IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS: SYSTEMS, VOL. 49, NO.
5, MAY 2019 991
Design and Verification of an NDN-Based
Safety-Critical Application: A Case
Study With Smart Healthcare
Divya Saxena, Member, IEEE, and Vaskar Raychoudhury, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging networking
paradigm where smart devices generate, aggregate, and seam-
lessly exchange data over the predominantly wireless medium.
The Internet, so far, has played a significant role in connecting the
world, but still, IoT-based solutions are suffering from two pri-
mary challenges: 1) how to secure the sensors data and 2) how to
provide efficient local and global communication among various
heterogeneous devices. Recently, named data networking (NDN),
a future Internet paradigm is proposed to improve and sim-
plify such IoT communication issues. NDN allowed users to fetch
data by names irrespective of the actual hosting entity connected
through a host-specific IP address. NDN well suits the content-
centric pattern of machine-to-machine (M2M) communications
predominantly used in IoT. In this paper, we leverage the basic
feats of NDN architecture for designing and verification of an
NDN-based smart health IoT (NHealthIoT) system. NHealthIoT
uses pure-NDN-based M2M communication for capturing and
transmission of raw sensor data to the home server which can
detect emergency healthcare events using Hidden Markov Model.
Emergency events are notified to the cloud server using a novel
context-aware adaptive forwarding (Cdf) strategy. Post emer-
gency notifications, and user health information is periodically
pulled by the cloud server and by other interested parties using
NDN-based publish/subscribe paradigm. The cloud server carries
out long-term decision making using probabilistic modeling for
detecting the possibility of chronic diseases at the early stage. We
extend the workflows intuitive formal approach model for veri-
fying the correctness of NHealthIoT during the emergency. We
evaluate the cdf strategy using ndnSIM. Moreover, to validate
and to show the usability of NHealthIoT, we develop a proof-
of-concept prototype testbed and evaluate it extensively. We also
identify some research challenges of the NDN-IoT for researchers.
Index Terms—Context-aware data forwarding strategy, health-
care, Internet of Things (IoT), named data networking of things,
NDN, NDNoT.
I. I NTRODUCTION
NTERNET-OF-THINGS (IoT) is an emerging
I paradigm which aims to augment surrounding physical
Manuscript received February 2, 2017; revised April 28, 2017; accepted
June 27, 2017. Date of publication July 25, 2017; date of current version
April 15, 2019. This work was supported by the Alexander von Humboldt
Foundation through the Post-Doctoral Research Fellow Dr. V. Raychoudhury.
This paper was recommended by Associate Editor Y. Hata. (Corresponding
author: Divya Saxena.)
The authors are with the Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India (e-mail:
divya.saxena.2015@ieee.org; vaskar@ieee.org).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSMC.2017.2723843
2168-2216 c 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
objects/environment with sensor nodes [1] which facilitate
remote device control over the Internet for more meaningful
interaction between the physical and the cyber worlds. In
recent years, several IoT-based solutions have been introduced
for various application domains [2]–[7], such as healthcare,
home, etc. Given the aging of society, elderly healthcare
has become a major IoT application where researchers
have developed IoT-driven round-the-clock remote health
monitoring systems for elderly and ailing individuals which
can inform caregivers in case of an emergency. However,
robustness, privacy, security, and reliability always remain
foremost concerns of healthcare systems because of the
sensitivity of the data collected, managed, and exchanged.
In the last decade, the Internet has played a significant
role in connecting the world. But, the novel IoT applications
are constrained by the following Internet-related problems.
The Internet secures the communication channel [8], [9] or
session which does not deal with data integrity, reliability,
data provenance, and trust management [10], [11] (which are
key parameters for developing robust IoT applications). The
Internet requires a middleware to map the application-level
names to/from network addresses. In the Internet, applications
used for local communication and middleware do not support
broadcast nature of wireless media which is mainly preferred
for IoT communications.
Briefly, current IoT-based solutions are suffering from two
primary challenges [10]: first is, how to secure the sensors
data and the second is, how to provide efficient local and
global communication among various heterogeneous devices.
Alternatively, the use of IoT-oriented communication pro-
tocols, such as 6LoWPAN [12], RPL [13], DTLS [14], and
CoAP [15] standard for developing the IoT applications in
resource-constrained environments have gained popularity.
