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[1 mark]
1a. Describe the difference between photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels.
Markscheme
solar heating panel converts solar/radiation/photon/light energy into thermal energy AND photovoltaic cell converts
solar/radiation/photon/light energy into electrical energy
Examiners report
[N/A]
2 –2 [2 marks]
1b. A solar farm is made up of photovoltaic cells of area 25 000 m . The average solar intensity falling on the farm is 240 W m and
the average power output of the farm is 1.6 MW. Calculate the efficiency of the photovoltaic cells.
Markscheme
power received = 240 × 25000 = «6.0 MW»
1.6
efficiency «= = 0.27 / 27%
6.0
Examiners report
[N/A]
An alternative generation method is the use of wind turbines.
[3 marks]
1c. Determine the minimum number of turbines needed to generate the same power as the solar farm.
Markscheme
area = π × 17 2 «= 908m2»
1
power = × 908 × 1.3 × 7.53 «= 0.249 MW»
2
1.6
number of turbines «= = 6.4» = 7
0.249
Examiners report
[N/A]
Explain two reasons why the number of turbines required is likely to be greater than your answer to (c)(i). [2 marks]
1d.
Markscheme
«efficiency is less than 100% as»
OR
Examiners report
[N/A]
Outline, with reference to energy changes, the operation of a pumped storage hydroelectric system. [2 marks]
2a.
Markscheme
PE of water is converted to KE of moving water/turbine to electrical energy «in generator/turbine/dynamo»
idea of pumped storage, ie: pump water back during night/when energy cheap to buy/when energy not in demand/when there is a
surplus of energy
Examiners report
[N/A]
–1
The hydroelectric system has four 250 MW generators. The specific energy available from the water is 2.7 kJ kg –1. Determine the [2 marks]
2b.
maximum time for which the hydroelectric system can maintain full output when a mass of 1.5 x 1010 kg of water passes through the
turbines.
Markscheme
total energy = «2.7 x 10 3 x 1.5 x 10 10 =» 4.05 x 10 13 «J»
4.0× 1013
time = « » 11.1h or 4.0 x 104 s
4× 2.5× 108
Examiners report
[N/A]
Not all the stored energy can be retrieved because of energy losses in the system. Explain one such loss. [1 mark]
2c.
Markscheme
friction/resistive losses in walls of pipe/air resistance/turbulence/turbine and generator bearings
water requires kinetic energy to leave system so not all can be transferred
Examiners report
[N/A]
–2
At the location of the hydroelectric system, an average intensity of 180 W m –2 arrives at the Earth’s surface from the Sun. Solar [2 marks]
2d.
photovoltaic (PV) cells convert this solar energy with an efficiency of 22 %. The solar cells are to be arranged in a square array. Determine
the length of one side of the array that would be required to replace the
hydroelectric system.
Markscheme
1× 109
area required = «= 2.5 x 10 7 m 2»
0.22 × 180
Examiners report
[N/A]
Outline the conditions necessary for simple harmonic motion (SHM) to occur. [2 marks]
3a.
Markscheme
force/acceleration proportional to displacement «from equilibrium position»
Do not award marks for stating the defining equation for SHM.
Award [1 max] for a ω–= 2x with a and x defined.
Examiners report
[N/A]
A buoy, floating in a vertical tube, generates energy from the movement of water waves on the surface of the sea. When the buoy
moves up, a cable turns a generator on the sea bed producing power. When the buoy moves down, the cable is wound in by
a mechanism in the generator and no power is produced.
A wave of amplitude 4.3 m and wavelength 35 m, moves with a speed of 3.4 m s –1. Calculate the maximum vertical speed of the [3 marks]
3b.
buoy.
