Faculty of

Information Technology
Networks 512
Year 1 Semester 2
FACULTY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

NETWORKS 512
Registered with the Department of Higher Education as a Private Higher Education Institution under the Higher Education Act, 1997.
Registration Certificate No. 2000/HE07/008

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

LEARNER GUIDE
MODULES: NETWORKS 512 (2ND SEMESTER)

PREPARED ON BEHALF OF
RICHFIELD Graduate Institute of Technology (PTY) LTD

FACULTY HEAD: Isaka Reddy

Copyright © 2020
RICHFIELD Graduate Institute Of Technology (PTY) LTD
Registration Number: 2000/000757/07
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any
means, including photocopying machines, without the written permission of the
Institution.

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Networks 512

Table of Contents
TOPIC 1: NETWORKING ESSENTIALS AND CURRENT WIRING STANDARDS .................................................. 39
1.1 NETWORKING ESSENTIALS ........................................................................................................................ 39
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 39
1.2 Network equipment for commercial setup .......................................................................................... 39
1.3 Devices for Structured Cabling ............................................................................................................. 40
1.3.1 Entrance Facility (EF): .............................................................................................................. 41
1.3. 2 Equipment Room (ER) ................................................................................................................... 42
1.3.3 Backbone Cabling ........................................................................................................................... 42
1.3.4 Telecommunications Room (TR) or Telecommunications Enclosure (TE) .................................... 42
1.3.5 Horizontal Cabling (Cabling Subsystem 1) ..................................................................................... 43
1.3.6 Work Area....................................................................................................................................... 44
1.4 ETHERNET STANDARDS ............................................................................................................................. 44
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 44
Ethernet ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
1.4.1 Local Area Networks (LANs)........................................................................................................... 44
1.4.2 Wide Area Networks (WANs) ........................................................................................................ 44
1.4.3 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) ........................................................................................ 45
1.5 Wireless Protocols ..................................................................................................................................... 46
1.5.1 The Internet and Beyond ............................................................................................................... 46
1.5.2 The Internet .................................................................................................................................... 46
1.5.3 Intranet: .......................................................................................................................................... 47
1.6 Types of LAN Technology .......................................................................................................................... 47
1.6.1 Ethernet .......................................................................................................................................... 47
1.6.2 Fast Ethernet .................................................................................................................................. 48
1.6.3 Gigabit Ethernet ............................................................................................................................. 48
1.6.4 10 Gigabit Ethernet ........................................................................................................................ 49
1.6.5 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) ............................................................................................ 49
1.6.6 Power over Ethernet (PoE) ............................................................................................................ 49
1.6.7 Token Ring ...................................................................................................................................... 50

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1.7 Networking and Ethernet Basics............................................................................................................... 51
1.7.1 Protocols ......................................................................................................................................... 51
1.7.2 The Open System Interconnection Model (From Semester 1 in brief) ............................................ 51
1.7.3 Standard Ethernet Code ................................................................................................................. 53
1.8 Rounding Topologies ................................................................................................................................. 55
1.8.1 Collisions ......................................................................................................................................... 56
1.8.2 CSMA/CD ........................................................................................................................................ 57
1.8.3 Ethernet Products .......................................................................................................................... 57
1.9 Ethernet: Adding Speed ............................................................................................................................ 59
1.9.1 Bridges ............................................................................................................................................ 60
1.9.2 Ethernet Switches .......................................................................................................................... 61
1.9.3 Routers ........................................................................................................................................... 62
1.10 Network Design Criteria ...................................................................................................................... 63
1.10.1 When and Why Ethernets Become Too Slow .............................................................................. 64
1.10.2 Increasing Performance with Fast and Gigabit Ethernet ............................................................ 65
1.11 Ethernet: Sharing Devices ................................................................................................................... 66
1.11.1 Device Server Technology ............................................................................................................ 66
1.11.2 An Introduction to Device Servers ............................................................................................... 66
1.11.3 External Device Servers................................................................................................................ 67
1.11.4 External Device Servers................................................................................................................ 67
1.11.5 Wireless: ....................................................................................................................................... 67
1.11.6 Security: ........................................................................................................................................ 67
1.12 Embedded Device Servers................................................................................................................... 68
1.12.1 Embedded Device Servers............................................................................................................ 68
1.12.2 Terminal Servers ........................................................................................................................... 69
1.12.3 Print Servers ................................................................................................................................. 69
1.12.4 Console Servers ............................................................................................................................ 71
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 71
1.13 Device Servers ......................................................................................................................................... 72
1.13.1 Device Servers Defined ................................................................................................................ 74
1.13.2 M2M and Wireless Communications .......................................................................................... 77
1.13.3 Factory Floor Automation ............................................................................................................ 80
13.4 Security Systems.............................................................................................................................. 81

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 1.14. Scanning Devices ................................................................................................................................ 82
1.14.1 Medical Applications .................................................................................................................... 82
1.15 Network Switching .................................................................................................................................. 84
1.15.1 What is a Switch? ......................................................................................................................... 84
1.15.2 Network Congestion .................................................................................................................... 85
1.15.3 General Benefits of Network Switching ...................................................................................... 88
1.15.4 Network Switching ....................................................................................................................... 89
1.15.5 Adding Switches to a Backbone Switched Network ................................................................... 90
1.15.6 Designing for Maximum Benefit .................................................................................................. 90
1.15.7 Managed or Unmanaged ............................................................................................................. 93
1.15.8 Store-and-Forward vs. Cut-Through ............................................................................................ 94
1.15.9 Blocking vs. Non-Blocking Switches ............................................................................................ 94
1.15.10 Switch Buffer Limitations ........................................................................................................... 95
1.15.11 Layer 3 Switching........................................................................................................................ 95
Research on the ....................................................................................................................................... 96
TOPIC 2: NETWORK CABLING AND DATA TRANSPORTATION OVER NETWORK ......................................... 109
2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable .................................................................................................. 109
2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF UTP .................................................................................................................. 109
2.2 Fiber optic ............................................................................................................................................ 111
2.2.1 SMF (Single Mode Fiber) .............................................................................................................. 113
2.2.2 MMF (Multimode Fiber) .............................................................................................................. 113
2.2.3 Fiber Connectors and Couplers .................................................................................................... 113
2.2.4 Fiber-Optic Converters and Modular Interfaces ......................................................................... 115
2.2.5 Fiber-Optic Converters and Modular Interfaces ......................................................................... 115
2.3 Ethernet Standards for Fiber-Optic Cable .............................................................................................. 116
2.3.1 Transmission Flaws .......................................................................................................................... 117
2.3.2 Troubleshooting Tools ..................................................................................................................... 119
2.3.3 OPM (Optical Power Meter) ........................................................................................................ 122
2.4 Coaxial Cable ........................................................................................................................................... 123
2.4.1 What is Coaxial Cable? ................................................................................................................. 123
2.4.2 How is Coaxial Cable used? .......................................................................................................... 123
2.4.3 Where is Coaxial Cable used? ...................................................................................................... 123
2.4.4 Male connector: ........................................................................................................................... 123

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 2.4.5 Female connector:........................................................................................................................ 124
Coaxial Cable Terms ............................................................................................................................... 124
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 125
Prescribed Books ....................................................................................................................................... 126
Web sites: .................................................................................................................................................. 126
Answers to the Topics ................................................................................................................................... 134
Topic 1............................................................................................................................................................ 134
Topic 2............................................................................................................................................................ 136

Prescribed Text Book:

CompTIA Network+ Study Guide: Exam N10-006, 3rd Edition

Todd Lammle
ISBN: 978-1-119-02124-7
2015

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TOPIC 1: NETWORKING ESSENTIALS AND CURRENT WIRING STANDARDS

LEARNING OUTCOME

• Network Structure and equipment in commercial

buildings and work areas

• The environment in which networking equipment

operates

• Wiring Standards in use

• Understand Ethernet standard and how it works

1.1 NETWORKING ESSENTIALS

INTRODUCTION

In this topic we are discovering the basic essentials required to build a network. It is not an easy job
to know where to place walls, doors where to install electrical and plumbing systems management
of traffic patterns through rooms to make the building liveable. As a network architect you must
consider hardware and software factors when designing a network.
We are going to discuss the hardware used in the network architecture; location of the devices
their environment and the equipment limitations and its attentions. Interestingly you will be able
to see how Ethernet make it easier to move data across the physical network and how to trace the
failure of the devices to play its role. As you continue with your studies you will learn deeper on
various layers of network components cable details and wireless networking (802.1) will be
explained in due course.

1.2 Network equipment for commercial setup

The setup and cabling of most of the big organisations are the same due to the TIA
(Telecommunication Industrial Association) standards and its former mother company EAI
(Electronic Industries Alliance).
The architecture for commercial buildings is called structured Cabling from the TIA/EIA-568
Commercial Building Wiring Standard it doesn’t care where the cable is from. This structured
principle applies from the cabling media, transmission technology or networking speed. It starts

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 from the Demarc and ends at the user’s work station. Demarc (Short for Demarcation) is the
device at the point where a telecommunications service providers network ends (public switched
telephone network) and the organisational network starts.
It is only describing the good way of the network cable installation maximising performance and
minimising maintenance.
However the structured cabling is based on a hierarchical design and assumes a network is based
on the star topology.
Below is the type of a Demarc;

Figure 1- 1 Demarc- Example

Source: Networking: Guide to Networks 7th Edition by Tamara Dean et al (pp. 158-9)

1.3 Devices for Structured Cabling

The benefits of these standards include:
Consistency of design and installation;
Conformance to physical and transmission line requirements;
A basis for examining a proposed system expansion and other changes; and
Uniform documentation.

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Figure 1- 2: TIA/EIA Structured Cabling in a Multistory Building

Source: http://www.elvtek.com/Solution.aspx?catelist=0,5,36,19&cateid=19&parentid=36&itemid=7

Structured cabling design and installation is governed by TIA/EIA as said above, that specify wiring data centers,
offices, and apartments building for data or voice communication using various kind of cable, most commonly used
category 5e (CAT5e), (CAT6) or (CAT7) and fibre optic cabling and modular connector.

There are components like;

1.3.1 Entrance Facility (EF): This is the main incoming entrance for the network interface connecting to the
building backbone cabling. It is composed of cables, network demarcation point(s), connecting

hardware, protection devices and other equipment that connect to the access provider (AP) or
private network cabling. It includes connections between outside plant and inside building cabling.

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1.3. 2 Equipment Room (ER)
The environmentally well-ordered centralized space for telecommunications equipment is
usually more complex than a telecommunications room (TR) or telecommunications
enclosure (TE). This is where you find the main cross-connect (MC) {Distributor C} and may also
contain the intermediate cross-connects (ICs) {Distributor B}, horizontal cross-connects (HCs)
{Distributor A}, or both.

1.3.3 Backbone Cabling

The backbone cabling provides interconnection between telecommunications rooms,
equipment rooms, access provider (AP) spaces and entrance facilities. There are two subsystems
defined for backbone cabling:
Cabling Subsystem 2 – Backbone cabling between the horizontal cross-connect (HC)
{Distributor A (DA)} and the intermediate cross-connect (IC) {Distributor B (DB)}
Cabling Subsystem 3 – Backbone cabling between an intermediate cross-connect
(IC) {Distributor B (DB)} and the main cross-connect (MC) {Distributor C (DC)}
Recognized cabling:
100-ohm twisted-pair cabling: Category 3, Category 5e, Category 6 or Category 6A and
Category 7.
Multimode optical fiber cabling: 850 nm laser-optimized 50/125 μm is recommended.
50/125 μm refer to the diameters of the glass or plastic core, the part of the fiber that
carries the light which encodes your data. See below diagram depicting the structure,
Single-mode optical fiber cabling

Figure 1- 3: Cross section of Multimode fiber optic cables

1.3.4 Telecommunications Room (TR) or Telecommunications Enclosure (TE)

A TR or TE houses the terminations of horizontal and backbone cables to connecting hardware

including any jumpers or patch cords ( is a length of fiber cabling fitted with LC, SC, MTRJ

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 or ST connectors at each end. To be discussed in the next Chapters). It may also contain
the IC (Intermediate Cross-connect) or MC (Main Cross-connect) for different portions of the
backbone cabling system.

1.3.5 Horizontal Cabling (Cabling Subsystem 1)

The horizontal cabling system extends from the work area’s telecommunications information
outlet to the telecommunications room (TR) or telecommunications enclosure (TE). It includes
horizontal cable, mechanical terminations, jumpers and patch cords located in the TR or TE and
may incorporate Multi-User Telecommunications Outlet Assemblies (MUTOAs) and consolidation
points (CPs). The maximum horizontal cable length shall be not more than 90 m (295 ft.),
independent of media type. If a MUTOA is deployed, the maximum horizontal balanced twisted-
pair copper cable length shall be reduced.
Recognized and recommended cabling (to be discussed in the next Chapters):
 4-pair 100-ohm unshielded or shielded twisted-pair cabling:
Category 5e, Category 6, Category 6A or Category 7
 Multimode optical fiber cabling, 2-fiber (or higher fiber count)
 Single-mode optical fiber cabling, 2-fiber (or higher fiber count)

Figure 1- 4: MUTOAs

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 1.3.6 Work Area
Work area (WA) components extend from the telecommunications outlet/connector end of the
horizontal cabling system to the WA equipment.
A minimum of two telecommunications outlets (permanent links) should be provided for each work
area. Multi-user telecommunications outlet assemblies (MUTOAs), if used, are part of the WA.

Further reading: Networking: Guide to Networks 7th Edition by Tamara Dean et al (pp. 160-2)

1.4 ETHERNET STANDARDS

Introduction
Ethernet is a type of network cabling and signaling specifications developed by Xerox in the late 1970.
The 10BASE-T Ethernet standard in 1990, a lot has changed. Twisted-pair cabling went from 10BASE-T with
a data rate of 10 Mb/s over category 3 cabling in 1990, to 100BASE-TX at 100 Mb/s over category 5 in 1995,
to 1000BASE-T at 1 Gb/s over category 5e or higher in 1999, to 10GBASE-T at 10 Gb/s over category 6A in
2006. The future will be from 40GBASE-T at 40 GB/s over future category 8 cabling. Fiber is another story—
moving from 1 GB/s over multimode and single mode fiber in 1998 to 10 GB/s in 2003 to 100 GB/s in 2010.
That’s speed increased by a factor of 100 in just 12 years!

Just a quick refresher of the Semester 1 information about LAN, WAN and WLAN

1.4.1 Local Area Networks (LANs)

A network is any collection of independent computers that exchange information with each other
over a shared communication medium. Local Area Networks or LANs are usually confined to a
limited geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as
few as three computers, but can often link hundreds of computers used by thousands of people.
The development of standard networking protocols and media has resulted in worldwide
proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.

1.4.2 Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Often elements of a network are widely separated physically. Wide area networking combines
multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the several
LANs with dedicated leased lines such as a T1 or a T3, by dial-up phone lines (both synchronous
and asynchronous), by satellite links and by data packet carrier services. WANs can be as simple as

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a modem and a remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as
hundreds of branch offices globally linked. Special routing protocols and filters minimize the
expense of sending data over vast distances.