These standards support naming, request-response messages
and caching at the application layer, while the underlying
layers use host-to-host communication to interconnect par-
ticipating devices over a secure channel. The inconsistency
between application and network layer requires mapping of
a host to name which makes the system implementation
complex.
To handle the aforementioned challenges, named
data networking (NDN) can be applied to improve and
simplify such IoT communication. NDN is a future Internet
paradigm evolved from information-centric networking (ICN)
and allowed users to fetch and distribute contents directly
992 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS: SYSTEMS, VOL. 49, NO. 5, MAY 2019
using their application-assigned names [11], [16]. Several
types of research have been done to analyze the performance
of NDN-IoT for the various application domains, such as
home [17], grid [18], building automation system [19], [20],
etc. Most of the systems either have tested the performance
through simulation or have not performed the evaluation of
a complete end-to-end system.
In this paper, we explore the basic NDN architecture
to develop the NDN-IoT platform for the smart health-
care (named NHealthIoT) system. In NHealthIoT, the home
server (S) uses the NDN communication for collecting, pro-
cessing, and then publishing the vital signs of the patient
at regular interval which is adaptively controlled using the
Hidden Markov Model (HMM). Cloud server (CS) and other
interested parties can subscribe the data through NDN-based
publish and subscribe paradigm using push-based multicast. S
and CS also detect the possibility of emergency (PoE) at the
early stage using the HMM and classification, respectively.
A novel NDN-based context-aware adaptive forwarding (Cdf)
strategy is used for forwarding the healthcare emergency traf-
fic in the worst network conditions. We evaluate the Cdf
using ndnSIM. As a proof-of-concept, we develop a complete
prototype of the system. We extend the workflows intuitive
formal approach (WIFA) [21] model to analyze and verify the
correctness of NHealthIoT workflow during the emergency.
Our experimental results obtained through prototype testbed
validate the usability of NHealthIoT.
To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to develop
an interactive and intelligent real-time healthcare system from
scratch using the NDN-IoT.
The main contributions of this paper are as follows.
1) We leverage the basic feats of NDN architecture to
develop the NDN-IoT platform for the smart health
applications for elderly and ailing inhabitants. As
a proof-of-concept, we develop a complete prototype of
the system in real-time.
2) NDN-based publish and subscribe paradigm based on
push-based multicast (NDN-over-IP communication) is
used to communicate health data between S and CS.
For emergency notifications, we design and implement
an NDN-based Cdf strategy that specifies a simple
and coarse-grained mechanism for classifying and for-
warding healthcare emergency traffic even in the worst
network conditions.
3) We extend the WIFA model to analyze and verify
the correctness of NHealthIoT workflow during the
emergency. Our real-time experimental results obtained
through prototype testbed validate the usability of
NHealthIoT. Moreover, we evaluate the NDN-based Cdf
strategy on ndnSIM. We also identify some research
challenges of the NDN-IoT for the researchers.
This paper organization is as follows. Section II dis-
cusses the NDN background and why NDN is proposed for
IoT. Section III discusses the related works of NDN-IoT. The
system model is introduced in Section IV and system archi-
tecture is discussed in Section V. In Section VI, we elaborate
the case study of NHealthIoT. Section VII shows the system
setup and implementation while performance results supported
by thorough analyses are discussed in Section VIII. Section IX
discusses the limitations of NDN-IoT which are not addressed
yet. Finally, Section X concludes this paper with future
directions.
II. BACKGROUND AND M OTIVATION
We first introduce NDN architecture and its functionalities.
Then, we discuss why NDN is proposed as the solution for
handling the challenges raised by IoT systems.
A. NDN Overview
NDN supports the pull-based delivery model where the
content requester (U) initiates the communication using a con-
tent name (CN) [11], [16]. NDN uses two types of packets:
1) interest packet (Ipkt) and 2) data packet (Dpkt). When U
issues an Ipkt for a content, a node having the valid content
issues a Dpkt which traces the path of Ipkt in reverse. Each
NDN router maintains three data structures: 1) content store;
2) pending interest table (PIT); and 3) forwarding information
base (FIB) [11], [16] for forwarding packets. Content store is
used as a temporary cache for Dpkt(s) to fulfill future requests
for already fetched contents. For stateful forwarding, NDN
uses PIT which stores Ipkt details until they are satisfied. FIB
maintains information about the next-hops and forwards Ipkt
using longest prefix match.