Markscheme
3.4
frequency of buoy movement = or 0.097 «Hz»
35
OR
35
time period of buoy = 3.4
or 10.3 «s» or 10 «s»
2πx0 2× π× 4.3
v=« or 2πfx0» = 10.3
or 2 × π × 0.097 × 4.3
T
2.6 «m s–1»
Examiners report
[N/A]
3c. Sketch a graph to show the variation with time of the generator output power. Label the time axis with a suitable scale. [2 marks]
Markscheme
peaks separated by gaps equal to width of each pulse «shape of peak roughly as shown»
Judge by eye.
Do not accept cos2 or sin2 graph
At least two peaks needed.
Do not allow square waves or asymmetrical shapes.
Allow ECF from (b)(i) value of period if calculated.
Examiners report
[N/A]
3d. Outline, with reference to energy changes, the operation of a pumped storage hydroelectric system. [2 marks]
Markscheme
PE of water is converted to KE of moving water/turbine to electrical energy «in generator/turbine/dynamo»
idea of pumped storage, ie: pump water back during night/when energy cheap to buy/when energy not in demand/when there is a
surplus of energy
Examiners report
[N/A]
3e. The water in a particular pumped storage hydroelectric system falls a vertical distance of 270 m to the turbines. Calculate the [2 marks]
speed at which water arrives at the turbines. Assume that there is no energy loss in the system.
Markscheme
specific energy available = «gh =» 9.81 x 270 «= 2650J kg –1»
OR
mgh = 1 mv2
2
OR
v2 = 2gh
v = 73 «ms–1»
Examiners report
[N/A]
The hydroelectric system has four 250 MW generators. Determine the maximum time for which the hydroelectric system can [2 marks]
3f.
maintain full output when a mass of 1.5 x 1010 kg of water passes through the turbines.
Markscheme
total energy = «mgh = 1.5 x 1010 x 9.81 x 270=» 4.0 x 1013 «J»
OR
Examiners report
[N/A]
3g. Not all the stored energy can be retrieved because of energy losses in the system. Explain two such losses. [2 marks]
Markscheme
friction/resistive losses in pipe/fluid resistance/turbulence/turbine or generator «bearings»
OR
sound energy losses from turbine/water in pipe
water requires kinetic energy to leave system so not all can be transferred
4a. State two characteristics of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. [2 marks]
Markscheme
black body radiation / 3 K
Do not accept: CMB provides evidence for the Big Bang model.
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
4b. The present temperature of the CMB is 2.8 K. Calculate the peak wavelength of the CMB. [1 mark]
Markscheme
2.9× 10−3
«λ = » ≈ 1.0 «mm»
2.8
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
4c. Describe how the CMB provides evidence for the Hot Big Bang model of the universe. [2 marks]
Markscheme
the universe is expanding and so the wavelength of the CMB in the past was much smaller
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
A spectral line in the light received from a distant galaxy shows a redshift of z = 0.16.
–1 –1 [2 marks]
4d. Determine the distance to this galaxy using a value for the Hubble constant of H0 = 68 km s Mpc .
Markscheme
«z =
v
c ⇒» v = 0.16 × 3 × 10 5 «= 0.48 × 105 km s−1 »
v 0.48 × 105
«d = ⇒v= 68
= 706» ≈ 710 «Mpc»
H0
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Estimate the size of the Universe relative to its present size when the light was emitted by the galaxy in (c). [2 marks]
4e.
Markscheme
R R
z= R0
−1 ⇒ R0
= 1.16
R0
R
= 0.86
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Theta 1 Orionis is a main sequence star. The following data for Theta 1 Orionis are available.
Luminosity L = 4 × 10 5 L⊙
R = 13R
Radius
⊙
b = 4 × 10 –11 b
Apparent brightness
⊙
where L
⊙, R
⊙ and b
⊙ are the luminosity, radius and apparent brightness of the Sun.
Markscheme
stars fusing hydrogen «into helium»
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Show that the mass of Theta 1 Orionis is about 40 solar masses. [1 mark]
5b.