1.4.3 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

Wireless LANs, or WLANs, use radio frequency (RF) technology to transmit and receive data over
the air. This minimizes the need for wired connections. WLANs give users mobility as they allow
connection to a local area network without having to be physically connected by a cable. This
freedom means users can access shared resources without looking for a place to plug in cables,
provided that their terminals are mobile and within the designated network coverage area. With
mobility, WLANs give flexibility and increased productivity, appealing to both entrepreneurs and
to home users. WLANs may also enable network administrators to connect devices that may be
physically difficult to reach with a cable.

The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) developed the 802.11 specification for
wireless LAN technology. 802.11 specifies over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a
base station, or between two wireless clients. WLAN 802.11 standards also have security protocols
that were developed to provide the same level of security as that of a wired LAN.
The first of these protocols is Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). WEP provides security by
encrypting data sent over radio waves from end point to end point.

The second WLAN security protocol is Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). WPA was developed as an
upgrade to the security features of WEP. It works with existing products that are WEP-enabled but
provides two key improvements: improved data encryption through the temporal key integrity
protocol (TKIP) which scrambles the keys using a hashing algorithm. It has means for integrity-
checking to ensure that keys have not been tampered with. WPA also provides user
authentication with the extensible authentication protocol (EAP).

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1.5 Wireless Protocols
Specification Data Rate Modulation Scheme Security
802.11 1 or 2 Mbps in the 2.4 FHSS, DSSS WEP and
GHz band WPA
802.11a 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz OFDM WEP and
band WPA
802.11b/High 11 Mbps (with a fallback DSSS with CCK WEP and
Rate/Wi-Fi to 5.5, 2, and 1 Mbps) in WPA
the 2.4 GHz band
802.11g/Wi-Fi 54 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz OFDM when above WEP and
band 20Mbps, DSSS with CCK WPA
when below 20Mbps
Table 1- 1: Wireless Protocols

1.5.1 The Internet and Beyond

More than just a technology, the Internet has become a way of life for many people, and it has
spurred a revolution of sorts for both public and private sharing of information. The most popular
source of information about almost anything, the Internet is used daily by technical and non-
technical users alike.

1.5.2 The Internet: The Largest Network of All

With the meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a major
communications highway for millions of users. It is a decentralized system of linked networks that
are worldwide in scope. It facilitates data communication services such as remote log-in, file
transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. It consists of independent hosts
of computers that can designate which Internet services to use and which of their local services to
make available to the global community.

Initially restricted to military and academic institutions, the Internet now operates on a three-level
hierarchy composed of backbone networks, mid-level networks and stub networks. It is a full-
fledged conduit for any and all forms of information and commerce. Internet websites now

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provide personal, educational, political and economic resources to virtually any point on the
planet.

1.5.3 Intranet: A Secure Internet-like Network for Organizations

With advancements in browser-based software for the Internet, many private organizations have
implemented intranets. An intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools, but available
only within that organization. For large organizations, an intranet provides easy access to
corporate information for designated employees.

1.5.4 Extranet: A Secure Means for Sharing Information with Partners

While an intranet is used to disseminate confidential information within a corporation, an extranet

is commonly used by companies to share data in a secure fashion with their business partners.
Internet-type tools are used by content providers to update the extranet. Encryption and user
authentication means are provided to protect the information, and to ensure that designated
people with the proper access privileges are allowed to view it.

1.6 Types of LAN Technology

1.6.1 Ethernet
Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today. It defines the number of
conductors that are required for a connection, the performance thresholds that can be expected,
and provides the framework for data transmission. A standard Ethernet network can transmit data
at a rate up to 10 Megabits per second (10 Mbps). Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast
Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI),
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and LocalTalk.

Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of installation.
These benefits, combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to
support virtually all popular network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for
most computer users today.

The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an Ethernet standard known as IEEE
Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network and also specifies

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how the elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By adhering to the IEEE
standard, network equipment and network protocols can communicate efficiently.

1.6.2 Fast Ethernet

The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established for Ethernet networks that need
higher transmission speeds. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Mbps to 100
Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure. Fast Ethernet provides faster
throughput for video, multimedia, graphics, Internet surfing and stronger error detection and
correction.

There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with level 5 UTP cable; 100BASE-FX for
use with fiber-optic cable; and 100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3
UTP cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most popular due to its close compatibility
with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard.

Network managers who want to incorporate Fast Ethernet into an existing configuration are
required to make many decisions. The number of users in each site on the network that need the
higher throughput must be determined; which segments of the backbone need to be reconfigured
specifically for 100BASE-T; plus what hardware is necessary in order to connect the 100BASE-T
segments with existing 10BASE-T segments. Gigabit Ethernet is a future technology that promises
a migration path beyond Fast Ethernet so the next generation of networks will support even
higher data transfer speeds.

1.6.3 Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster communication networks with
applications such as multimedia and Voice over IP (VoIP). Also known as “gigabit-Ethernet-over-
copper” or 1000Base-T, GigE is a version of Ethernet that runs at speeds 10 times faster than
100Base-T. It is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is currently used as an enterprise
backbone. Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps cards can feed into a Gigabit Ethernet
backbone to interconnect high performance switches, routers and servers.

From the data link layer of the OSI model upward, the look and implementation of Gigabit
Ethernet is identical to that of Ethernet. The most important differences between Gigabit Ethernet

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and Fast Ethernet include the additional support of full duplex operation in the MAC layer and the
data rates.

1.6.4 10 Gigabit Ethernet

10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the Ethernet standards. IEEE 802.3ae defines
a version of Ethernet with a nominal rate of 10Gbits/s that makes it 10 times faster than Gigabit
Ethernet.

Unlike other Ethernet systems, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is based entirely on the use of optical fiber
connections. This developing standard is moving away from a LAN design that broadcasts to all
nodes, toward a system which includes some elements of wide area routing. As it is still very new,
which of the standards will gain commercial acceptance has yet to be determined.

1.6.5 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM is a cell-based fast-packet communication technique that can support data-transfer rates
from sub-T1 speeds to 10 Gbps. ATM achieves its high speeds in part by transmitting data in fixed-
size cells and dispensing with error-correction protocols. It relies on the inherent integrity of
digital lines to ensure data integrity.

ATM can be integrated into an existing network as needed without having to update the entire
network. Its fixed-length cell-relay operation is the signaling technology of the future and offers
more predictable performance than variable length frames. Networks are extremely versatile and
an ATM network can connect points in a building, or across the country, and still be treated as a
single network.

1.6.6 Power over Ethernet (PoE)

PoE is a solution in which an electrical current is run to networking hardware over the Ethernet
Category 5 cable or higher. This solution does not require an extra AC power cord at the product
location. This minimizes the amount of cable needed as well as eliminates the difficulties and cost
of installing extra outlets.

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 Name IEEE Data Rate Media Type Maximum Distance
Standard

Ethernet 802.3 10 Mbps 10Base-T 100 meters

Fast Ethernet/ 802.3u 100 Mbps 100Base-TX 100 meters

100Base-T 100Base-FX 2000 meters

Gigabit Ethernet/ 802.3z 1000 1000Base-T 100 meters

GigE Mbps 1000Base-SX 275/550 meters
1000Base-LX 550/5000 meters
10 Gigabit IEEE 10 Gbps 10GBase-SR 300 meters
Ethernet 802.3ae 10GBase-LX4 300m MMF/ 10km
10GBase-LR/ER SMF
10GBase- 10km/40km
SW/LW/EW 300m/10km/40km

Table 1- 2: LAN Technology Specifications

LAN Technology Specifications

1.6.7 Token Ring

Token Ring is another form of network configuration. It differs from Ethernet in that all messages
are transferred in one direction along the ring at all times. Token Ring networks sequentially pass
a “token” to each connected device. When the token arrives at a particular computer (or device),
the recipient is allowed to transmit data onto the network. Since only one device may be
transmitting at any given time, no data collisions occur. Access to the network is guaranteed, and
time-sensitive applications can be supported. However, these benefits come at a price.
Component costs are usually higher, and the networks themselves are considered to be more
complex and difficult to implement. Various PC vendors have been proponents of Token Ring
networks.

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1.7 Networking and Ethernet Basics
1.7.1 Protocols
After a physical connection has been established, network protocols define the standards that
allow computers to communicate. A protocol establishes the rules and encoding specifications for
sending data. This defines how computers identify one another on a network, the form that the
data should take in transit, and how this information is processed once it reaches its final
destination. Protocols also define procedures for determining the type of error checking that will
be used, the data compression method, if one is needed, how the sending device will indicate that
it has finished sending a message, how the receiving device will indicate that it has received a
message, and the handling of lost or damaged transmissions or “packets”.

The main types of network protocols in use today are: TCP/IP (for UNIX, Windows NT, Windows 95
and other platforms); IPX (for Novell NetWare); DECnet (for networking Digital Equipment Corp.
computers); AppleTalk (for Macintosh computers), and NetBIOS/NetBEUI (for LAN Manager and
Windows NT networks).

Although each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical cabling. This
common method of accessing the physical network allows multiple protocols to peacefully coexist
over the network media, and allows the builder of a network to use common hardware for a
variety of protocols. This concept is known as “protocol independence,” which means that devices
which are compatible at the physical and data link layers allow the user to run many different
protocols over the same medium.

1.7.2 The Open System Interconnection Model (From Semester 1 in brief)

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model specifies how dissimilar computing devices such as
Network Interface Cards (NICs), bridges and routers exchange data over a network by offering a
networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Beginning at the application
layer, control is passed from one layer to the next. The following describes the seven layers as
defined by the OSI model, shown in the order they occur whenever a user transmits information.

Layer 7: Application

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This layer supports the application and end-user processes. Within this layer, user privacy is
considered and communication partners, service and constraints are all identified. File transfers,
email, Telnet and FTP applications are all provided within this layer.

Layer 6: Presentation (Syntax)

Within this layer, information is translated back and forth between application and network
formats. This translation transforms the information into data the application layer and network
recognize regardless of encryption and formatting.

Layer 5: Session

Within this layer, connections between applications are made, managed and terminated as needed
to allow for data exchanges between applications at each end of a dialogue.

Layer 4: Transport

Complete data transfer is ensured as information is transferred transparently between systems in

this layer. The transport layer also assures appropriate flow control and end-to-end error recovery.

Layer 3: Network

Using switching and routing technologies, this layer is responsible for creating virtual circuits to
transmit information from node to node. Other functions include routing, forwarding, addressing,
internet working, error and congestion control, and packet sequencing.

Layer 2: Data Link

Information in data packets are encoded and decoded into bits within this layer. Errors from the
physical layer flow control and frame synchronization are corrected here utilizing transmission
protocol knowledge and management. This layer consists of two sub layers: the Media Access
Control (MAC) layer, which controls the way networked computers gain access to data and
transmit it, and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer, which controls frame synchronization, flow
control and error checking.

Layer 1: Physical

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This layer enables hardware to send and receive data over a carrier such as cabling, a card or other
physical means. It conveys the bitstream through the network at the electrical and mechanical
level. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are all protocols with physical layer components.

This order is then reversed as information is received, so that the physical layer is the first and
application layer is the final layer that information passes through.

1.7.3 Standard Ethernet Code

In order to understand standard Ethernet code, one must understand what each digit means.
Following is a guide:

Guide to Ethernet Coding

10 at the beginning means the network operates at 10Mbps.

BASE Means the type of signaling used is baseband.
2 or 5 At the end indicates the maximum cable length in meters.
T The end stands for twisted-pair cable.
X At the end stands for full duplex-capable cable.
FL At the end stands for fiber optic cable.
Table 1- 3: Guide to Ethernet Coding

For example: 100BASE-TX indicates a Fast Ethernet connection (100 Mbps) that uses a
twisted pair cable capable of full-duplex transmissions.

1.7.3.1 Media
An important part of designing and installing an Ethernet is selecting the appropriate Ethernet
medium. There are four major types of media in use today: Thick wire for 10BASE5 networks; thin
coax for 10BASE2 networks; unshielded twisted pair (UTP) for 10BASE-T networks; and fiber optic
for 10BASE-FL or Fiber-Optic Inter-Repeater Link (FOIRL) networks. This wide variety of media
reflects the evolution of Ethernet and also points to the technology’s flexibility. Thick wire was one
of the first cabling systems used in Ethernet, but it was expensive and difficult to use. This evolved
to thin coax, which is easier to work with and less expensive. It is important to note that each type
of Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, has its own preferred media
types.

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The most popular wiring schemes are 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, which use unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) cable. This is similar to telephone cable and comes in a variety of grades, with each
higher grade offering better performance. Level 5 cable is the highest, most expensive grade,
offering support for transmission rates of up to 100 Mbps. Level 4 and level 3 cable are less
expensive, but cannot support the same data throughput speeds; level 4 cable can support speeds
of up to 20 Mbps; level 3 up to 16 Mbps. The 100BASE-T4 standard allows for support of 100 Mbps
Ethernet over level 3 cables, but at the expense of adding another pair of wires (4 pair instead of
the 2 pair used for 10BASE-T). For most users, this is an awkward scheme and therefore 100BASE-
T4 has seen little popularity. Level 2 and level 1 cables are not used in the design of 10BASE-T
networks.

For specialized applications, fiber-optic, or 10BASE-FL, Ethernet segments are popular. Fiber-optic
cable is more expensive, but it is invaluable in situations where electronic emissions and
environmental hazards are a concern. Fiber-optic cable is often used in inter-building applications
to insulate networking equipment from electrical damage caused by lightning. Because it does not
conduct electricity, fiber-optic cable can also be useful in areas where heavy electromagnetic
interference is present, such as on a factory floor. The Ethernet standard allows for fiber-optic
cable segments up to two kilometers long, making fiber-optic Ethernet perfect for connecting
nodes and buildings that are otherwise not reachable with copper media.

1.7.3.2 Cable Grade Capabilities

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Cable Name Makeup Frequency Data Rate Network
Support Compatibility
Cat-5 4 twisted pairs of copper 100 MHz Up to 1000Mbps ATM, Token
wire — terminated by Ring,1000Base-T,
RJ45 connectors 100Base-TX,
10Base-T
Cat-5e 4 twisted pairs of copper 100 MHz Up to 1000Mbps 10Base-T, 100Base-
wire — terminated by TX, 1000Base-T
RJ45 connectors
Cat-6 4 twisted pairs of copper 250 MHz 1000Mbps 10Base-T, 100Base-
wire — terminated by TX, 1000Base-T
RJ45 connectors
Table 1- 4: Cable Grade Capabilities

1.8 Rounding Topologies

Network topology is the geometric arrangement of nodes and cable links in a LAN. Two general
configurations are used, bus and star. These two topologies define how nodes are connected to
one another in a communication network. A node is an active device connected to the network,
such as a computer or a printer. A node can also be a piece of networking equipment such as a
hub, switch or a router.

A bus topology consists of nodes linked together in a series with each node connected to a long
cable or bus. Many nodes can tap into the bus and begin communication with all other nodes on
that cable segment. A break anywhere in the cable will usually cause the entire segment to be
inoperable until the break is repaired. Examples of bus topology include 10BASE2 and 10BASE5.