B. Why NDN Is Proposed As Solution?
NDN is proposed as a potential alternative networking
solution for the IoT [10], [11]. NDN address several IoT
requirements by providing several functionalities, such as nam-
ing, data aggregation, security, trust, etc., at the network layer.
There are many benefits of using NDN for IoT.
NDN uses CNs which is directly used for communication
and remains consistent across facilities and installations (over
network setup and maintenance). Naming data provides inher-
ent support for delay-tolerant networking (handles intermittent
connectivity), fast local recovery from losses, and hop-by-
hop congestion control unlike the Internet [10], [11]. It also
reduces the complexity of auto-configuration mechanisms as
there is no need to configure IP addresses for each and every
interface of any device. In NDN, a node can itself adver-
tise and discover application names at the network layer [10].
Moreover, in IoT, as heterogeneous devices are being used,
NDN naming can support access restrictions instead of having
a separate policy language for individual devices [11], [16].
NDN does not face address exhaustion, address assign-
ment, and management problems because it uses unbounded
namespaces. In NDN, data packets are self-contained and inde-
pendent from where they are retrieved and where they can
be forwarded [11], [16]. In NDN, all Dpkts are signed by its
producer and verified by the consumer [11], [16]. NDN inher-
ently provides confidentiality, authenticity, and integrity by
signing each content. These features allow in-network caching
of contents for fulfilling future requests and inherently sup-
port consumer mobility. NDN can limit the flow of traffic
in local networks using name-based forwarding and signature
verification.
SAXENA AND RAYCHOUDHURY: DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF NDN-BASED SAFETY-CRITICAL APPLICATION
Opportunistic in-network caching facilitates efficient
data dissemination in dynamic communication environments
with intermittent connectivity and link diversity. NDN
increases content availability by supporting in-network
caching of ephemeral contents, which can further reduce
power consumption (nodes can sleep as often as possible) and
usage of radio resources. It further supports load balancing
and fault tolerance and thus helps resource-constrained
devices [10], [11].
All these features form the basis of developing NDN-based
NHealthIoT architecture in the subsequent sections.
III. L ITERATURE S URVEY
Application of NDN for IoT is attracting both commu-
nication and pervasive computing researchers as it will be
a boon for the industry to securely and efficiently transport
the vast amount of IoT data through the mobile and resource-
constrained platform. However, so far, there are only a few
theoretical insights on the applicability of NDN over IoT and
only handful of experimental analysis.
Most of the research, so far, on applying ICN, content-
centric network, or NDN for developing IoT environment
or applications is limited to theoretical propositions, such
as, analyzing the possibilities and challenges of developing
ICN/NDN-based IoT [10], [11], [22]–[25], proposing a new
architecture [26], [27] or a communication overlay [28], dis-
cussing the issue of information freshness in IoT in relation
to NDN caching [29], exploring NDN support for reliable
and effective data retrieval from multiple producers in the
IoT [30], and searching the items augmented with RFIDs
using NDN [31].
Also, Zhang et al. [22] have proposed an ICN-based
IoT architecture with a particular focus on data discovery,
data processing, and data distribution. Moreover, IoT prob-
lems studied so far are like security and naming in the domain
of smart building automation [20], applying ICN over M2M
communication [32], secured home energy management using
publish-subscribe primitives [33], NDN caching in wireless
IoT [34], and developing some standalone IoT systems (like,
service platform for future smart city, smart home [17], smart
healthcare [35], or smart grid [18]) using NDN overlay on
IP. Baccelli et al. [36] have carried out experiments using large
scale deployments of 60 nodes distributed in various rooms in
several buildings and comprising different types of devices.
Experimental research to study the applicability of
ICN/NDN over IoT is in the nascent state. Developers have
provided piecemeal solutions to individual IoT use cases
or part thereof (only sink-centric data traffic) by applying
NDN/ICN techniques to them (except [36]) without consid-
ering the overall evaluation of a complete end-to-end system.
Also, experimenting with mobile adhoc network (MANET) is
not suitable as devices in an MANET are not always resource
constraint as in IoT.
In this paper, we develop a naïve NDN-based complete
smart health IoT system for the elderly and ailing inhabitants.
As a proof-of-concept, we develop a prototype of the system
and evaluated it extensively.