Markscheme
1
M = M ⊙ (4 × 105) 3.5 = 39.86M ⊙
«M ≈ 40M ⊙ »
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The surface temperature of the Sun is about 6000 K. Estimate the surface temperature of Theta 1 Orionis. [2 marks]
5c.
Markscheme
T4
4 × 105 = 132 ×
60004
T ≈ 42 000 «K»
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Determine the distance of Theta 1 Orionis in AU. [2 marks]
5d.
Markscheme
1AU2
4 × 10− 11 = 4 × 105 × d2
d = 1 × 108 «AU»
L
Accept use of correct values into b = .
4πd2
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Discuss how Theta 1 Orionis does not collapse under its own weight. [2 marks]
5e.
Markscheme
the gravitation «pressure» is balanced by radiation «pressure»
that is created by the production of energy due to fusion in the core / OWTTE
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
5f. The Sun and Theta 1 Orionis will eventually leave the main sequence. Compare and contrast the different stages in the evolution of[3 marks]
the two stars.
Markscheme
the Sun will evolve to become a red giant whereas Theta 1 Orionis will become a red super giant
the Sun will explode as a planetary nebula whereas Theta 1 Orionis will explode as a supernova
the Sun will end up as a white dwarf whereas Theta 1 Orionis as a neutron star/black hole
[3 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The diagram shows the structure of a typical main sequence star.
6a. State the most abundant element in the core and the most abundant element in the outer layer. [2 marks]
Markscheme
core: helium
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram shows two main sequence stars X and Y and includes lines of constant radius. R is the [3 marks]
6b.
radius of the Sun.
density of star X
Using the mass–luminosity relation and information from the graph, determine the ratio .
density of star Y
Markscheme
1
ratio of masses is ( )
104 3.5
= 102
10−3
3
ratio of volumes is ( )
10
= 106
10−1
102
so ratio of densities is = 10− 4
106
[3 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Star X is likely to evolve into a neutron star.
On the HR diagram in (b), draw a line to indicate the evolutionary path of star X. [1 mark]
6c.
Markscheme
line to the right of X, possibly undulating, very roughly horizontal
Ignore any paths beyond this as the star disappears from diagram.
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Outline why the neutron star that is left after the supernova stage does not collapse under the action of gravitation. [1 mark]
6d.
Markscheme
gravitation is balanced by a pressure/force due to neutrons/neutron degeneracy/pauli exclusion principle
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The radius of a typical neutron star is 20 km and its surface temperature is 10 6 K. Determine the luminosity of this neutron star. [2 marks]
6e.
Markscheme
L = σAT 4 = 5.67 x 10 –8 x 4 π x (2.0 x 10 4)2 x (106)4
L = 3 x 10 26 «W»
OR
L = 2.85 x 10 26 «W»
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
6f. Determine the region of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the neutron star in (c)(iii) emits most of its energy. [2 marks]
Markscheme
2.9× 10−3
λ= = 2.9 × 10−9 «m»
106
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Describe what is meant by the Big Bang model of the universe. [2 marks]
7a.
Markscheme
theory in which all space/time/energy/matter were created at a point/singularity
at enormous temperature
with the volume of the universe increasing ever since or the universe expanding
OWTTE
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
State two features of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation which are consistent with the Big Bang model. [2 marks]
7b.
Markscheme
CMB has a black-body spectrum
is highly isotropic/homogenous
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Describe how type Ia supernovae could be used to measure the distance to this galaxy. [3 marks]
7d.
Markscheme
type Ia have a known luminosity/are standard candles
Must refer to type Ia. Do not accept other methods (parallax, Cepheids)
[3 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Outline, with reference to star formation, what is meant by the Jeans criterion. [2 marks]
8a.
Markscheme
a star will form out of a cloud of gas
when the gravitational potential energy of the cloud exceeds the total random kinetic energy of the particles of the cloud
OR
the mass exceeds a critical mass for a particular radius and temperature
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
In the proton–proton cycle, four hydrogen nuclei fuse to produce one nucleus of helium releasing a total of 4.3 × 10 –12 J of energy. [2 marks]
8b.