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Table 1- 5: example of Topologies

1.8.1 General Topology Configurations

10BASE-T Ethernet and Fast Ethernet use a star topology where access is controlled by a central
computer. Generally a computer is located at one end of the segment, and the other end is
terminated in central location with a hub or a switch. Because UTP is often run in conjunction with
telephone cabling, this central location can be a telephone closet or other area where it is
convenient to connect the UTP segment to a backbone. The primary advantage of this type of
network is reliability, for if one of these ‘point-to-point’ segments has a break; it will only affect
the two nodes on that link. Other computer users on the network continue to operate as if that
segment were non-existent.

1.8.2 Collisions
Ethernet is a shared medium, so there are rules for sending packets of data to avoid conflicts and
to protect data integrity. Nodes determine when the network is available for sending packets. It is

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possible that two or more nodes at different locations will attempt to send data at the same time.
When this happens, a packet collision occurs.

Minimizing collisions is a crucial element in the design and operation of networks. Increased
collisions are often the result of too many users on the network. This leads to competition for
network bandwidth and can slow the performance of the network from the user’s point of view.
Segmenting the network is one way of reducing an overcrowded network, i.e., by dividing it into
different pieces logically joined together with a bridge or switch.

1.8.3 CSMA/CD
In order to manage collisions Ethernet uses a protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). CSMA/CD is a type of contention protocol that defines
how to respond when a collision is detected, or when two devices attempt to transmit packages
simultaneously. Ethernet allows each device to send messages at any time without having to wait
for network permission; thus, there is a high possibility that devices may try to send messages at
the same time.

After detecting a collision, each device that was transmitting a packet delays a random amount of
time before re-transmitting the packet. If another collision occurs, the device waits twice as long
before trying to re-transmit.

1.8.4 Ethernet Products

The standards and technology just discussed will help define the specific products that network
managers use to build Ethernet networks. The following presents the key products needed to
build an Ethernet LAN.

1.8.4.1 Transceivers
Transceivers are also referred to as Medium Access Units (MAUs). They are used to connect nodes
to the various Ethernet media. Most computers and network interface cards contain a built-in
10BASE-T or 10BASE2 transceiver which allows them to be connected directly to Ethernet without
the need for an external transceiver.

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Many Ethernet devices provide an attachment unit interface (AUI) connector to allow the user to
connect to any type of medium via an external transceiver. The AUI connector consists of a 15-pin
D-shell type connector, female on the computer side, male on the transceiver side.

For Fast Ethernet networks, a new interface called the MII (Media Independent Interface) was
developed to offer a flexible way to support 100 Mbps connections. The MII is a popular way to
connect 100BASE-FX links to copper-based Fast Ethernet devices.

1.8.3.2 Network Interface Cards

Network Interface Cards, commonly referred to as NICs, are used to connect a PC to a network.
The NIC provides a physical connection between the networking cable and the computer’s internal
bus. Different computers have different bus architectures. PCI bus slots are most commonly found
on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots are commonly found on 386 and older PCs. NICs
come in three basic varieties: 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the number of bits that can be
transferred to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to the network cable. Most NICs are
designed for a particular type of network, protocol, and medium, though some can serve multiple
networks.

Many NIC adapters comply with plug-and-play specifications. On these systems, NICs are
automatically configured without user intervention, while on non-plug-and-play systems,
configuration is done manually through a set-up program and/or DIP switches.

Cards are available to support almost all networking standards. Fast Ethernet NICs are often
10/100 capable, and will automatically set to the appropriate speed. Gigabit Ethernet NICs are
10/100/1000 capable with auto negotiation depending on the user’s Ethernet speed. Full duplex
networking is another option where a dedicated connection to a switch allows a NIC to operate at
twice the speed.

1.8.3.3 Hubs/Repeaters
Hubs/repeaters are used to connect together two or more Ethernet segments of any type of
medium. In larger designs, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum
length. Hubs provide the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a greater
distance. A hub repeats any incoming signal to all ports.

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Ethernet hubs are necessary in star topologies such as 10BASE-T. A multi-port twisted pair hub
allows several point-to-point segments to be joined into one network. One end of the point-to-
point link is attached to the hub and the other is attached to the computer. If the hub is attached
to a backbone, then all computers at the end of the twisted pair segments can communicate with
all the hosts on the backbone. The number and type of hubs in any one-collision domain is limited
by the Ethernet rules. These repeater rules are discussed in more detail later.

A very important fact to note about hubs is that they only allow users to share Ethernet. A
network of hubs/repeaters is termed a “shared Ethernet,” meaning that all members of the
network are contending for transmission of data onto a single network (collision domain). A
hub/repeater propagates all electrical signals including the invalid ones. Therefore, if a collision or
electrical interference occurs on one segment, repeaters make it appear on all others as well. This
means that individual members of a shared network will only get a percentage of the available
network bandwidth.

Basically, the number and type of hubs in any one collision domain for 10Mbps Ethernet is limited
by the following rules:

Network Type Max Nodes Per Segment Max Distance Per Segment

10BASE-T 2 100m
10BASE-FL 2 2000m
Table 1- 6: Network, Node and Distance Segmentation

1.9 Ethernet: Adding Speed

The phrase “you can never get too much of a good thing” can certainly be applied to networking.
Once the benefits of networking are demonstrated, there is a thirst for even faster, more reliable
connections to support a growing number of users and highly-complex applications.

How to obtain that added bandwidth can be an issue. While repeaters allow LANs to extend
beyond normal distance limitations, they still limit the number of nodes that can be supported.
Bridges and switches on the other hand allow LANs to grow significantly larger by virtue of their
ability to support full Ethernet segments on each port. Additionally, bridges and switches

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selectively filter network traffic to only those packets needed on each segment, significantly
increasing throughput on each segment and on the overall network.

Network managers continue to look for better performance and more flexibility for network
topologies, bridges and switches. To provide a better understanding of these and related
technologies, this tutorial will cover:

Bridges

Ethernet Switches

Routers

Network Design Criteria

When and Why Ethernets Become Too Slow

Increasing Performance with Fast and Gigabit Ethernet

1.9.1 Bridges
Bridges connect two LAN segments of similar or dissimilar types, such as Ethernet and Token Ring.
This allows two Ethernet segments to behave like a single Ethernet allowing any pair of computers
on the extended Ethernet to communicate. Bridges are transparent therefore computers don’t
know whether a bridge separates them.

Bridges map the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment and allow
only necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. When a packet is received by the bridge, the
bridge determines the destination and source segments. If the segments are the same, the packet
is dropped or also referred to as “filtered”; if the segments are different, then the packet is
“forwarded” to the correct segment. Additionally, bridges do not forward bad or misaligned
packets.

Bridges are also called “store-and-forward” devices because they look at the whole Ethernet
packet before making filtering or forwarding decisions. Filtering packets and regenerating
forwarded packets enables bridging technology to split a network into separate collision domains.
Bridges are able to isolate network problems; if interference occurs on one of two segments, the

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bridge will receive and discard an invalid frame keeping the problem from affecting the other
segment. This allows for greater distances and more repeaters to be used in the total network
design.

Dealing with Loops

Most bridges are self-learning task bridges; they determine the user Ethernet addresses on the
segment by building a table as packets that are passed through the network. However, this self-
learning capability dramatically raises the potential of network loops in networks that have many
bridges. A loop presents conflicting information on which segment a specific address is located
and forces the device to forward all traffic. The Distributed Spanning Tree (DST) algorithm is a
software standard (found in the IEEE 802.1d specification) that describes how switches and
bridges can communicate to avoid network loops.

1.9.2 Ethernet Switches

Ethernet switches are an expansion of the Ethernet bridging concept. The advantage of using a
switched Ethernet is parallelism. Up to one-half of the computers connected to a switch can send
data at the same time.

LAN switches link multiple networks together and have two basic architectures: cut-through and
store-and-forward. In the past, cut-through switches were faster because they examined the
packet destination address only before forwarding it on to its destination segment. A store-and-
forward switch works like a bridge in that it accepts and analyzes the entire packet before
forwarding it to its destination.

Historically, store-and-forward took more time to examine the entire packet, although one benefit
was that it allowed the switch to catch certain packet errors and keep them from propagating
through the network. Today, the speed of store-and-forward switches has caught up with cut-
through switches so the difference between the two is minimal. Also, there are a large number of
hybrid switches available that mix both cut-through and store-and-forward architectures.

Both cut-through and store-and-forward switches separate a network into collision domains,
allowing network design rules to be extended. Each of the segments attached to an Ethernet

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switch has a full 10 Mbps of bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in better
performance (as opposed to hubs that only allow bandwidth sharing from a single Ethernet).
Newer switches today offer high-speed links, either Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit
Ethernet or ATM. These are used to link switches together or give added bandwidth to high-traffic
servers. A network composed of a number of switches linked together via uplinks is termed a
“collapsed backbone” network.

Figure 1- 5: Dedicated Ethernet and Switches

1.9.3 Routers
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks, and determines which way to send
each data packet based on its current understanding of the state of its connected networks.
Routers are typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN
and its Internet Service Providers (ISPs) network. Routers are located at gateways, the places
where two or more networks connect.

Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address. Routers also
divide networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can divide a network into various
subnets so that only traffic destined for particular IP addresses can pass between segments.
Network speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent forwarding. Such filtering takes
more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which only looks at the Ethernet address.
However, in more complex networks, overall efficiency is improved by using routers.

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1.10 Network Design Criteria
Ethernets and Fast Ethernets have design rules that must be followed in order to function
correctly. The maximum number of nodes, number of repeaters and maximum segment distances
are defined by the electrical and mechanical design properties of each type of Ethernet media.

A network using repeaters, for instance, functions with the timing constraints of Ethernet.
Although electrical signals on the Ethernet media travel near the speed of light, it still takes a finite
amount of time for the signal to travel from one end of a large Ethernet to another. The Ethernet
standard assumes it will take roughly 50 microseconds for a signal to reach its destination.

Ethernet is subject to the “5-4-3” rule of repeater placement: the network can only have five
segments connected; it can only use four repeaters; and of the five segments, only three can have
users attached to them; the other two must be inter-repeater links.

If the design of the network violates these repeater and placement rules, then timing guidelines
will not be met and the sending station will resend that packet. This can lead to lost packets and
excessive resent packets, which can slow network performance and create trouble for
applications. New Ethernet standards (Fast Ethernet, GigE, and 10 GigE) have modified repeater
rules, since the minimum packet size takes less time to transmit than regular Ethernet. The length
of the network links allows for a fewer number of repeaters. In Fast Ethernet networks, there are
two classes of repeaters. Class I repeaters have a latency of 0.7 microseconds or less and are
limited to one repeater per network. Class II repeaters have a latency of 0.46 microseconds or less
and are limited to two repeaters per network. The following are the distance (diameter)
characteristics for these types of Fast Ethernet repeater combinations:

Fast Ethernet Copper Fiber

No Repeaters 100m 412m*
One Class I Repeater 200m 272m
One Class II Repeater 200m 272m
Two Class II Repeaters 205m 228m
Figure 1- 6: characteristics of Fast Ethernet repeater Combination

* Full Duplex Mode 2 km

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When conditions require greater distances or an increase in the number of nodes/repeaters, then
a bridge, router or switch can be used to connect multiple networks together. These devices join
two or more separate networks, allowing network design criteria to be restored. Switches allow
network designers to build large networks that function well. The reduction in costs of bridges and
switches reduces the impact of repeater rules on network design.

Each network connected via one of these devices is referred to as a separate collision domain in
the overall network.

1.10.1 When and Why Ethernets Become Too Slow

As more users are added to a shared network or as applications requiring more data are added,
performance deteriorates. This is because all users on a shared network are competitors for the
Ethernet bus. On a moderately loaded 10Mbps Ethernet network that is shared by 30-50 users,
that network will only sustain throughput in the neighborhood of 2.5Mbps after accounting for
packet overhead, interpacket gaps and collisions.

Increasing the number of users (and therefore packet transmissions) creates a higher collision
potential. Collisions occur when two or more nodes attempt to send information at the same
time. When they realize that a collision has occurred, each node shuts off for a random time
before attempting another transmission. With shared Ethernet, the likelihood of collision
increases as more nodes are added to the shared collision domain of the shared Ethernet. One of
the steps to alleviate this problem is to segment traffic with a bridge or switch. A switch can
replace a hub and improve network performance. For example, an eight-port switch can support
eight Ethernets, each running at a full 10 Mbps. Another option is to dedicate one or more of
these switched ports to a high traffic device such as a file server.

Greater throughput is required to support multimedia and video applications. When added to the
network, Ethernet switches provide a number of enhancements over shared networks that can
support these applications. Foremost is the ability to divide networks into smaller and faster
segments. Ethernet switches examine each packet, determine where that packet is destined and
then forward that packet to only those ports to which the packet needs to go. Modern switches
are able to do all these tasks at “wire speed,” that is, without delay.

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Aside from deciding when to forward or when to filter the packet, Ethernet switches also
completely regenerate the Ethernet packet. This regeneration and re-timing allows each port on a
switch to be treated as a complete Ethernet segment, capable of supporting the full length of
cable along with all of the repeater restrictions. The standard Ethernet slot time required in
CSMA/CD half-duplex modes is not long enough for running over 100m copper, so Carrier
Extension is used to guarantee a 512-bit slot time.

Additionally, bad packets are identified by Ethernet switches and immediately dropped from any
future transmission. This “cleansing” activity keeps problems isolated to a single segment and
keeps them from disrupting other network activity. This aspect of switching is extremely
important in a network environment where hardware failures are to be anticipated. Full duplex
doubles the bandwidth on a link, and is another method used to increase bandwidth to dedicated
workstations or servers. Full duplex modes are available for standard Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and
Gigabit Ethernet. To use full duplex, special network interface cards are installed in the server or
workstation, and the switch is programmed to support full duplex operation.

1.10.2 Increasing Performance with Fast and Gigabit Ethernet

Implementing Fast or Gigabit Ethernet to increase performance is the next logical step when
Ethernet becomes too slow to meet user needs. Higher traffic devices can be connected to
switches or each other via Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet, providing a great increase in
bandwidth. Many switches are designed with this in mind, and have Fast Ethernet uplinks
available for connection to a file server or other switches. Eventually, Fast Ethernet can be
deployed to user desktops by equipping all computers with Fast Ethernet network interface cards
and using Fast Ethernet switches and repeaters.

With an understanding of the underlying technologies and products in use in Ethernet networks,
the next tutorial will advance to a discussion of some of the most popular real-world applications.

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1.11 Ethernet: Sharing Devices

1.11.1 Device Server Technology

Device networking starts with a device server, which allows almost any device with serial
connectivity to connect to Ethernet networks quickly and cost-effectively. These products include
all of the elements needed for device networking and because of their scalability; they do not
require a server or gateway.

This tutorial provides an introduction to the functionality of a variety of device servers. It will
cover print servers, terminal servers and console servers, as well as embedded and external device
servers.