993
Fig. 1. Interconnection among various components of NHealthIoT.
IV. S YSTEM M ODEL
We consider an NDNoT platform for developing the intel-
ligent healthcare system for smart home inhabitants which
comprises of four components: 1) a set of users U =
{u1 , u2 , . . . , uN }; 2) a set of healthcare service providers
P = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pN }; 3) a home server (S) with NDN
repository (NDN repo ); and 4) a cloud-based health man-
agement server (CS). These components are connected
via wired or wireless links and communicate with each other
using NDN.
Fig. 1 shows the interconnection among various compo-
nents of NHealthIoT. NHealthIoT at home is the combination
of software and hardware which supports the monitoring,
searching, and controlling the smart home inhabitant’s health,
objects, and physical components, respectively, using the
NDN communication. At home, it captures the vital signs of
elderly and ailing individuals, transfer them to the S for local
processing and finds the possibilities of emergency.
Healthcare systems in smart homes must be intelligent
enough to make the decisions without human intervention
during the emergencies because the PoE is unpredictable.
Therefore, to make it inevitable, we use the HMM [37] at
the local server for early detection and diagnosis of critical
patient’s health changes using the patient’s vital signs so that
physician, family member(s) (Fmem ), etc., can be extra con-
scious during that time. Further, to increase the reliability of
NHealthIoT and to reduce the communication cost, we use
the HMM to tune the healthcare data fetching interval. Health
data is published at the S where CS and Fmem subscribes
the data using the NDN-based publish-subscribe (pub/sub)
paradigm (push-based multicast). We also propose an NDN-
based Cdf strategy to forward healthcare emergency traffic
even in the worst network conditions. CS collects vital signs
of patients from the S and supports data analysis and visual-
ization. Then, CS and P closely monitors the previous records
of the patient and takes required immediate actions. CS uses
the probabilistic model to predict the possibility of diseases
using the periodically updated vital signs of the patient. This
increases the reliability of real-time healthcare monitoring
994 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS: SYSTEMS, VOL. 49, NO. 5, MAY 2019
Fig. 2. NHealthIoT architecture.
systems and reduces the cost of hospitalization as extra care
can be taken at the early stage.
We also extend the WIFA model [21] for verifying the
correctness of NHealthIoT during the emergency event.
V. S YSTEM A RCHITECTURE
Fig. 2 shows the proposed NHealthIoT system architecture.
NHealthIoT system works in a hierarchical fashion where the
lowest layer collects raw data elements from sensors deployed
in the home and sends to S for local processing. CS pulls the
patient’s vital signs for a closer monitoring and visualization.
Healthcare service providers can respond to any emergency
medical events in a collaborative manner while the data ana-
lysts who operate over the data collected over a large area can
detect pandemics or disease patterns. After the event accuracy
is verified, CS informs Fmem of the patient for further actions.
The functionality of the NHealthIoT system is divided into
three main phases: 1) data collection from different sensors
and local data processing at S (Processing@Home); 2) health
data forwarding from S to CS (NDN-based data forwarding);
and 3) remote data processing at CS (processing@Cloud).
We shall discuss these phases sequentially in the next
sections.
A. Processing@Home
The main role of NHealthIoT at home is to collect and
process the vital signs of patient(s) using NDN. Authorized
users of the system (mainly, Fmem of the patients) can also
search and control remotely the smart objects augmented
with RFID tags and devices in the smart home, respectively,
using NDN.
1) Elderly Healthcare System@Home: NHealthIoT at
home collects a patient’s vital signs using NDN and stores
them at the S for critical health event detection. S pulls the
data at regular intervals (I) which is adaptively controlled
depending on the patient’s health condition (i.e., if the vital
signs are consistently good, the acquisition interval increases,
and vice versa). S supports the short-term analysis by pre-
dicting the patient’s health condition based on the history of
patient’s health observation (vital signs). S keeps track of vari-
ations among patient’s vital signs and detects the PoE at the
early stage.
In principle, a patient’s vital signs comprise time series data
and detecting an emergency event in it can be best achieved
using a stochastic dynamic model. HMMs [37] are a powerful
statistical tool for modeling sequential data and is equivalent
to a stochastic process. Therefore, in this paper, we applied
expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm [38] for modeling
the early emergency event detection from the measured time-
series health data and for estimating the model parameters.