The Sun will spend 10 10 years on the main sequence. It may be assumed that during this time the Sun maintains a constant luminosity of 3.8
× 10 26 W.
Show that the total mass of hydrogen that is converted into helium while the Sun is on the main sequence is 2 × 10 29 kg.
Markscheme
1010× 365×24× 3600× 3.8× 1026
number of reactions is = 2.79 × 1055
4.3× 10−12
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Massive stars that have left the main sequence have a layered structure with different chemical elements in different layers. [2 marks]
8c.
Discuss this structure by reference to the nuclear reactions taking place in such stars.
Markscheme
nuclear fusion reactions produce ever heavier elements depending on the mass of the star / temperature of the core
the elements / nuclear reactions arrange themselves in layers, heaviest at the core lightest in the envelope
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The graph shows the variation with time t of the cosmic scale factor R in the flat model of the universe in which dark energy is [1 mark]
9a.
ignored.
On the axes above draw a graph to show the variation of R with time, when dark energy is present.
Markscheme
curve starting earlier, touching at now and going off to infinity
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
–26 –3
Recent evidence from the Planck observatory suggests that the matter density of the universe is ρm = 0.32 ρc, where ρc ≈ 10 –26 kg m –3
is the critical density.
The density of the observable matter in the universe is only 0.05 ρc. Suggest how the remaining 0.27 ρc is accounted for. [1 mark]
9b.
Markscheme
there is dark matter that does not radiate / cannot be observed
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The density of dark energy is ρΛ c2 where ρΛ = ρc – ρm. Calculate the amount of dark energy in 1 m 3 of space. [2 marks]
9c.
Markscheme
ρΛ = 0.68ρc = 0.68 × 10−26 «kgm−3 »
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Derive, using the concept of the cosmological origin of redshift, the relation [2 marks]
10a.
1
T∝ R
between the temperature T of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation and the cosmic scale factor R.
Markscheme
the cosmological origin of redshift implies that the wavelength is proportional to the scale factor: λ ∝ R
1
combining this with Wien’s law λ ∝
T
OR
hc
use of kT ∝
λ
k
Evidence of correct algebra is needed as relationship T = is given.
R
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The present temperature of the CMB is 2.8 K. This radiation was emitted when the universe was smaller by a factor of 1100. [2 marks]
10b.
Estimate the temperature of the CMB at the time of its emission.
Markscheme
use of T ∝ 1
R
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
State how the anisotropies in the CMB distribution are interpreted. [1 mark]
10c.
Markscheme
CMB anisotropies are related to fluctuations in density which are the cause for the formation of structures/nebulae/stars/galaxies
OWTTE
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
OWTTE
[6 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The distribution of mass in a spherical system is such that the density ρ varies with distance r from the centre as [1 mark]
11b.
k
ρ=
r2
where k is a constant.
v = constant.
Markscheme
«from data booklet formula» v = √ substitute to get v = √ 4
4πGρ πGk
3
r 3
[1 mark]
Examiners report
[N/A]
Curve A shows the actual rotation curve of a nearby galaxy. Curve B shows the predicted rotation curve based on the visible stars [2 marks]
11c.
in the galaxy.
Markscheme
curve A shows that the outer regions of the galaxy are rotating faster than predicted
this suggests that there is more mass in the outer regions that is not visible
OR
more mass in the form of dark matter
OWTTE
[2 marks]
Examiners report
[N/A]
The following data are available for a natural gas power station that has a high efficiency.
Calculate, with a suitable unit, the electrical power output of the power station. [1 mark]
12a.
Markscheme
«55.5 × 14.6 × 0.59» = 4.78 × 108 W
No sf penalty.
Examiners report
[N/A]
Calculate the mass of CO2 generated in a year assuming the power station operates continuously. [1 mark]
12b.