1.11.2 An Introduction to Device Servers

A device server is characterized by a minimal operating architecture that requires no per seat
network operating system license, and client access that is independent of any operating system
or proprietary protocol. In addition the device server is a “closed box,” delivering extreme ease of
installation, minimal maintenance, and can be managed by the client remotely via a web browser.

By virtue of its independent operating system, protocol independence, small size and flexibility,
device servers are able to meet the demands of virtually any network-enabling application. The
demand for device servers is rapidly increasing because organizations need to leverage their
networking infrastructure investment across all of their resources. Many currently installed
devices lack network ports or require dedicated serial connections for management — device
servers allow those devices to become connected to the network.

Device servers are currently used in a wide variety of environments in which machinery,
instruments, sensors and other discrete devices generate data that was previously inaccessible
through enterprise networks. They are also used for security systems, point-of-sale applications,
network management and many other applications where network access to a device is required.
As device servers become more widely adopted and implemented into specialized applications,
we can expect to see variations in size, mounting capabilities and enclosures. Device servers are

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also available as embedded devices, capable of providing instant networking support for
developers of future products where connectivity will be required.

Print servers, terminal servers, remote access servers and network time servers are examples of
device servers which are specialized for particular functions. Each of these types of servers has
unique configuration attributes in hardware or software that help them to perform best in their
particular arena.

1.11.3 External Device Servers

External device servers are stand-alone serial-to-wireless (802.11b) or serial-to-Ethernet device
servers that can put just about any device with serial connectivity on the network in a matter of
minutes so it can be managed remotely.

1.11.4 External Device Servers

External device servers provide the ability to remotely control, monitor, diagnose and
troubleshoot equipment over a network or the Internet. By opting for a powerful external device
with full network and web capabilities, companies are able to preserve their present equipment
investments. Ethernet or wireless, advanced encryption for maximum security, and device servers
designed for commercial or heavy-duty industrial applications.

1.11.5 Wireless:
Providing a whole new level of flexibility and mobility, these devices allow users to connect devices
that are inaccessible via cabling. Users can also add intelligence to their businesses by putting
mobile devices, such as medical instruments or warehouse equipment, on networks.

1.11.6 Security:
Ideal for protecting data such as business transactions, customer information, financial records,
etc., these devices provide enhanced security for networked devices.

Commercial:

These devices enable users to network-enable their existing equipment (such as POS devices, AV
equipment, medical instruments, etc.) simply and cost-effectively, without the need for special
software.

Industrial:
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For heavy-duty factory applications, Lantronix offers a full complement of industrial-strength
external device servers designed for use with manufacturing, assembly and factory automation
equipment. All models support Modbus industrial protocols.

1.12 Embedded Device Servers

Embedded device servers integrate all the required hardware and software into a single
embedded device. They use a device’s serial port to web-enable or network-enable products
quickly and easily without the complexities of extensive hardware and software integration.
Embedded device servers are typically plug-and-play solutions that operate independently of a PC
and usually include a wireless or Ethernet connection, operating system, an embedded web
server, a full TCP/IP protocol stack, and some sort of encryption for secure communications.

1.12.1 Embedded Device Servers

Lantronix recognizes that design engineers are looking for a simple, cost-effective and reliable way
to seamlessly embed network connectivity into their products. In a fraction of the time it would
take to develop a custom solution, Lantronix embedded device servers provide a variety of
proven, fully integrated products. OEMs can add full Ethernet and/or wireless connectivity to
their products so they can be managed over a network or the Internet.

Module:

These devices allow user’s tonetwork-enable just about any electronic device with Ethernet and/or
wireless connectivity.

Board-Level:

Users can integrate networking capabilities onto the circuit boards of equipment like factory
machinery, security systems and medical devices.

Single-Chip Solutions:

These powerful, system-on-chip solutions help users address networking issues early in the design
cycle to support the most popular embedded networking technologies.

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1.12.2 Terminal Servers
Terminal servers are used to enable terminals to transmit data to and from host computers across
LANs, without requiring each terminal to have its own direct connection. And while the terminal
server’s existence is still justified by convenience and cost considerations, its inherent intelligence
provides many more advantages. Among these is enhanced remote monitoring and
control. Terminal servers that support protocols like SNMP make networks easier to manage.
Devices that are attached to a network through a server can be shared between terminals and
hosts at both the local site and throughout the network. A single terminal may be connected to
several hosts at the same time (in multiple concurrent sessions), and can switch between them.
Terminal servers are also used to network devices that have only serial outputs. A connection
between serial ports on different servers is opened, allowing data to move between the two
devices.

Given its natural translation ability, a multi-protocol server can perform conversions between the
protocols it knows such as LAT and TCP/IP. While server bandwidth is not adequate for large file
transfers, it can easily handle host-to-host inquiry/response applications, electronic mailbox
checking, etc. In addition, it is far more economical than the alternatives — acquiring expensive
host software and special-purpose converters. Multiport device and print servers give users
greater flexibility in configuring and managing their networks.

Whether it is moving printers and other peripherals from one network to another, expanding the
dimensions of interoperability or preparing for growth, terminal servers can fulfill these
requirements without major rewiring. Today, terminal servers offer a full range of functionality,
ranging from 8 to 32 ports, giving users the power to connect terminals, modems, servers and
virtually any serial device for remote access over IP networks.

1.12.3 Print Servers

Print servers enable printers to be shared by other users on the network. Supporting either
parallel and/or serial interfaces, a print server accepts print jobs from any person on the network
using supported protocols and manages those jobs on each appropriate printer.

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The earliest print servers were external devices, which supported printing via parallel or serial
ports on the device. Typically, only one or two protocols were supported. The latest generations of
print servers support multiple protocols, have multiple parallel and serial connection options and,
in some cases, are small enough to fit directly on the parallel port of the printer itself. Some
printers have embedded or internal print servers. This design has an integral communication
benefit between printer and print server, but lacks flexibility if the printer has physical problems.

Print servers generally do not contain a large amount of memory; printers simply store
information in a queue. When the desired printer becomes available, they allow the host to
transmit the data to the appropriate printer port on the server. The print server can then simply
queue and print each job in the order in which print requests are received, regardless of protocol
used or the size of the job.

Figure 1- 7: Terminal/Printer Server

Device Server Technology in the Data Center

The IT/data center is considered the pulse of any modern business. Remote management enables
users to monitor and manage global networks, systems and IT equipment from anywhere and at
any time. Device servers play a major role in allowing for the remote capabilities and flexibility
required for businesses to maximize personnel resources and technology ROI.

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1.12.4 Console Servers
Console servers provide the flexibility of both standard and emergency remote access via
attachment to the network or to a modem. Remote console management serves as a valuable tool
to help maximize system uptime and system operating costs.

Secure console servers provide familiar tools to leverage the console or emergency management
port built into most serial devices, including servers, switches, routers, telecom equipment –
anything in a rack – even if the network is down. They also supply complete in-band and out-of-
band local and remote management for the data center with tools such as telnet and SSH that
help manage the performance and availability of critical business information systems.

Console Management Solutions

Some vendors provide complete in-band and out-of-band local and remote management solutions
for the data center. Lantronix secure console management products give IT managers unsurpassed
ability to securely and remotely manage serial devices, including servers, switches, routers,
telecom equipment – anything in a rack – even if the network is down.

Conclusion
The ability to manage virtually any electronic device over a network or the Internet is changing the
way the world works and does business. With the ability to remotely manage, monitor, diagnose
and control equipment, a new level of functionality is added to networking — providing business
with increased intelligence and efficiency. For example Lantronix leads the way in developing new
network intelligence and has been a tireless pioneer in machine-to-machine (M2M)
communication technology.

We hope this introduction to networking has been helpful and informative. This tutorial was
meant to be an overview and not a comprehensive guide that explains everything there is to know
about planning, installing, administering and troubleshooting a network. There are many Internet
websites, books and magazines available that explain all aspects of computer networks, from LANs
to WANs, network hardware to running cable. To learn about these subjects in greater detail,
check your local bookstore, software retailer or newsstand for more information.

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1.13 Device Servers
Device Server Technology - Understanding and Imagining its Possibilities

The ability to manage virtually any electronic device over a network or the Internet is changing our
world. Companies want to remotely manage, monitor, diagnose and control their equipment
because doing so adds an unprecedented level of intelligence and efficiency to their businesses.

With this trend, and as we rely on applications like e-mail and database management for core
business operations, the need for more fully-integrated devices and systems to monitor and
manage the vast amount of data and information becomes increasingly more important. And, in a
world where data and information is expected to be instantaneous, the ability to manage, monitor
and even repair equipment from a distance is extremely valuable to organizations in every sector.

This need is further emphasized as companies with legacy non-networked equipment struggle to
compete with organizations equipped with advanced networking capabilities such as machine-to-
machine (M2M) communications. There’s no denying that advanced networking provides an edge
to improving overall efficiencies.

This tutorial will provide an overview and give examples of how device servers make it easy to put
just about any piece of electronic equipment on an Ethernet network. It will highlight the use of
external device servers and their ability to provide serial connectivity for a variety of applications.
It will touch on how device networking makes M2M communication possible and wireless
technology even more advanced. Finally, as any examination of networking technologies requires
consideration of data security, this paper will provide an overview of some the latest encryption
technologies available for connecting devices securely to the network.

Moving from Serial to Ethernet An Introduction to Device Server Technology

For some devices, the only access available to a network manager or programmer is via a serial
port. The reason for this is partly historical and partly evolutionary. Historically, Ethernet
interfacing has usually been a lengthy development process involving multiple vendor protocols
(some of which have been proprietary) and the interpretation of many RFCs. Some vendors
believed Ethernet was not necessary for their product which was destined for a centralized

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computer center – others believed that the development time and expense required to have an
Ethernet interface on the product was not justified.

From the evolutionary standpoint, the networking infrastructure of many sites has only recently
been developed to the point that consistent and perceived stability has been obtained – as users
and management have become comfortable with the performance of the network, they now
focus on how they can maximize corporate productivity in non-IS capacities.

Device server technology solves this problem by providing an easy and economical way to connect
the serial device to the network.

Figure 1- 8: Prices of Devices Example

Example Prices of Devices

Let’s use the Lantronix UDS100 Device Server as an example of how to network a RAID controller
serial port. The user simply cables the UDS100‘s serial port to the RAID controller’s serial port and
attaches the UDS100’s Ethernet interface to the network. Once it has been configured, the
UDS100 makes that serial ports a networked port, with its own IP address. The user can now
connect to the UDS100‘s serial port over a network, from a PC or terminal emulation device and
perform the same commands as if he was using a PC directly attached to the RAID controller.
Having now become network enabled, the RAID can be managed or controlled from anywhere on
the network or via the Internet.

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The key to network-enabling serial equipment is in a device server’s ability to handle two separate
areas:

1. the connection between the serial device and the device server

2. the connection between the device server and the network (including other network
devices)

Traditional terminal, print and serial servers were developed specifically for connecting terminals,
printers and modems to the network and making those devices available as networked devices.
Now, more modern demands require other devices be network-enabled, and therefore device
servers have become more adaptable in their handling of attached devices. Additionally, they have
become even more powerful and flexible in the manner in which they provide network
connectivity.

1.13.1 Device Servers Defined

A device server is “a specialized network-based hardware device designed to perform a single or
specialized set of functions with client access independent of any operating system or proprietary
protocol.” Device servers allow independence from proprietary protocols and the ability to meet a
number of different functions. The RAID controller application discussed above is just one of many
applications where device servers can be used to put any device or “machine” on the network.

PCs have been used to network serial devices with some success. This, however, required the
product with the serial port to have software able to run on the PC, and then have that application
software allow the PC’s networking software to access the application. This task equaled the
problems of putting Ethernet on the serial device itself so it wasn’t a satisfactory solution.

To be successful, a device server must provide a simple solution for networking a device and allow
access to that device as if it were locally available through its serial port. Additionally, the device
server should provide for the multitude of connection possibilities that a device may require on
both the serial and network sides of a connection. Should the device be connected all the time to
a specific host or PC? Are there multiple hosts or network devices that may want or need to
connect to the newly-networked serial device? Are there specific requirements for an application

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which requires the serial device to reject a connection from the network under certain
circumstances? The bottom line is a server must have both the flexibility to service a multitude of
application requirements and be able to meet all the demands of those applications.

Capitalizing on Lantronix Device Server Expertise and Proven Solutions

Lantronix is at the forefront of M2M communication technology. The company is highly focused
on enabling the networking of devices previously not on the network so they can be accessed and
managed remotely.

Lantronix has built on its long history and vast experience as a terminal, print and serial server
Technology Company to develop more functionality in its servers that “cross the boundary” of
what many would call traditional terminal or print services. Our technology provides:

The ability to translate between different protocols to allow non-routable protocols to be

routed

The ability to allow management connections to single-port servers while they are
processing transactions between their serial port and the network

A wide variety of options for both serial and network connections including serial tunneling
and automatic host connection make these servers some of the most sophisticated
Ethernet-enabling devices available today.

Ease of Use

As an independent device on the network, device servers are surprisingly easy to manage.
Lantronix has spent years perfecting Ethernet protocol software and its engineers have provided a
wide range of management tools for this device server technology. Serial ports are ideal vehicles
for device management purposes – a simple command set allows easy configuration. The same
command set that can be exercised on the serial port can be used when connecting via Telnet to a
Lantronix device server.

An important feature to remember about the Lantronix Telnet management interface is that it can
actually be run as a second connection while data is being transferred through the server – this

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feature allows the user to actually monitor the data traffic on even a single-port server’s serial
port connection while active. Lantronix device servers also support SNMP, the recognized
standard for IP management that is used by many large networks for management purposes.

Finally, Lantronix has its own management software utilities which utilize a graphical user
interface providing an easy way to manage Lantronix device servers. In addition, the servers all
have Flash ROMs which can be reloaded in the field with the latest firmware.

Device Servers for a Host of Applications

This section will discuss how device servers are used to better facilitate varying applications such
as:

Data Acquisition
M2M
Wireless Communication/Networking
Factory/Industrial Automation
Security Systems
Bar Code Readers and Point-of-sale Scanners
Medical Applications
Data Acquisition

Microprocessors have made their way into almost all aspects of human life, from automobiles to
hockey pucks. With so much data available, organizations are challenged to effectively and
efficiently gather and process the information. There are a wide variety of interfaces to support
communication with devices. RS-485 is designed to allow for multiple devices to be linked by a
multidrop network of RS-485 serial devices. This standard also had the benefit of greater distance
than offered by the RS-232/RS-423 and RS-422 standards.

However, because of the factors previously outlined, these types of devices can further benefit
from being put on an Ethernet network. First, Ethernet networks have a greater range than serial
technologies. Second, Ethernet protocols actually monitor packet traffic and will indicate when
packets are being lost compared to serial technologies which do not guarantee data integrity.

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Lantronix full family of device server products provides the comprehensive support required for
network enabling different serial interfaces.

1.13.2 M2M and Wireless Communications

Two extremely important and useful technologies for communication that depend heavily on
device servers are M2M and wireless networking.

