and DNA.
 Polysaccharides like cellulose are the structural elements in
the cell walls of bacteria and plants. 
  Carbohydrates are linked to proteins and lipids that play
important roles in cell interactions.
 Carbohydrates are organic compounds, they are aldehydes
or ketones with many hydroxyl groups.

Physical Properties of Carbohydrates 

 Steroisomerism - Compound shaving same structural

formula but they differ in spatial configuration. Example:
Glucose has two isomers with respect to penultimate carbon
atom. They are D-glucose and L-glucose.
 Optical Activity - It is the rotation of plane polarized light
forming (+) glucose and (-) glucose. 
 Diastereo isomeers - It the configurational changes with
regard to C2, C3, or C4 in glucose. Example: Mannose,
galactose.
 Annomerism - It is the spatial configuration with respect to
the first carbon atom in aldoses and second carbon atom in
ketoses. 

Chemical Properties of Carbohydrates 

 Ozazone formation with phenylhydrazine.

 Benedicts test.
 Oxidation 
 Reduction to alcohols

Structure of Carbohydrates
Back to Top

There are three types of structural representations of carbohydrates:

 Open chain structure.

  Hemi-acetal structure.
 Haworth structure.

Open chain structure - It is the long straight chain form of carbohydrates.

 Example:

Hemi-acetal structure  - Here the 1st carbon of the glucose condenses with the -OH group of the 5th
carbon to form a ring structure.

 
Haworth structure - It is the presence of pyranose ring structure.

Functions of Carbohydrates
Back to Top

 Carbohydrates are chief energy source, in many animals,

they are instant source of energy. Glucose is broken down
by glycolysis/ kreb's cycle to yield ATP.
 Glucose is the source of storage of energy. It is stored as
glycogen in animals and starch in plants. 
 Stored carbohydrates acts as energy source instead of
proteins. 
 Carbohydrates are intermediates in biosynthesis of fats and
proteins.  
 Carbohydrates aid in regulation of nerve tissue and is the
energy source for brain. 
 Carbohydrates gets associated with lipids and proteins to
form surface antigens, receptor molecules, vitamins and
antibiotics. 
 They form structural and protective components, like in cell
wall of plants and microorganisms. 
 In animals they are important constituent of connective
tissues.
  They participate in biological transport, cell-cell
communication and activation of growth factors.
 Carbohydrates that are rich in fibre content help to prevent
constipation. 
 Also they help in modulation of immune system.

Types of Carbohydrates
Back to Top

Like all other biomolecules carbohydrates are made of micromolecules and macromolecules.
Micromolecules are the monosaccharides while the macromolecules are the oligosaccharides and
polysaccahrides. Actually, the micromolecules polymerize and condense to form macromolecules. 

Carbohydrates basically are of three types - Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides. 

Monosaccharides or simple sugars consists of single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone. Most common
classes of monosaccharides are 
Aldoses - Aldotiroses, aldotertoses, aldopentoses, aldohextoses and aldoheptoses. 
Ketoses - Ketotrioses, ketotetroses, ketopentoses, ketohextoses, and ketoheptoses. 

Oligosaccharides are polymerized monosaccharides, which contain more two to ten residues on

hydrolysis. 
Oligosacharides are classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides. 

Disaccahrides yield two monosaccharides on hydrolysis.

Disaccharides are of two types - Reducing disaccharides (example maltose) and non-reducing
disaccharides(example sucrose). 
Trisaccahrides are found in sugar beet and and cotton seed. Example raffinose. 
Tetrasaccharide yield four monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Example: stachyose.

Polysaccharides are polymeric anhyderides of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides are of two types

based on their function and composition. 
Based on function, polysaccharides of two types storage and structural.
Storage polysaccharides - starch.
Structural polysaccharide - cellulose.

Based on composition polysaccharides are of two types homoplysaccharides and

heteropolysaccharides. Homopolysaccharides give single type of monosaccharide on hydrolysis.
Example Inulin polymer of fructose.
Heteropolysaccharides example hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulphate.
Example of Carbohydrates
Back to Top

Following are common examples of carbohydrates:

Monosaccharides - Glucose, galactose, glycerose, erythrose, ribose, ribulose, fructose.

Oligosaccharides - Maltose, lactose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose.
Polysaccharides - Starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin, inulin, hyaluonic acid. 

Foods rich in carbohydrates are referred to as strachy foods. They are found in legumes, starchy
vegetables, whole-grain breads and cereals. They also occur naturally with vitamins and minerals in foods
like milk, fruits, milk products. They are alsdo found in refined and processed products like candy,
carbonated beverages, and table sugar. 
Examples of Polysaccharides
Back to Top

The following table is the list of biologically important polysaccharides and their
functions. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates.

 Name of the
 Composition
Polysaccharide
 Polymer of glucose
containing a straight 
chain of glucose molecules
 Starch  species as main
(amylose) and a branched
chain of glucose molecules
(amylopectin) 
 Glycogen   Polymer of glucose
 Callose  Polymer of glucose
 Insulin  Polymer of fructose
 Cellulose   Polymer of glucose
 Polymer of galactose and its
 Pectin
derivatives 
 Polymer of pentoses and
 Hemi cellulose   Plant cell wall   Cell wall matrix
sugar acids
 Lignin  Polymer of glucose
 Chitin  Polymer of glucose
 Polysaccharide cross linked  Cell wall of
 Murein   Structural protection
with amino acids
 Hyaluronic acid  Polymer of sugar acids
 Chrondroitin
 Polymer of sugar acids
sulphate  matrix
 Closely related to
 Heparin
chrondroitin
Occurrence   Functions
 In several plant
 storage of reserve food
storage carbohydrate 
 Animals (equivalent
 Storage of reserve food
of starch)
 Different regions of
 Formed often as a response to
plant, in sieve tubes
wounds
of phloem
 In roots and tubers
 Storage of reserve food
(like Dahlia) 
 Plant cell wall   Cell wall matrix
 Plant cell wall  Cell wall matrix
 Plant cell wall (dead
cells like  Cell wall matrix
sclerenchyma) 
 Bodywall of
 Exoskeleton Impermeable to
arthropods. In some
water
fungi also 
prokaryotic cells
 Connective tissue
matrix, Outer coat of  Ground substance, protection
mammalian eggs 
 Connective tissue
 Ground substance
 Connective tissue
 Anticoagulant
cells
 Gums and  Polymers of sugars and  Gums - bark or trees.
 Retain water in dry seasons
mucilages sugar acids Mucilages - flower