Markscheme
«14.6 × 2.75 × 3.16 × 107 =» 1.27 × 10 9 «kg»
If no unit assume kg
Examiners report
[N/A]
Explain, using your answer to (b), why countries are being asked to decrease their dependence on fossil fuels. [2 marks]
12c.
Markscheme
CO2 linked to greenhouse gas OR greenhouse effect
Examiners report
[N/A]
Describe, in terms of energy transfers, how thermal energy of the burning gas becomes electrical energy. [2 marks]
12d.
Markscheme
Internal energy of steam/particles OR KE of steam/particles
Do not award mark for first and last energies as they are given in the question.
Markscheme
two stars orbiting about a common centre «of mass/gravity»
Do not accept two stars orbiting each other.
Examiners report
[N/A]
(ii) The luminosity of the Sun is 3.8 × 10 26 W. Calculate the radius of Alpha Centauri A.
Markscheme
i
stars are roughly at the same distance from Earth
OR
d is constant for binaries
LA 1.5
LB
= 0.5
= 3.0
ii
Examiners report
[N/A]
Show, without calculation, that the radius of Alpha Centauri B is smaller than the radius of Alpha Centauri A. [2 marks]
13c.
Markscheme
«A=
L
» B and A have similar temperatures
σT 4
Examiners report
[N/A]
Alpha Centauri A is in equilibrium at constant radius. Explain how this equilibrium is maintained. [3 marks]
13d.
Markscheme
radiation pressure/force outwards
forces/pressures balance
Examiners report
[N/A]
Using the HR diagram, draw the present position of Alpha Centauri A and its expected evolutionary path.
Markscheme
Alpha Centauri A within allowable region
some indication of star moving right and up then left and down ending in white dwarf region as indicated
Examiners report
[N/A]
The first graph shows the variation of apparent brightness of a Cepheid star with time.
The second graph shows the average luminosity with period for Cepheid stars.
26 [3 marks]
14a. Determine the distance from Earth to the Cepheid star in parsecs. The luminosity of the Sun is 3.8 × 10 W. The average
apparent brightness of the Cepheid star is 1.1 × 10 –9 W m–2.
Markscheme
from first graph period=5.7 «days» ±0.3 «days»
L
from second graph = 2300 «±200»
LSUN
d = «√
2500× 3.8× 1026
= 8.3 × 1018m» =250 «pc»
4π×1.1× 10−9
Accept answer from interval 240 to 270 pc If unit omitted, assume pc.
Watch for ECF from mp1
Examiners report
[N/A]
Explain why Cephids are used as standard candles. [2 marks]
14b.
Markscheme
Cepheids have a definite/known «average» luminosity
Examiners report
[N/A]
The peak wavelength of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation spectrum corresponds to a temperature of 2.76 K.
Identify two other characteristics of the CMB radiation that are predicted from the Hot Big Bang theory. [2 marks]
15a.
Markscheme
isotropic/appears the same from every viewing angle
black-body radiation
Examiners report
[N/A]
A spectral line in the hydrogen spectrum measured in the laboratory today has a wavelength of 21cm. Since the emission of the [1 mark]
15b.
CMB radiation, the cosmic scale factor has changed by a factor of 1100. Determine the wavelength of the 21cm spectral line in the CMB
radiation when it is observed today.
Markscheme
23 100 «cm»
OR
231 «m»
Examiners report
[N/A]
Describe how some white dwarf stars become type Ia supernovae. [3 marks]
16a.
Markscheme
white dwarf must have companion «in binary system»
when dwarf reaches and exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit/1.4 MSUN supernova can occur
Examiners report
[N/A]
Hence, explain why a type Ia supernova is used as a standard candle. [2 marks]
16b.
Markscheme
a standard candle represents a «stellar object» with a known luminosity
OWTTE
MP1 for indication of known luminosity, MP2 for any relevant supportive argument.
Examiners report
[N/A]
Explain how the observation of type Ia supernovae led to the hypothesis that dark energy exists. [3 marks]
16c.