Made possible by device networking technology, M2M enables serial-based devices throughout a
facility to communicate with each other and humans over a Local Area Network/Wide Area
Network (LAN/WAN) or via the Internet. The prominent advantages to business include:

Figure 1- 9: Serial Tunneling Configuration

Maximized efficiency
More streamlined operations
Improved service
Lantronix Device Servers enable M2M communications either between the computer and serial
device, or from one serial device to another over the Internet or Ethernet network using “serial
tunneling.” Using this serial to Ethernet method, the “tunnel” can extend across a facility or to
other facilities all over the globe.

M2M technology opens a new world of business intelligence and opportunity for organizations in
virtually every market sector. Made possible through device servers, M2M offers solutions for
equipment manufacturers, for example, who need to control service costs. Network enabled
equipment can be monitored at all times for predictive maintenance. Often when something is

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wrong, a simple setting or switch adjustment is all that is required. When an irregularity is noted,
the system can essentially diagnose the problem and send the corrective instructions. This negates
a time-consuming and potentially expensive service call for a trivial issue. If servicing is required,
the technician leaves knowing exactly what is wrong and with the proper equipment and parts to
correct the problem. Profitability is maximized through better operating efficiencies, minimized
cost overruns and fewer wasted resources.

Figure 1- 10: Traditional Services Model

Figure 1- 11Service Model: Remote Management with device networking

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M2M technology also greatly benefits any organization that cannot afford downtime, such as
energy management facilities where power failures can be catastrophic, or hospitals who can’t
afford interruptions with lives at stake. By proactively monitoring networked-enabled equipment
to ensure it is functioning properly at all times, business can ensure uptime on critical systems,
improve customer service and increase profitability.

Wireless technology is especially ideal in instances when it would be impractical or cost-

prohibitive for cabling; or in instances where a high level of mobility is required.

Figure 1- 12: wireless Ethernet connection

Wireless device networking has benefits for all types of organizations. For example, in the medical
field, where reduced staffing, facility closures and cost containment pressures are just a few of the
daily concerns, device networking can assist with process automation and data security. Routine
activities such as collection and dissemination of data, remote patient monitoring, asset tracking
and reducing service costs can be managed quickly and safely with the use of wireless networked
devices. In this environment, Lantronix device servers can network and manage patient
monitoring devices, mobile EKG units, glucose analyzers, blood analyzers, infusion pumps,
ventilators and virtually any other diagnostic tool with serial capability over the Internet.

Forklift accidents in large warehouses cause millions of dollars in damaged product, health claims,
lost work and equipment repairs each year. To minimize the lost revenue and increase their profit

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margin and administrative overhead, “a company” has utilized wireless networking technology to
solve the problem. Using Lantronix serial-to-802.11 wireless device server “the company”
wirelessly network-enables a card reader which is tied to the ignition system of all the forklifts in
the warehouse. Each warehouse employee has an identification card. The forklift operator swipes
his ID card before trying to start the forklift. The information from his card is sent back via wireless
network to computer database and it checks to see if he has proper operator’s license, and that
the license is current. If so, forklift can start. If not – the starter is disabled.

1.13.3 Factory Floor Automation

For shops that are running automated assembly and manufacturing equipment, time is money.
For every minute a machine is idle, productivity drops and the cost of ownership soars. Many
automated factory floor machines have dedicated PCs to control them. In some cases, handheld
PCs are used to reprogram equipment for different functions such as changing computer
numerically controlled (CNC) programs or changing specifications on a bottling or packaging
machine to comply with the needs of other products. These previously isolated pieces of industrial
equipment could be networked to allow them to be controlled and reprogrammed over the
network, saving time and increasing shop efficiency. For example, from a central location (or
actually from anywhere in the world for that matter) with network connectivity, the machines can
be accessed and monitored over the network. When necessary, new programs can be downloaded
to the machine and software/firmware updates can be installed remotely.

One item of interest is how that input programming is formatted. Since many industrial and
factory automation devices are legacy or proprietary, any number of different data protocols
could be used. Device servers provide the ability to utilize the serial ports on the equipment for
virtually any kind of data transaction.

Lantronix device servers support binary character transmissions. In these situations, managing the
rate of information transfer is imperative to guard against data overflow. The ability to manage
data flow between computers, devices or nodes in a network, so that data can be handled
efficiently is referred to as flow control. Without it, the risk of data overflow can result in
information being lost or needing to be retransmitted.

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13.4 Security Systems
One area that every organization is concerned about is security. Card readers for access control
are commonplace, and these devices are ideally suited to benefit from being connected to the
network with device server technology. When networked, the cards can be checked against a
centralized database on the system and there are records of all access within the organization.
Newer technology includes badges that can be scanned from a distance of up to several feet and
biometric scanning devices that can identify an individual by a thumbprint or handprint. Device
servers enable these types of devices to be placed throughout an organization’s network and
allow them to be effectively managed by a minimum staff at a central location. They allow the
computer controlling the access control to be located a great distance away from the actual door
control mechanism.

An excellent example is how ISONAS Security Systems utilized Lantronix WI Port® embedded
device server to produce the World’s first wireless IP door reader for the access control and
security industry. With ISONAS reader software, network administrators can directly monitor and
control an almost unlimited number of door readers across the enterprise. The new readers,
incorporating Lantronix wireless technology, connect directly to an IP network and eliminate the
need for traditional security control panels and expensive wiring. The new solutions are easy to
install and configure, enabling businesses to more easily adopt access control, time and
attendance or emergency response technology. What was traditionally a complicated
configuration and installation is now as simple as installing wireless access points on a network.

One more area of security systems that has made great strides is in the area of security cameras.
In some cases, local municipalities are now requesting that they get visual proof of a security
breach before they will send authorities. Device server technology provides the user with a host of
options for how such data can be handled. One option is to have an open data pipe on a security
camera – this allows all data to be viewed as it comes across from the camera. The device server
can be configured so that immediately upon power-up the serial port attached to the camera will
be connected to a dedicated host system.

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Another option is to have the camera transmit only when it has data to send. By configuring the
device server to automatically connect to a particular site when a character first hits the buffer,
data will be transmitted only when it is available.

One last option is available when using the IP protocol – a device server can be configured to
transmit data from one serial device to multiple IP addresses for various recording or archival
concerns. Lantronix device server technology gives the user many options for tuning the device to
meet the specific needs of their application.

1.14. Scanning Devices

Device server technology can be effectively applied to scanning devices such as bar code readers
or point-of-sale debit card scanners. When a bar code reader is located in a remote corner of the
warehouse at a receiving dock, a single-port server can link the reader to the network and provide
up-to-the-minute inventory information. A debit card scanner system can be set up at any
educational, commercial or industrial site with automatic debiting per employee for activities,
meals and purchases. A popular amusement park in the United States utilizes such a system to
deter theft or reselling of partially-used admission tickets.

1.14.1 Medical Applications

The medical field is an area where device server technology can provide great flexibility and
convenience. Many medical organizations now run comprehensive applications developed
specifically for their particular area of expertise. For instance, a group specializing in orthopedics
may have x-ray and lab facilities onsite to save time and customer effort in obtaining test
results. Connecting all the input terminals, lab devices, x-ray machines and developing equipment
together allows for efficient and effective service. Many of these more technical devices
previously relied upon serial communication or worse yet, processing being done locally on a PC.
Utilizing device server technology they can all be linked together into one seamless application.
And an Internet connection enables physicians the added advantage of access to immediate
information relevant to patient diagnosis and treatment.

Larger medical labs, where there are hundreds of different devices available for providing test
data, can improve efficiency and lower equipment costs by using device server technology to

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replace dedicated PCs at each device. Device servers only cost a fraction of PCs. And, the cost
calculation is not just the hardware alone, but the man-hours required creating software that
would allow a PC-serial-port-based applications program to be converted into a program linking
that information to the PC’s network port. Device server technology resolves this issue by allowing
the original applications software to be run on a networked PC and then use port redirector
software to connect up to that device via the network. This enables the medical facility to
transition from a PC at each device and software development required to network that data, to
using only a couple of networked PCs doing the processing for all of the devices.

This is a quick snapshot of device servers at work in a variety of applications, it should be noted
that this is only a sampling of the many markets where these devices could be used. With the
ever-increasing requirement to manage, monitor, diagnose and control many and different forms
of equipment and as device server technology continues to evolve, the applications are literally
only limited by the imagination.

Terms

Serial server traditionally, a unit used for connecting a modem to the network for shared
access among users.

Terminal server traditionally, a unit that connects asynchronous devices such as terminals,
printers, hosts, and modems to a LAN or WAN.

Device server a specialized network-based hardware device designed to perform a single

or specialized set of functions with client access independent of any operating system or
proprietary protocol.

Print server a host device that connects and manages shared printers over a network.

Console server software that allows the user to connect consoles from various equipment
into the serial ports of a single device and gain access to these consoles from anywhere on
the network.

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 Console manager a unit or program that allows the user to remotely manage serial
devices, including servers, switches, routers and telecom equipment.

1.15 Network Switching

Switches can be a valuable asset to networking. Overall, they can increase the capacity and speed
of your network. However, switching should not be seen as a cure-all for network issues. Before
incorporating network switching, you must first ask yourself two important questions: First, how
can you tell if your network will benefit from switching? Second, how do you add switches to your
network design to provide the most benefit?

This tutorial is written to answer these questions. Along the way, we’ll describe how switches
work, and how they can both harm and benefit your networking strategy. We’ll also discuss
different network types, so you can profile your network and gauge the potential benefit of
network switching for your environment.

1.15.1 What is a Switch?

Switches occupy the same place in the network as hubs. Unlike hubs, switches examine each
packet and process it accordingly rather than simply repeating the signal to all ports. Switches map
the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment and then allow only the
necessary traffic to pass through the switch. When a packet is received by the switch, the switch
examines the destination and source hardware addresses and compares them to a table of
network segments and addresses. If the segments are the same, the packet is dropped or
“filtered”; if the segments are different, then the packet is “forwarded” to the proper segment.
Additionally, switches prevent bad or misaligned packets from spreading by not forwarding them.

Filtering packets and regenerating forwarded packets enables switching technology to split a
network into separate collision domains. The regeneration of packets allows for greater distances
and more nodes to be used in the total network design, and dramatically lowers the overall
collision rates. In switched networks, each segment is an independent collision domain. This also
allows for parallelism, meaning up to one-half of the computers connected to a switch can send
data at the same time. In shared networks all nodes reside in a single shared collision domain.

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Easy to install, most switches are self-learning. They determine the Ethernet addresses in use on
each segment, building a table as packets are passed through the switch. This “plug and play”
element makes switches an attractive alternative to hubs.

Switches can connect different network types (such as Ethernet and Fast Ethernet) or networks of
the same type. Many switches today offer high-speed links, like Fast Ethernet, which can be used
to link the switches together or to give added bandwidth to important servers that get a lot of
traffic. A network composed of a number of switches linked together via these fast uplinks is
called a “collapsed backbone” network.

Dedicating ports on switches to individual nodes is another way to speed access for critical
computers. Servers and power users can take advantage of a full segment for one node, so some
networks connect high traffic nodes to a dedicated switch port.

Full duplex is another method to increase bandwidth to dedicated workstations or servers. To use
full duplex, both network interface cards used in the server or workstation and the switch must
support full duplex operation. Full duplex doubles the potential bandwidth on that link.

1.15.2 Network Congestion

Figure 1- 13: Network Congestion

As more users are added to a shared network or as applications requiring more data are added,
performance deteriorates. This is because all users on a shared network are competitors for the
Ethernet bus. A moderately loaded 10 Mbps Ethernet network is able to sustain utilization of 35
percent and throughput in the neighborhood of 2.5 Mbps after accounting for packet overhead,
inter-packet gaps and collisions. A moderately loaded Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet shares 25
Mbps or 250 Mbps of real data in the same circumstances. With shared Ethernet and Fast

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Ethernet, the likelihood of collisions increases as more nodes and/or more traffic is added to the
shared collision domain.

Ethernet itself is a shared media, so there are rules for sending packets to avoid conflicts and
protect data integrity. Nodes on an Ethernet network send packets when they determine the
network is not in use. It is possible that two nodes at different locations could try to send data at
the same time. When both PCs are transferring a packet to the network at the same time, a
collision will result. Both packets are retransmitted, adding to the traffic problem. Minimizing
collisions is a crucial element in the design and operation of networks. Increased collisions are
often the result of too many users or too much traffic on the network, which results in a great deal
of contention for network bandwidth. This can slow the performance of the network from the
user’s point of view. Segmenting, where a network is divided into different pieces joined together
logically with switches or routers, reduces congestion in an overcrowded network by eliminating
the shared collision domain.

Collision rates measure the percentage of packets that are collisions. Some collisions are
inevitable, with less than 10 percent common in well-running networks.

The Factors Affecting Network Efficiency

 Amount of traffic

 Number of nodes

 Size of packets

 Network diameter

Figure 1- 14: Network Efficiency Measuring

Network Efficiency

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  Average to peak load deviation

 Collision Rate

 Utilization Rate

Utilization rate is another widely accessible statistic about the health of a network. This statistic is
available in Novell’s console monitor and WindowsNT performance monitor as well as any
optional LAN analysis software. Utilization in an average network above 35 percent indicates
potential problems. This 35 percent utilization is near optimum, but some networks experience
higher or lower utilization optimums due to factors such as packet size and peak load deviation.

A switch is said to work at “wire speed” if it has enough processing power to handle full Ethernet
speed at minimum packet sizes. Most switches on the market are well ahead of network traffic
capabilities supporting the full “wire speed” of Ethernet, 14,480 pps (packets per second), and
Fast Ethernet, 148,800 pps.

1.15.3 Routers

Routers work in a manner similar to switches and bridges in that they filter out network traffic.
Rather than doing so by packet addresses, they filter by specific protocol. Routers were born out
of the necessity for dividing networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can divide a
network into various subnets so that only traffic destined for particular IP addresses can pass
between segments. Routers recalculate the checksum, and rewrite the MAC header of every
packet. The price paid for this type of intelligent forwarding and filtering is usually calculated in
terms of latency, or the delay that a packet experiences inside the router. Such filtering takes
more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge which only looks at the Ethernet address. In
more complex networks network efficiency can be improved. An additional benefit of routers is
their automatic filtering of broadcasts, but overall they are complicated to setup.

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Switch Benefits

 Isolates traffic, relieving congestion

 Separates collision domains, reducing collisions

 Segments, restarting distance and repeater rules

Figure 1- 15: benefits of

Switch Costs

 Price: currently 3 to 5 times the price of a hub

 Packet processing time is longer than in a hub

 Monitoring the network is more complicated

1.15.3 General Benefits of Network Switching

Switches replace hubs in networking designs, and they are more expensive. So why is the desktop
switching market doubling every year with huge numbers sold? The price of switches is declining
precipitously, while hubs are a mature technology with small price declines. This means that there
is far less difference between switch costs and hub costs than there used to be, and the gap is
narrowing.

Since switches are self-learning, they are as easy to install as a hub. Just plug them in and go. And
they operate on the same hardware layer as a hub, so there are no protocol issues.

There are two reasons for switches being included in network designs. First, a switch breaks one
network into many small networks so the distance and repeater limitations are restarted. Second,
this same segmentation isolates traffic and reduces collisions relieving network congestion. It is
very easy to identify the need for distance and repeater extension, and to understand this benefit
of network switching. But the second benefit, relieving network congestion, is hard to identify and
harder to understand the degree by which switches will help performance. Since all switches add

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small latency delays to packet processing, deploying switches unnecessarily can actually slow
down network performance. So the next section pertains to the factors affecting the impact of
switching to congested networks.

1.15.4 Network Switching

The benefits of switching vary from network to network. Adding a switch for the first time has
different implications than increasing the number of switched ports already installed.
Understanding traffic patterns is very important to network switching – the goal being to
eliminate (or filter) as much traffic as possible. A switch installed in a location where it forwards
almost all the traffic it receives will help much less than one that filters most of the traffic.

Networks that are not congested can actually be negatively impacted by adding switches. Packet
processing delays, switch buffer limitations, and the retransmissions that can result sometimes
slows performance compared with the hub based alternative. If your network is not congested,
don’t replace hubs with switches. How can you tell if performance problems are the result of
network congestion? Measure utilization factors and collision rates.

Good Candidates for Performance Boosts from Switching

 Utilization more than 35%

 Collision rates more than 10%

Utilization load is the amount of total traffic as a percent of the theoretical maximum for the
network type, 10 Mbps in Ethernet, 100 Mbps in Fast Ethernet. The collision rate is the
number of packets with collisions as a percentage of total packages

Figure 1- 16: Boosting from Switching

Network response times (the user-visible part of network performance) suffers as the load on the
network increases, and under heavy loads small increases in user traffic often results in significant
decreases in performance. This is similar to automobile freeway dynamics, in that increasing loads
results in increasing throughput up to a point, then further increases in demand results in rapid

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deterioration of true throughput. In Ethernet, collisions increase as the network is loaded, and this
causes retransmissions and increases in load which cause even more collisions. The resulting
network overload slows traffic considerably.

Using network utilities found on most server operating systems network managers can determine
utilization and collision rates. Both peak and average statistics should be considered.

1.15.5 Replacing a Central Hub with a Switch

This switching opportunity is typified by a fully shared network, where many users are connected
in cascading hub architecture. The two main impacts of switching will be faster network
connection to the server(s) and the isolation of non-relevant traffic from each segment. As the
network bottleneck is eliminated performance grows until a new system bottleneck is
encountered – such as maximum server performance.

1.15.5 Adding Switches to a Backbone Switched Network

Congestion on a switched network can usually be relieved by adding more switched ports, and
increasing the speed of these ports. Segments experiencing congestion are identified by their
utilization and collision rates, and the solution is either further segmentation or faster
connections. Both Fast Ethernet and Ethernet switch ports are added further down the tree
structure of the network to increase performance.

1.15.6 Designing for Maximum Benefit

A change in network design tends to be evolutionary rather than revolutionary-rarely is a network
manager able to design a network completely from scratch. Usually, changes are made slowly with
an eye toward preserving as much of the usable capital investment as possible while replacing
obsolete or outdated technology with new equipment.

Fast Ethernet is very easy to add to most networks. A switch or bridge allows Fast Ethernet to
connect to existing Ethernet infrastructures to bring speed to critical links. The faster technology is
used to connect switches to each other, and to switched or shared servers to ensure the
avoidance of bottlenecks.

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Many client/server networks suffer from too many clients trying to access the same server which
creates a bottleneck where the server attaches to the LAN. Fast Ethernet, in combination with
switched Ethernet, creates the perfect cost-effective solution for avoiding slow client server
networks by allowing the server to be placed on a fast port.

Distributed processing also benefits from Fast Ethernet and switching. Segmentation of the
network via switches brings big performance boosts to distributed traffic networks, and the
switches are commonly connected via a Fast Ethernet backbone.

Good Candidates for Performance Boosts from Switching

 Important to know network demand per node

 Try to group users with the nodes they communicate with most often on the same
segment

 Look for departmental traffic patterns

 Avoid switch bottlenecks with fast uplinks

 Move users switch between segments in an iterative process until all nodes seeing less
than 35% utilization

Table 1- 7: Performance Switch Boost

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Figure 1- 17: Client/Server Traffic

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Figure 1- 18: Distributed traffic

Advanced Switching Technology Issues

There are some technology issues with switching that do not affect 95% of all networks. Major
switch vendors and the trade publications are promoting new competitive technologies, so some
of these concepts are discussed here.

1.15.7 Managed or Unmanaged

Management provides benefits in many networks. Large networks with mission critical
applications are managed with many sophisticated tools, using SNMP to monitor the health of
devices on the network. Networks using SNMP or RMON (an extension to SNMP that provides
much more data while using less network bandwidth to do so) will either manage every device, or
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just the more critical areas. VLANs are another benefit to management in a switch. A VLAN allows
the network to group nodes into logical LANs that behave as one network, regardless of physical
connections. The main benefit is managing broadcast and multicast traffic. An unmanaged switch
will pass broadcast and multicast packets through to all ports. If the network has logical grouping
that are different from physical groupings then a VLAN-based switch may be the best bet for
traffic optimization.

Another benefit to management in the switches is Spanning Tree Algorithm. Spanning Tree allows
the network manager to design in redundant links, with switches attached in loops. This would
defeat the self-learning aspect of switches, since traffic from one node would appear to originate
on different ports. Spanning Tree is a protocol that allows the switches to coordinate with each
other so that traffic is only carried on one of the redundant links (unless there is a failure, then the
backup link is automatically activated). Network managers with switches deployed in critical
applications may want to have redundant links. In this case management is necessary. But for the
rest of the networks an unmanaged switch would do quite well, and is much less expensive.

1.15.8 Store-and-Forward vs. Cut-Through

LAN switches come in two basic architectures, cut-through and store-and-forward. Cut-through
switches only examine the destination address before forwarding it on to its destination segment.
A store-and-forward switch, on the other hand, accepts and analyzes the entire packet before
forwarding it to its destination. It takes more time to examine the entire packet, but it allows the
switch to catch certain packet errors and collisions and keep them from propagating bad packets
through the network.

Today, the speed of store-and-forward switches has caught up with cut-through switches to the
point where the difference between the two is minimal. Also, there are a large number of hybrid
switches available that mix both cut-through and store-and-forward architectures.

1.15.9 Blocking vs. Non-Blocking Switches

Take a switch’s specifications and add up all the ports at theoretical maximum speed, then you
have the theoretical sum total of a switch’s throughput. If the switching bus or switching
components cannot handle the theoretical total of all ports the switch is considered a “blocking

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switch”. There is debate whether all switches should be designed non-blocking, but the added
costs of doing so are only reasonable on switches designed to work in the largest network
backbones. For almost all applications, a blocking switch that has an acceptable and reasonable
throughput level will work just fine.

Consider an eight port 10/100 switch. Since each port can theoretically handle 200 Mbps (full
duplex) there is a theoretical need for 1600 Mbps, or 1.6 Gbps. But in the real world each port will
not exceed 50% utilization, so an 800 Mbps switching bus is adequate. Consideration of total
throughput versus total ports demand in the real world loads provides validation that the switch
can handle the loads of your network.

1.15.10 Switch Buffer Limitations

As packets are processed in the switch, they are held in buffers. If the destination segment is
congested, the switch holds on to the packet as it waits for bandwidth to become available on the
crowded segment. Buffers that are full present a problem. So some analysis of the buffer sizes and
strategies for handling overflows is of interest for the technically inclined network designer.

In real world networks, crowded segments cause many problems, so their impact on switch
consideration is not important for most users, since networks should be designed to eliminate
crowded, congested segments. There are two strategies for handling full buffers. One is
“backpressure flow control” which sends packets back upstream to the source nodes of packets
that find a full buffer. This compares to the strategy of simply dropping the packet, and relying on
the integrity features in networks to retransmit automatically. One solution spreads the problem
in one segment to other segments, propagating the problem. The other solution causes
retransmissions, and that resulting increase in load is not optimal. Neither strategy solves the
problem, so switch vendors use large buffers and advise network managers to design switched
network topologies to eliminate the source of the problem – congested segments.

1.15.11 Layer 3 Switching

A hybrid device is the latest improvement in internetworking technology. Combining the packet
handling of routers and the speed of switching, these multilayer switches operate on both layers 2
and layer 3 of the OSI network model. The performance of this class of switch is aimed at the core

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of large enterprise networks. Sometimes called routing switches or IP switches, multilayer
switches look for common traffic flows, and switch these flows on the hardware layer for speed.
For traffic outside the normal flows, the multilayer switch uses routing functions. This keeps the
higher overhead routing functions only where it is needed, and strives for the best handling
strategy for each network packet.

Many vendors are working on high end multilayer switches, and the technology is definitely a
“work in process”. As networking technology evolves, multilayer switches are likely to replace
routers in most large networks.

Further reading:

Prescribed Text Book:

Networks + Study Guide, 3rd Edition, Chapter 3, pp. 55-85. (Todd Lammle).

Websites

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/domain-name-system

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2UwxdCLFW70

Group Activities
Research on the current ongoing IEEE standards on LAN, WAN and WLAN and write an essay using
the current networking terminology in your groups

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is an advantage of using a parallel backbone over a collapsed backbone?

a. A collapsed backbone requires too many connecting devices.

b. A parallel backbone uses redundant connections and is more reliable.

c. A collapsed backbone uses redundant connections, which costs more money.

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 d. A parallel backbone uses fewer redundant connections, which costs less money.

2. What is the purpose of using the routing protocol in this lab?

a. Each server can choose a different path when the current path fails.

b. The network administrator does not have to configure static routes.

c. It has no purpose.

d. Each server saves the appropriate IP addresses in its ARP cache.

3. Which of the following is true about the use of parallel backbones in real-life networks?

a. Parallel backbones are used when redundant connections are not possible.

b. Parallel backbones are used whenever possible because they are so inexpensive.

c. Parallel backbones only work in Ethernet networks.

d. Parallel backbones are used for important servers and networks because they are more expensive to
build.

4. In this lab, you configured the hubs and the two servers in a ring. How does the topology in this lab
differ from a ring topology such as Token Ring? (Choose all that apply.)

a. Each host transmits when necessary.

b. A single workstation or server in a simple ring topology could take down the entire ring.

c. Each host passes a token to the next host.

d. The topology in this lab is an example of an active topology.

5. For which of the following network devices is redundancy least important?

a. The network backbone cabling

b. Server

c. User workstations

d. A central switch

6. What type of port connects one switch to another in a daisy-chain fashion?

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 a. Output port

b. Patch panel port

c. Uplink port

d. External port

7. When connectivity devices are connected in a daisy-chain fashion, what type of backbone do they
create?

a. Parallel

b. Serial

c. Collapsed

d. Distributed

8. What type of network access method is used on an Ethernet switch?

a. CSMA/CA

b. CSMA/CD

c. Demand priority

d. Token passing

9. Which of the following is the most common frame type on modern Ethernet networks?

a. Ethernet II (DIX)

b. Ethernet 802.2 (Raw)

c. Ethernet SNAP

d. Ethernet 902.3 (Novell proprietary)

10. What is risky about daisy-chaining switches on a network? (Choose all that apply.)

a. Too many switches will cause errors in addressing data for its proper destination.

b. Too many switches can cause increased network latency.

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 c. Too many switches can result in reduced throughput.

d. Too many switches will increase the possibility for errors in data encryption and decryption.

11. Which of the following devices only operates at the Physical layer of the OSI model?

a. NIC

b. Hub or repeater

c. Bridge

d. Router

12. What type of address does a router interpret?

a. Physical address

b. MAC address

c. Block ID

d. Network address

13. What is the minimum total size of an Ethernet frame?

a. 6 bytes

b. 12 bytes

c. 46 bytes

d. 64 bytes

14. On a typical 100Base-T network, where would you find transceivers?

a. In the NICs

b. In the operating systems

c. In the UPSs

d. In the cabling

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15. Which of the following is a difference between a router and a hub?

a. A router is less sophisticated than a hub.

b. A router operates at the Transport layer of the OSI model, whereas a hub operates at the Data Link
layer of the OSI model.

c. A router operates at the Network layer of the OSI model, whereas a hub operates at the Physical
layer of the OSI model.

d. A router regenerates signals, whereas a hub interprets addressing information to ensure that data is
directed to the proper destination.

16. In which of the following networking scenarios would a router be the optimal connectivity device?

a. A home network with five users who want to share documents that are stored on one of the five
workstations

b. A WAN that connects a college physics department with a classroom in a high school on the other
side of town

c. A LAN that connects 10 users, a server, and a printer at a small business

d. A peer-to-peer LAN that connects eight users to provide a shared database

17. What is the most likely purpose of the hubs in this lab?

a. To connect the computer to different networks

b. To determine, by checking the link lights, whether the NIC has been installed correctly

c. To determine, by checking the link lights, whether you have configured the IP addresses on the NICs
correctly

d. To allow the NICs to operate at the Network layer

18. What is the purpose of a routing table on a TCP/IP-based network?

a. To associate the NetBIOS names of nodes with their IP addresses

b. To associate the IP addresses of nodes with their host names

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 c. To associate the IP addresses of nodes with their locations on the network

d. To associate the host names of nodes with their MAC addresses

19. Which of the following most fully describes what a successful response from the ping command
indicates?

a. A node is powered on.

b. A node is physically connected to the network.

c. A node is running the Windows Server operating system.

d. A node is connected to the network and is running TCP/IP successfully.

20. What does the Tracert command show?

a. The path taken by packets to the destination address

b. The MAC address of the destination address

c. Whether the remote host supports TCP/IP

d. The operating system runs by the host at the destination address

21. What command would you use to add a node’s IP address, subnet mask, and network location
interface to a routing table?

a. route add

b. add host

c. add node

d. route open

22. In the default ping command on a computer running Windows, how many replies will you receive if the
test is successful?

a. 1

b. 2

c. 3

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 d. 4

23. What menu option sequence would you choose to set up Routing and Remote Access Service on a
Windows Server 2012 computer?

a. Start, Control Panel, Network Connections, Routing and Remote Access

b. Start, Administrative Tools, Routing and Remote Access

c. Start, All Programs, Accessories, Routing and Remote Access

d. Start, Control Panel, Routing and Remote Access

24. What does RIP stand for?

a. Regulated Interaction Protocol

b. Routing Information Protocol

c. Response Interpretation Protocol

d. Registered Installation Protocol

25. True or False? To determine the best path to transfer data, routers communicate using routing
protocols such as TCP/IP.
27. Which routing protocol is commonly used for Internet backbones?
a. OSPF

b. RIP for IP

c. EIGRP

d. BGP

28. When might the best path not equal the shortest distance between two nodes? (Choose all that
apply.)

a. When a communications link has been recently added to the network

b. When a communications link is suffering congestion

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 c. When a router experiences routing protocol errors

d. When the media on the shortest path is slower than the media on the best path

29. Which of the following could serve as firewalls? (Choose all that apply.)

a. A modem

b. A Windows server

c. A repeater

d. A Linux server

30. True or False? A firewall can run a routing protocol like a router.
31. What is the highest level of the OSI model in which a firewall can operate?
a. Data Link

b. Network

c. Transport

d. Application

32. A gateway connects two different types of networks, two different types of communications
protocols, or two different computer architectures. Which of the following is not considered a
gateway?

a. A router connecting a Token Ring

b. A computer translating application data from TCP/IP to IPX/SPX

c. A computer translating voice signals into data and transmitting it over a TCP/IP network

d. A file and print server communicating with clients using both TCP/IP and IPX/SPX

33. You have configured a device that runs the OSPF routing protocol, but whose primary purpose is to
prevent unwanted Internet traffic from reaching your company’s LAN. Which of the following is
true about this device?

a. It is a router because it runs a routing protocol.

b. It is a router because its primary purpose is to control traffic.