Markscheme
distant supernovae were dimmer/further away than expected
The graph shows the observed orbital velocities of stars in a galaxy against their distance from the centre of the galaxy. The core of the
galaxy has a radius of 4.0 kpc.
Calculate the rotation velocity of stars 4.0 kpc from the centre of the galaxy. The average density of the galaxy is 5.0 × 10 –21 kg m –[2 marks]
17a.
3.
Markscheme
v = «√ = √ 43 × π × 6.67 × 10− 11 × 5.0 × 10− 21 × (4000 × 3.1 × 1016)
4πGρ
3
r»
Examiners report
[N/A]
Explain why the rotation curves are evidence for the existence of dark matter. [2 marks]
17b.
Markscheme
rotation curves/velocity of stars were expected to decrease outside core of galaxy
flat curve suggests existence of matter/mass that cannot be seen – now called dark matter
Examiners report
[N/A]
The Sun has a radius of 7.0×10 8m and is a distance 1.5×10 11 m from Earth. The surface temperature of the Sun is 5800 K.
Show that the intensity of the solar radiation incident on the upper atmosphere of the Earth is approximately 1400Wm−2 . [2 marks]
18a.
Markscheme
σAT 4
I=
4πd2
2
5.67 × 10−8× (7.0× 108) × 58004
= 2
(1.5× 1011)
2
5.67 × 10−8×4π× (7.0× 108) × 58004
OR 2
4π× (1.5× 1011)
I=1397 Wm−2
Examiners report
[N/A]
−2
−2 [2 marks]
18b. The albedo of the atmosphere is 0.30. Deduce that the average intensity over the entire surface of the Earth is 245Wm .
Markscheme
«transmitted intensity =» 0.70 × 1400 «= 980Wm–2»
πR2
× 980Wm− 2
4πR2
245Wm–2
Examiners report
[N/A]
Markscheme
5.67 × 10–8 × T 4 = 245
T = 256K
Examiners report
[N/A]
Markscheme
made of dust and/or gas
formed from supernova
can form new stars
some radiate light from enclosed stars
some absorb light from distant stars
Examiners report
[N/A]
−3
19b. Beta Centauri is a star in the southern skies with a parallax angle of 8.32×10 arc-seconds. Calculate, in metres, the distance of [2 marks]
this star from Earth.
Markscheme
1
d= OR 120pc
8.32 × 10−3
120×3.26×9.46×1015=3.70×1018m
Examiners report
[N/A]
Outline why astrophysicists use non-SI units for the measurement of astronomical distance. [1 mark]
19c.
Markscheme
distances are so big/large OR to avoid using large powers of 10 OR they are based on convenient definitions
Examiners report
[N/A]
Aldebaran is a red giant star with a peak wavelength of 740 nm and a mass of 1.7 solar masses.
Examiners report
[N/A]
Markscheme
L=5.67×10-8×4π×(3.1×1010)2×40004
=1.8×1029W
Examiners report
[N/A]
Outline how the light from Aldebaran gives evidence of its composition. [2 marks]
20c.
Markscheme
absorption lines in spectra
Examiners report
[N/A]
20d. Identify the element that is fusing in Aldebaran’s core at this stage in its evolution. [1 mark]
Markscheme
helium
Examiners report
[N/A]
Markscheme
helium flash
expansion of outer shell OR surface temperature increase
planetary nebula phase
only the core remains
if below 1.4M S/Chandrasekhar limit then white dwarf
Examiners report
[N/A]
(ii) Calculate the ratio of the size of the universe when the light was emitted by the quasar to the present size of the universe.
(iii) Calculate the distance of 3C273 from Earth using Ho=68kms−1 Mpc−1 .