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 c. It is a firewall because it runs a routing protocol.

d. It is a firewall because its primary purpose is to control traffic.

34. Which of the following statements about a bridge is false?

a. Without IP addressing information, a bridge will not be seen with the Tracert command.

b. Bridges require no Layer 3 addressing.

c. Bridges decide which packets to forward based on their Layer 3 headers.

d. Bridges operate at the Data Link layer.

35. Using the Ethernet switched network, what address does one host computer use to communicate
with another?

a. IP address
b. MAC address
c. Street address
d. Hub address

36. Which of the following can run full duplex and achieve 200 Mbps with Cat 5e cable?

a. 100baseF
b. 100BaseTX
c. 1000BaseF
d. 1000BaseT

37. How devises in a collision domain have to listen when a single host talks?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 1
d. All

38. If you are using a cable medium called 10Base, what does this mean?

a. That you are running Ethernet over HDMI

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 b. That you are running Ethernet fiber
c. That you are really old and using thinnet coax for your LAN medium
d. That you are bundling multiple connections

39. What network access control method helps devices share the bandwidth evenly without
having two devices transmit at the same time on the network medium?

a. TCP/IP
b. CSMA/CD
c. HTTPS
d. TFTP

40. What is the maximum distance of 10GBaseSR?

a. 100 meters (328 feet)

b. 302 meters (990 feet)
c. 305 meters (1000 feet)
d. 1,59 3km (6 miles)

41. How many wire pairs are used with half duplex?

a. 2
b. 1
c. 4
d. None of the above

42. How many wire pairs are used with 100 BaseT full duplex?

a. 2
b. 1
c. 4
d. None of the above

43. What is the maximum distance of 10GBBaseLR?

a. 1 mile
b. 3 miles
c. 6 miles

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 d. 25miles

44. What is the effective total throughput increase with a full-duplex connection?

a. None
b. Twice as much
c. Four times as much
d. Ten times as much

45. What device can you not use full-duplex communication with?

a. Host
b. Hub
c. Switch
d. Router

46. What is the decimal equivalent of this binary number: 11000000.10101000.00110000.11110000?

a. 192.168.48.192
b. 192.168.48.240
c. 192.168.64.224
d. 192.168.32.248

47. Which IEEE standard is used for Ethernet over Power Lines?

a. 802.3p
b. 1901
c. 802.16
d. 1918

48. How is the decimal value 10 represented in binary?

a. 1000
b. 1001
c. 1010

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 d. 1011

49. What is the decimal value for the binary number 11101000?

a. 128
b. 194
c. 224
d. 232

50. What is the decimal number 10 in hexadecimal?

a. 9
b. A
c. C
d. B

51. How many bits is a MAC address?

a. 16
b. 32
c. 48
d. 64

52. What is the maximum distance of 1000BaseT?

a. 100 meters (328 feet)

b. 128 meters (420 feet)
c. 1000 meters (3280 feet)
d. 1,024 meters (3360 feet)

53. What is the purpose of the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) in an Ethernet frame?

a. Error correction
b. Error detection
c. Error recovery
d. Creation errors

54. What does the Base mean in 100BaseTX?

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a. Broadband
b. 100Mbps
c. Baseband
d. Twisted-pair at 100Mbps

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TOPIC 2: NETWORK CABLING AND DATA TRANSPORTATION OVER NETWORK

2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable

is a popular cable around the globe? UTP cable is used not only for networking but also for the traditional
telephone (UTP-Cat 1). There are seven different types of UTP categories and, depending on what you
want to achieve, you would need the appropriate type of cable. UTP-CAT5e is the most popular UTP cable
which came to replace the old coaxial cable that was not able to keep up with the constant growing need
for faster and more reliable networks.

Figure 2- 1: UTP and STP cables

2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF UTP

UTP characteristics are very good and make it easy to work with, install, expand and troubleshoot and we are
going to look at the different wiring schemes available for UTP, how to create a straight through UTP cable,
rules for safe operation and a lot of other cool stuff !

The UTP categories available today along with their specifications:

Category 1/2/3/4/5/6/7 – a specification for the type of copper wire (most telephone and network
wire is copper) and jacks. The numbers refers to the revision of the specification and in practical
terms refers to the number of twists inside the wire (or the quality of connection in a jack).

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Figure 2- 2: The Different UTP Categories and their specifications

CAT1 is used for telephone wiring only. This type of wire is not capable of supporting computer
network traffic and is not twisted. CAT1 is also used by telco companies providing ISDN and PSTN
services.

CAT2, CAT3, CAT4, CAT5/5e, CAT6 & CAT 7 are network wire specifications. This type of wire can
support computer network and telephone traffic. CAT2 is used mostly for token ring networks,
supporting speeds up to 4 Mbps. For higher network speeds (100 Mbps or higher) CAT5e can do the
job.

CAT3, CAT4 and CAT5 cables are actually 4 pairs of twisted copper wires and CAT5 has more twists
per inch than CAT3 therefore can run at higher speeds and greater lengths. CAT3 and CAT4 are both
used for Token Ring networks -- where CAT 3 can provide support of a maximum 10Mbps, while
CAT4 pushed the limit up to 16Mbps a limit of 100 meters.

The more popular CAT5 wire was later on replaced by the CAT5e specification which provides
improved crosstalk specification, allowing it to support speeds of up to 1Gbps. CAT5e is the most
widely used cabling specification world-wide and unlike the category cables that follow, is very
forgiving when the cable termination and deployment guidelines are not met.

CAT6 wire was originally designed to support gigabit Ethernet, although there are standards that will
allow gigabit transmission over CAT5e wire. It is similar to CAT5e wire, but contains a physical
separator between the four pairs to further reduce electromagnetic interference. CAT6 is able to

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 support speeds of 1Gbps for lengths of up to 100 meters, and 10Gbps is also supported for lengths
of up to 55 meters.

New cabling installations use CAT6 as a standard, however it is important to note that all cabling
components (jacks, patch panels, patch cords etc.) must be CAT6 certified and extra caution must be
given to the proper termination of the cable ends.

However in 2009, CAT6A was introduced as a higher specification cable, offering better
immunization to crosstalk and electromagnetic interference.

Organizations performing installations using CAT6 cabling should request a thorough test report
using a certified cable analyzer, to ensure the installation has been performed according to CAT6
guidelines & standards.

CAT7 is a newer copper cable specification designed to support speeds of 10Gbps at lengths of up to
100 meters. To achieve this, the cable features four individually shielded pairs plus an additional
cable shield to protect the signals from crosstalk and electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Due to the extremely high data rates, all components used throughout the installation of a CAT7
cabling infrastructure must be CAT7 certified. This includes patch panels, patch cords, jacks and RJ-
45 connectors. Failing to use CAT7 certified components will result in the overall performance
degradation and failure of any CAT7 certification tests (e.g. using a Cable Analyzer) since CAT7
performance standards are most likely not to be met. Today, CAT7 is usually used in Data Centers for
backbone connections between servers, network switches.

Video Step by step:

Climping RJ45 to CAT 5: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iyZ9nEA_vCQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sbXe__EtGg4

2.2 Fiber optic

Fiber-optic cable (fiber)
 One or more glass or plastic fibers at its center (core)
Data transmission
 Pulsing light sent from laser or light-emitting diode (LED) through central fibers
Cladding
 Layer of glass or plastic surrounding fibers

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  Different density from glass or plastic in strands
 Reflects light back to core
 Allows fiber to bend
Plastic buffer outside cladding
 Protects cladding and core
 Opaque to absorb escaping light
 Surrounded by Kevlar (polymeric fiber) strands
Plastic sheath covers Kevlar strands

Figure 2- 3: Fiber Optic Cable

Video: Fiber optic structure

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9VmA2S2XiCo

Benefits over copper cabling

 Extremely high throughput
 Very high noise resistance
 Excellent security
 Able to carry signals for longer distances
 Industry standard for high-speed networking
Drawbacks
 More expensive than twisted pair cable
 Requires special equipment to splice
Throughput
 Proven reliable in transmitting data at rates that can reach 100 gigabits per second per
channel
Cost
 Most expensive transmission medium

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 Noise immunity
 Unaffected by EMI
Size and scalability
 Segment lengths vary from 150 to 40,000 meters
 Depends on the light’s wavelength and type of cable

2.2.1 SMF (Single Mode Fiber)

Consists of narrow core (8-10 microns in diameter)
 Laser-generated light travels over one path
 Little reflection
 Light does not disperse as signal travels
Can carry signals many miles:
 Before repeating is required
Rarely used for shorter connections
 Due to cost
 The Internet backbone depends on SMF

2.2.2 MMF (Multimode Fiber)

Contains a core with a larger diameter than single mode fiber
 Common sizes: 50 or 62.5 microns
Laser or LED generated light pulses travel at different angles
Greater attenuation than single-mode fiber
Common uses
 Cables connecting router to a switch
 Cables connecting server on network backbone

2.2.3 Fiber Connectors and Couplers

MMF connectors
 Classified by the number of fibers
SMF connectors
 Classified by size and shape of the ferrule
Ferrule - the extended tip of a connector that makes contact with the receptacle in the jack

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Figure 2- 4: Connectors

Shapes and polishes used by SMF ferrules to reduce back reflection:

 Physical Contact (PC)
 Ultra-Polished Connector (UPC)
 Angle Polished Connector (APC)

Figure 2- 5: Fiber optic mechanical connectors

SMF connectors are typically available with a 1.25-mm ferrule or a 2.5-mm ferrule
 Most common 1.25-mm connector is the LC
 Three 2.5-mm connectors are the SC, ST, and FC
Most common MMF connector is the MT-RJ
Existing fiber networks might use ST or SC connectors
 LC and MT-RJ are used on the very latest fiber-optic technology

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2.2.4 Fiber-Optic Converters and Modular Interfaces
Converters are required to connect multimode fiber networks to single-mode fiber
networks
 Also fiber- and copper-based parts of a network
Bidirectional converter accepts the signal from one part of the network, then regenerates
the signal and sends it to the next part of the network
GBIC - a standard type of modular interface designed for Gigabit Ethernet connections
 May contain RJ-45 or fiber-optic cable ports
SFP (small form-factor pluggable) transceivers
 Provide the same function as a GBIC, but allow more ports per inch
 Sometimes known as mini GBICs or SFP GBICs
 Two types: XFP and SFP+

Figure 2- 6: Connector type

2.2.5 Fiber-Optic Converters and Modular Interfaces

Installing a GBIC or SFP

 Slide the transceiver into a socket on the back of the connectivity device

 Most SFPs come with a tab or latch system and keyed so that they will slide into the socket
when aligned properly

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 Figure 2- 7: Fiber Optic Cable port

Loopback adapter
 A helpful tool when testing an SFP’s functionality or checking for a mismatch

Figure 2- 8: Fiber Optic Loopback

2.3 Ethernet Standards for Fiber-Optic Cable

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Figure 2- 9: Ethernet cable standards for Fiber optic

2.3.1 Transmission Flaws

Before you read please refer to this link;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQadq3deKsg
It shows you about noise in the transmission of data and voice.

Noise
 Any undesirable influence degrading or distorting signal
Types of noise
 EMI (electromagnetic interference)
 Example: radio frequency interference
 Cross-talk
 Signal on one wire infringes on adjacent wire signal
 Alien cross-talk occurs between two cables
 Near end cross-talk (NEXT) occurs near source

Figure 2- 10: Cross Talk

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 o Far end cross-talk (FEXT) occurs at the far end
o Attenuation

 Loss of signal’s strength as it travels away from source

Two ways analog and digital signals are boosted:

 Amplifier - increases the voltage, or strength, of signals

• Can also boot the noise that has accumulated in the signal

 Repeater - regenerates a digital signal in its original form

• Without noise previously accumulated

Figure 2- 11: Use of amplifiers to analog signal distortion

Figure 2- 12: Using a repeater to distorted digital signals

Video to watch on Analog and Digital: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCu6L4kQF3k

Latency

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  Delay between signal transmission and receipt

 May cause network transmission errors

Latency causes

 Cable length

 Intervening connectivity device

Round trip time (RTT)

 Time for packet to go from sender to receiver, then back from receiver to sender

Common Fiber Cable Problems:

 Fiber type mismatch

 More of a fiber core mismatch

 Even same-mode cables can be mismatched if the cores have different widths

 Wavelength mismatch

 SMF, MMF, and POF (Plastic Optical Fiber) use different wavelengths

 Dirty connectors

 Signal loss and other errors can start to cause problems

2.3.2 Troubleshooting Tools

Tone generator (toner)

 Small electronic device

 Issues signal on wire pair

Tone locator (probe)

 Emits tone when electrical activity detected

Probe kit or toner probe

 Generator and locator combination

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 Testing requires trial and error

Used to determine where wired pair terminates

Not used to determine cable characteristics

Figure 2- 13: Tone Locator and Tone generator

Figure 1:

Multimeter

 Measures electric circuit characteristics

 Resistance, voltage, and impedance

Use a multimeter to do the following:

 Measure voltage to verify cable is conducting electricity

 Check for the presence of noise

 Verify the amount of resistance is appropriate

 Test for short or open circuits in the wire

Cable continuity testers (cable testers)

 Tests whether cable carries signal to destination

Copper-based cable tester

 Consists of two parts

 Base unit generates voltage

 Remote unit detects voltage

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 Series of lights, audible tone

 Used to signal pass/fail

Some continuity testers verify UTP, STP wires paired correctly

 Not shorted, exposed, crossed

Fiber optic continuity tester

 Issues light pulses on fiber

 Determines whether pulses reach other end

Test all cables to ensure meeting network’s required standards

 Homemade or purchased

Offer convenience: portable, lightweight, low cost

Figure 2- 14: Cable tester pair

Cable performance tester, line tester, or certifier

 Performs similarly to continuity testers but can be used to:

 Measure distance to a connectivity device, termination point, or cable fault

 Measure attenuation

 Measure near end cross-talk

 Measure termination resistance and impedance

 Issue pass/fail ratings for Cat 3-7 standards

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  Store and print results or save to a computer database

 Graphically depict attenuation and cross-talk

TDR (time domain reflectometer)

 Issue signal, measures signal bounce back

 Indicates distance between nodes

 Indicates whether terminators properly installed, functional

OTDRs (optical time domain reflectometers)

 Measure fiber length

 Determine faulty splice locations, breaks, connectors, bends and measure attenuation over
cable

 Expensive

Figure 2- 15: Left: DTX-1800 device for cable test performance and right hand: for measuring light power transmitted

2.3.3 OPM (Optical Power Meter)

Also called a laser power meter or a light meter
Measures the amount of light power transmitted on a fiber-optic line
Must be calibrated precisely following highly accurate optical power standards
Surrounding room temperature, connection type, and the skill of the technician all affect
the final test results

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2.4 Coaxial Cable
2.4.1 What is Coaxial Cable?
Coaxial cable is a two conductor electrical cable consisting of a center conductor and an outer conductor
with an insulating spacer between the two.

2.4.2 How is Coaxial Cable used?

Primarily, coaxial cables are used for the transmission of Radio Frequency energy. The system offers tight
control over electrical impedance. This yields excellent performance at high frequencies and superior EMI
control/shielding.

2.4.3 Where is Coaxial Cable used?

A broad range of applications exist for coaxial cabling. The two primary impedance values of 50 and 75
Ohms determine specific applications with 50 Ohms primarily used in data signal applications and 75 Ohms
used in video signal applications.

As can be seen in this picture, male and female connectors

Figure 2- 16: Male and Female Connectors

2.4.4 Male connector: A connector type with pins instead of holes. These connectors are inserted into a
female connector. Good examples of male connectors are power plugs and coaxial cables. As can be seen
in the example picture to the right, the power cord connector on the left-side is a female connector, and
the right-side that connects to the wall socket is a male connector.

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Figure 2- 17: Coaxial Female Connector

2.4.5 Female connector: A connector type with holes instead of pins. As can be seen in the example
picture to the right, the power cord connector on the left-side is a female connector, and the right-side
that connects to the wall socket is a male connector.

Figure 2- 18: Coaxial Female Connector

Coaxial Cable Terms

Attenuation (Insertion Loss): Loss of power. Attenuation increases as frequency increases.

Bend Radius: The amount of radius a cable can bend without any adverse effects.
Center Conductor: The solid or stranded wire in the middle of the coaxial cable

Coaxial Adapter: A device used to change one connector type to another or one gender to another (ex.
BNC to SMA Adapter).
Coaxial Cable: A two conductor cylindrical transmission line typically comprised of a center conductor, an
insulating dielectric material and an outer conductor (shielding).

Coaxial Connector: The interconnection device found at each end of a coaxial cable assembly. There are
many common types of coaxial connectors such as: BNC, SMA, SMB, F, etc.
Dielectric: The insulating material that separates the center conductor and the shielding.
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Electrical or electro-magnetic energy that disrupts electrical signals.

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Frequency: The number of times a periodic action occurs in one second. Measured in Hertz
Impedance: In simple terms, impedance, in a coaxial product, is the measurement of resistance to the flow
of current. The unit of measurement is Ohms.

Reference: Network+ study guide 3rd Edition by Todd Lammle. (Pp50-60)

Summary
Coaxial cable was the foundation for Ethernet networks in the 1980s
Twisted-pair cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires that are twisted in pairs
STP cable consists of twisted-pair wires that are not only individually insulated, but also
surrounded by a shielding made of a metallic substance
UTP does not contain additional shielding
TIA/EIA has specified two different methods of inserting wires into RJ-45 plugs: 568A and 568B
A rollover cable uses a reverse image of the pinout of the other end of a cable
Fiber-optic cable contains one or more several glass or plastic fibers at its core
SMF accommodates the highest bandwidths and longest distances of all network transmission
media
MMF contains a core with a larger diameter
Fiber-optic cabling is the best medium for delivering high throughput
A common source of noise is EMI
Cross-talk occurs when a signal traveling on one wire or cable infringes on the signal traveling on an
adjacent wire or cable
Attenuation is the loss of a signal’s strength
Latency is the delay between the instant data leaves the source and when it arrives at its
destination
A multimeter is a simple instrument that measures resistance, voltage, impedance, and other
characteristics
Tools used to test cables: cable checkers, continuity testers, cable testers, and light meters (for
fiber)

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 References
Prescribed Books
1. Dean, West and Andrews. (2016) Networking: Guide to Networks, 7th Edition. Pp. 157- 208.
2. Tod Lammle. (2015). Network+ Study Guide 3rd Edition Pp. 91- 125.

Web sites:
1. https://www.edgefx.in/types-of-modulation-techniques-with-applications/
2. http://www.slideshare.net/AmarPanchal1/complete-computer-network

3. http://www.elvtek.com/Solution.aspx?catelist=0,5,36,19&cateid=19&parentid=36&itemid=7

4. https://www.network-visibility.com/downloads/MultimodeFiber.pdf

5. http://www.incentre.net/tech-support/other-support/ethernet-cable-color-coding-diagram/

6. http://www.practicallynetworked.com/sharing/lansetup.htm

7. http://study-ccna.com/collision-broadcast-domain/

8. http://www.learn44.com/what-is-half-duplex-and-full-duplex-ethernet-modes/

Group Activities

Discuss types of cables and appy to a situation where they are needed.

Assessment Questions
1. What type of connector does a 100Base-T network require?

a. RJ-11

b. BNC

c. AUI

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 d. RJ-45

2. What is the signal rate for Cat 5e cable?

a. 16 MHz

b. 100 MHz

c. 350 MHz

d. 500 MHz

3. Which of the following is commonly used to protect UTP cable from EMI?

a. Conduit

b. STP

c. Crossover cable

d. Lead shielding

4. What is the maximum throughput of a 100Base-TX network?

a. 5 Mbps

b. 10 Mbps

c. 50 Mbps

d. 100 Mbps

5. The 1000Base-TX standard requires _____ cabling or better.

a. Cat 3

b. Cat 5

c. Cat 5e

d. Cat 6

6 How much power does standard PoE provide?

a. 15.4 watts

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 b. 25.5 watts

c. 45 watts

d. Unlimited

7. What is one use for a crossover cable?

a. To connect a hub and a workstation

b. To connect a workstation to a wall jack

c. To connect two workstations directly

d. To connect a workstation to a modem

8. Which of the following tools would be useful in creating a patch cable for a 100Base-T network?

a. Screwdriver

b. Crimper

c. Soldering iron

d. Pliers

9. What type of cable would connect a workstation to the wall jack in the work area of a 100Base-T
network?

a. Straight-through cable

b. Crossover cable

c. Coaxial cable

d. Punch-down cable

10. In twisted-pair wire, how does the twist ratio affect transmission? (Choose all that apply.)

a. The more twists per inch, the less cross-talk transmission will suffer.

b. The more twists per inch, the slower the transmission.

c. The more twists per inch, the more attenuation transmission will suffer.

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 d. The more twists per inch, the faster the transmission.

11. What is the maximum speed at which Category 3 UTP can transmit data?

a. 1 Mbps

b. 10 Mbps

c. 100 Mbps

d. 1 Gbps

12. What type of cable is required for 100Base-FX?

a. Coaxial cable

b. UTP

c. STP

d. Fiber-optic cable

13. Increasing the twist ratio makes twisted-pair cabling more resistant to ______.

a. Stretching

b. Fire

c. Cross-talk

d. Attenuation

14. What might cause a 100Base-TX network to experience an average throughput of less than 100 Mbps?
(Choose all that apply.)

a. Heavy traffic on the network

b. Miswired cables

c. Too many protocols bound on the server

d. A mix of different network operating systems on the servers

15. What does the “T” in 10Base-T and 100Base-T stand for?

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 a. Transmission

b. Transport layer

c. Twisted-pair

d. Transparent

16. What type of cable is required for a 100Base-T network?

a. Cat 3 or higher

b. Cat 5 or higher

c. Cat 6 or higher

d. Cat 7 or higher

17. Where would you find a plenum cable?

a. Above the ceiling tiles in an office

b. In an outdoor cable trench that leads to a building

c. Between a hub and a punch-down panel

d. Between a workstation and a wall jack

18. What organization is responsible for establishing structured wiring standards?

a. TIA/EIA

b. ANSI

c. ITU

d. FCC

19. What pin number is used for transmitting a positive signal on an RJ-45 straight-through patch cable?

a. 1

b. 2

c. 5

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 d. 6

20. Which of the following could be a symptom of a damaged patch cable between a workstation and the
wall jack on a UTP network? (Choose all that apply.)

a. The workstation cannot send or receive data to or from the network.

b. The workstation and other workstations in the same office cannot send or receive data to or from
the network.

c. The workstation can send data to the network, but cannot receive data from the network.

d. All workstations on the same segment can send data to the network, but cannot receive data from
the network.

21. How many wire pairs are in a typical Category 5 cable?

a. 2

b. 3

c. 4

d. 6

22. How does bend radius affect transmission?

a. Transmission will not be successful until the bend radius has been reached.

b. Transmission cannot occur at the bend radius.

c. Transmission will be unreliable after the bend radius is exceeded.

d. Transmission will be less secure after the bend radius is exceeded.

23. What problem could be caused by laying cable in the ceiling tiles six inches above a bank of fluorescent
lights?

a. Increased latency

b. EMI

c. Fire hazard

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 d. Decreased bend radius

24. Which of the following is not an advantage of fiber cables over UTP cables?

a. Fiber is not susceptible to electric interference, whereas UTP cable is.

b. Fiber is less fragile than UTP cable.

c. Fiber is more expensive than UTP cable.

d. Fiber can transmit data over longer distances than UTP cable.

25. You work for a small ISP. Which fiber technology would be best for connecting to your
telecommunications carrier over a distance of 2.8 miles?

a. 1000Base-LX

b. 1000Base-SX

c. 10 GBase-SR

d. 1000Base-T

26. In which of the following situations would it be possible to use a UTP cable standard such as
1000Base-CX over a fiber-optic cable standard such as 1000Base-LX or 1000Base-T?

a. When connecting two data centers over distances of 2 km or less

b. When connecting short distances of 25 meters or less between network devices and servers inside a
single data center

c. When connecting short distances of 200 meters or less between network devices and workstations
inside a building

d. When connecting buildings inside a campus over distances of 500 meters or less

27. Which of the following problems could cause signal loss in fiber-optic cable?

a. Cross-talk between strands of fiber in multimode fiber cables

b. Cross-talk between cables in single-mode fiber cables

c. Electromagnetic interference caused by power lines near the cables

132 | P a g e
 d. Dirty connectors

28. 100Base-FX requires multimode fiber cable with two or more strands. How are these strands used to
transmit and receive data? (Choose all that apply.)

a. One strand is used for both transmission and reception in both full- and half-duplex.

b. Both strands are used for transmission and reception in full-duplex.

c. One strand is used for transmission and the other is used for reception in half-duplex.

d. Both strands are used for transmission and reception in full-duplex, whereas there is no half-duplex
for 100Base-FX.

29. A higher twist ratio causes less _______ but more attenuation.

a. Shielding

b. Cost

c. Noise

d. Cross-talk

30. How many pairs of wires are used for transmission in Gigabit Ethernet?

a. 4

b. 3

c. 2

d. 1

31. What is the maximum throughput of a 100Base-TX network?

a. 5 Mbps

b. 10 Mbps

c. 50 Mbps

d. 100 Mbps

32. A TIA/EIA 568A pinout on one side and a 568B pinout on the other will make a _____ cable.

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 a. Straight-through

b. Patch

c. Crossover

d. Rollover

33. This kind of cable can be used to connect a computer to the console port of a router.

a. Straight-through

b. Patch

c. Crossover

d. Rollover

Answers to the Topics

Topic 1
1. b.

2. a.

3. d.

4. a. and b.

5. c.

6. c.

7. b.

8. b.

9. a.

10. b. and c.

11. b.

12. d.

134 | P a g e
 13. d.

14. a.

15. c.

16. b.

17. b.

18. c.

19. d.

20. a.

21. a.

22. d.

23. b.

24. b.

26. False
27. d.
28. b. and d.

29. b. and d.

32. True
33. d.
32. d.

33. d.

34. c.

35. b.

36. b.

37. d.

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38. c.

39. b.

40. b.

41. b.

42. a.

43. c.

44. b.

45. b.

46. b.

47. b.

48. c.

49. d.

50. b.

51. c.

52. a.

53. c.

54. c.

Topic 2
1. d.

2. c.

3. a.

4. d.

136 | P a g e
 5. d.

6. a.

7. c.

8. b.

9. a.

10. a. and c.

11. b.

12. d.

13. c.

14. a. and b.

15. c.

16. b.

17. a.

18. a.

19. a.

20. a.

21. c.

22. c.

23. b.

24. c.

25. a.

26. b.

27. d.

137 | P a g e
28. b. or c.

29. d.

30. a.

31. d.

32. c.

33. d

138 | P a g e
ATTENTION STUDENTS/STAFF

If you COPY AND OR REPRODUCE SOMEBODY ELSE’S WORK WITHOUT REFERENCING, your
assignment will be penalized by 30%.
TO AVOID BEING PENALISED IN YOUR ASSIGNMENTS DO NOT

 Copy and paste information from the internet and on-line media, such as
encyclopedias or journal articles without acknowledging the source of
information (Referencing).

 Transcribe information from any textbook, encyclopedia, newspaper, journal

articles, without acknowledging the source of information (Referencing)

 Modify information without acknowledging the source of information

(Referencing)

 Use photographs, videos, or audio without permission or acknowledgement

 Get other people to write your assignment

 Buy assignments and submit them as your own effort

 Use previous work for a new assignment without citing the original assignment
in your reference list.

Types of Student Plagiarism

Academic Integrity
Good academic practice is about adopting strategies and behaviour that allow students
to complete their studies independently and honestly, and writing assignments in an
appropriate academic style. The task submitted is also awarded better marks! Bad academic
practice includes dishonesty, cheating and plagiarism and also work that is badly prepared and
rushed.
Direct copying
This sort of plagiarism is taking the exact words somebody else wrote, (in a website, a book,
another student's work, or any other source) and putting that into an assignment, without
referencing that somebody else’s work has been cited.
Word-switching
This sort of plagiarism means taking someone else's writing and changing words here and there,
or taking little bits of sentences, without acknowledging whose ideas have been adopted.
Concealing sources
Not making it obvious when drawing on somebody else's work will be regarded as plagiarism.
This includes:
 Taking somebody else's ideas and putting them into your words without telling us
where you got the ideas.
 Using a source several times, but only referencing it once. Using ideas from the same
source several times in a piece of work, requires a citation each time the source is used.
Working with other students
It is preferable for students to do their assignments themselves. Hence
 Copying another student's work is plagiarism.
 Submitting all or part of another student's work as your own is plagiarism.
 Sharing written work is plagiarism.
 Paying somebody to do your work for you is plagiarism.
 In an individual assignment, writing the assignment with other people is plagiarism.
(Group assignments are different!).
 Asking another student to translate your ideas into English, or getting their help to
write your assignment is plagiarism.
Unless you are told to work in a group, you must work alone. If you want to talk to your friends
about the work, do it before you start writing. The work you submit must be your own!
When any of the above types are identified, each case will be investigated for:

 Intention of student
 Degree of plagiarism – how much of the assignment has been plagiarized
 Previous offences by the student