Markscheme
Δλ
(i)z = where Δλ is the redshift of a wavelength and λ0 is the wavelength measured at rest on Earth OR it is a measure of
λo
cosmological redshift
(iii) v=zc=0.16×3×108=4.8×104kms-1
4.8× 104
d= v
Ho
= 68
= 706Mpc OR 2.2×1025m
Examiners report
[N/A]
Explain how cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation provides support for the Hot Big Bang model. [2 marks]
21b.
Markscheme
as the universe expanded it cooled/wavelength increased
the temperature dropped to the present approximate 3K OR wavelength stretched to the present approximate 1mm
Examiners report
[N/A]
This question is in two parts. Part 1 is about energy resources. Part 2 is about thermal physics.
Electricity can be generated using nuclear fission, by burning fossil fuels or using pump storage hydroelectric schemes.
Markscheme
pump storage;
renewable as can be replaced in short time scale / storage water can be pumped back up to fall again / source will not run out; } (do not
accept “because water is used”)
Examiners report
[N/A]
Markscheme
(allows coolant to) transfer thermal/heat (energy) from the reactor/(nuclear) reaction to the water/steam;
Examiners report
[N/A]
moderator. [2 marks]
22c.
Markscheme
reduces speed/kinetic energy of neutrons; (do not allow “particles”)
Examiners report
[N/A]
Determine the maximum amount of energy, in joule, released by 1.0 g of uranium-235 as a result of fission. [3 marks]
22d.
Markscheme
(203 MeV is equivalent to) 3.25 × 10− 11 (J);
6.02 × 1023 nuclei have a mass of 235 (g) / evaluates number of nuclei;
(2.56 × 1021 nuclei produce) 8.32 × 1010 (J) / multiplies two previous answers;
Examiners report
[N/A]
Describe the main principles of the operation of a pump storage hydroelectric scheme. [3 marks]
22e.
Markscheme
water flows between water masses/reservoirs at different levels;
at off peak times the electricity produced is used to raise water from lower to higher reservoir;
Examiners report
[N/A]
A hydroelectric scheme has an efficiency of 92%. Water stored in the dam falls through an average height of 57 m. Determine the [3 marks]
22f.
rate of flow of water, in kg s− 1, required to generate an electrical output power of 4.5 MW.
Markscheme
mgh
use of t
;
m 4.5× 106
t
= 0.92 × 9.81 × 57
; (t is usually ignored, assume 1 s if not seen)
3
8.7 × 10 (kg s− 1);
Award [3] for a bald correct answer.
Examiners report
[N/A]
This question is in two parts. Part 1 is about energy resources. Part 2 is about thermal physics.
Distinguish between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat. [2 marks]
22g.
Markscheme
specific heat capacity is/refers to energy required to change the temperature (without changing state);
specific latent heat is energy required to change the state/phase without changing the temperature;
If definitions are given they must include salient points given above.
Examiners report
The essential difference between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat is that the former refers to a change of temperature
without changing state; whereas the latter refers to a change of state without changing temperature. Most candidates just wrote
definitions which they had learnt by rote – and omitted the constant temperature for a substance changing state.
A mass of 0.22 kg of lead spheres is placed in a well-insulated tube. The tube is turned upside down several times so that the spheres
fall through an average height of 0.45 m each time the tube is turned. The temperature of the spheres is found to increase by 8 °C.
Markscheme
gravitational potential energy → kinetic energy;
Examiners report
This is a question specifically about energy changes so candidates are expected to use accurate language and spell out the changes
one by one. Common mistakes were omitting the “gravitational” in gravitational potential energy; referring to “heat” rather than thermal
energy; and saying that gravitational potential energy changed to thermal and kinetic energy as if it were a single process.
−
The specific heat capacity of lead is 1.3 × 102 J kg− 1K− 1. Deduce the number of times that the tube is turned upside down. [4 marks]
22i.
Markscheme
use of mcΔT ;
use of n × mgΔh;
236 or 240;
or
use of ΔU = mcΔT ;
Examiners report
This was generally well done. There were four marks and the question asks the candidates to “deduce” so it is essential that the
argument is transparent. The examiner cannot be expected to search through a mass of numbers in order to carry forward an error.
This question is about the Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram and the Sun.
The following data are given for the Sun and a star Vega. [3 marks]
23a.
Luminosity of the Sun = 3.85 × 1026 W
Luminosity of Vega = 1.54 × 1028 W
Surface temperature of the Sun = 5800 K
Surface temperature of Vega = 9600 K
Determine, using the data, the radius of Vega in terms of solar radii.
Markscheme
=(
LV σAV[TV]4 σ[rV]2[TV]4
=) ;
LS σAS[TS]4 σ[rS]2[TS]4
rV = (√ 1.54 × 1026 ×
28 58004
rS =) 2.3 rS;
3.85 × 10 96004
Examiners report
candidates notably addressed absolute magnitude without referring to apparent magnitude as the question asked. Well-prepared
candidates (both HL and SL) only had a problem with the part related to the use of a non-linear temperature scale. Average prepared
candidates displayed difficulty in the experimental measurement of the temperature of the distant star and also with details of nuclear
processes occurring in the Sun during transformation to a red giant.
Outline how observers on Earth can determine experimentally the temperature of a distant star. [3 marks]
23b.
Markscheme
obtain the spectrum of the star;
use Wien’s law (to determine temperature); } (allow quotation of Wien’s equation if symbols defined)
Award [3 max] for referring to identification of temperature via different ionizations of different elements.
Examiners report
candidates notably addressed absolute magnitude without referring to apparent magnitude as the question asked. Well-prepared
candidates (both HL and SL) only had a problem with the part related to the use of a non-linear temperature scale. Average prepared
candidates displayed difficulty in the experimental measurement of the temperature of the distant star and also with details of nuclear
processes occurring in the Sun during transformation to a red giant.
This question is about the Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram and the Sun.
The Sun will remain on the main sequence of the HR diagram for about another five billion years. After this time it will become a red
giant, following the evolutionary path shown in the diagram.
Outline why the Sun will leave the main sequence, and describe the nuclear processes that occur as it becomes a red giant. [4 marks]
24a.
Markscheme
insufficient hydrogen (to continue fusion);
temperature increases;
Examiners report
Well-prepared candidates (both HL and SL) only had a problem with the part related to the use of a non-linear temperature scale.
Average prepared candidates displayed difficulty in the experimental measurement of the temperature of the distant star and also with
details of nuclear processes occurring in the Sun during transformation to a red giant.
Describe two physical changes that the Sun will undergo as it enters the red giant stage. [2 marks]
24b.
Markscheme
rapid expansion / increase of size;
Examiners report
Well-prepared candidates (both HL and SL) only had a problem with the part related to the use of a non-linear temperature scale.
Average prepared candidates displayed difficulty in the experimental measurement of the temperature of the distant star and also with
details of nuclear processes occurring in the Sun during transformation to a red giant.
A line in the hydrogen spectrum is measured in the laboratory to have a wavelength of 656 nm. The same line from a distant galaxy is
measured to have a wavelength of 730 nm. Assuming that the Hubble constant H0 is 69.3 km s− 1Mpc− 1,
Markscheme
( Δλλ = ⇒) v = ( 3.00 ×656
8
10 × 74
v
c =) 3.38 × 107 (ms− 1);
v 3.38 × 104
d= = 69.3
= 488 Mpc;
H0
Examiners report
Well done by candidates, weaker candidates did not write their ideas clearly enough in (a)(ii). Part (b) was also quite well done, but only
better candidates mentioned uncertainty in measurement of distances to galaxies.
25b. discuss why different measurements of the Hubble constant do not agree with each other. [1 mark]
Markscheme
measurements from distant galaxies have large uncertainties;
Examiners report
Well done by candidates, weaker candidates did not write their ideas clearly enough in (a)(ii). Part (b) was also quite well done, but only
better candidates mentioned uncertainty in measurement of distances to galaxies.