The model also uses inference algorithm to find the most
likely state at any point in time. The model is developed and
evaluated as an HMM framework.
a) Modeling and evaluation: An EM algorithm is the
well-known training algorithm for HMM. EM is an iterative
method for finding maximum likelihood (ML) or maximum
a posteriori estimates of parameters in statistical models
having hidden variables. To infer the ML, we use the forward-
backward algorithm [39] to find the conditional distribution
P(X|O) over hidden states X for the given observation O. It
uses the principle of dynamic programming to calculate the
values required for finding the posterior marginal distributions.
We collected 50 blood pressure (BP) readings of a par-
ticular person using our BP sensor during September 22,
2016–November 10, 2016. We classify a patient’s health con-
dition into three types: 1) healthy (H) [normal outdoor mobility
(High: 120/ Low: 80)]; 2) home-bound (Hb) [limited indoor
mobility (High: 120-139/Low: 80-89)]; and 3) bed-ridden (Be)
[s/he is in bed and has palpitation (High: 140 and above/ Low:
90 and above)]. BP data not lying within the specified range
are classified using the lower value of BP.
We model the problem using the HMM.
1) A set of N states, {!PoE, PoE}.
2) A sequence of observations = {H, Hb, Be}.
3) Initial probability = {!PoE = 0.6, PoE = 0.4}.
4) Initially, we set the transition probability matrix
 
!PoE: {!PoE = 0.7 PoE = 0.3}
(A) = .
PoE: {!PoE = 0.4 PoE = 0.6}
5) Initially, we set the sequence of observation likelihoods,
i.e., emission probability (B)
 
!PoE: {H = 0.5 Hb = 0.4 Be = 0.1}
= .
PoE: {H = 0.1 Hb = 0.3 Be = 0.6}
In NHealthIoT, S comprises of a laptop (Intel Core i5
3210M 2.5 GHz CPU 6 GB RAM and 64-bit Ubuntu
14.04 LTS) and code is written in Python3.
SAXENA AND RAYCHOUDHURY: DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF NDN-BASED SAFETY-CRITICAL APPLICATION
TABLE I
R ESULT OF F ORWARD -BACKWARD A LGORITHM
Fig. 3. Probability of state PoE over multiple training steps.
b) Finding of PoE and tuning of I: S can adjust I on
the basis of current patient’s health condition. To do so, we
run the forward-backward algorithm using TensorFlow [40]
for inferring the most likely final state from the observa-
tion sequence. For better understanding, we took an example
where patient’s health condition is continuously varying from
Normal (1)—Healthy (2)—Sick (3)—Normal (4)—Normal (5)
on dayn , dayn+1 , . . . , dayn+m , respectively, where n > = 1
and m >= 0. Table I shows the result where most likely final
state for the observation sequence is !PoE as state posteriors
over all hidden states of !PoE (0.632) is higher than PoE.
If according to HMM, S finds that there is a PoE, it sets
the value of I low (at the interval of 5 min), otherwise high
(at the interval of 10 min). Moreover, during the emergency S
informs to CS and Fmem through Ipkt(s).
c) Estimation of model parameters: We train the model
using the EM algorithm for estimating the model parameters
A and B for which observed data are the most likely.
The new transition and emission matrix are as follows.
1) Transition probability
 
!PoE: {!PoE = 0.933390 PoE = 0.066609}
(A) = .
PoE: {!PoE = 0.103016 PoE = 0.896983}
2) Emission probability
 
!PoE: {H = 0.724848 Hb = 0.232603 Be = 0.042547}
(B) =
PoE: {H = 0.077290 Hb = 0.087874 Be = 0.834834}
Furthermore, we compute the probability of the PoE state
over multiple training steps (see Fig. 3) and compare the true
over predicted probability of state PoE (see Fig. 4). We also
calculated the accuracy of the model for finding the state PoE
which is 98.6%.
2) Searching for Smart Objects: NHealthIoT allows smart
home inhabitants to search RFID/sensor-augmented objects,
such as key rings, medicine, books, furniture, etc., in the
smart home environment using NDN communication. The
object search returns the relative position of a smart object
w.r.to its surrounding reference objects. In this, information
995
Fig. 4. Probability of true over predicted probability of state PoE.
and location of various smart physical objects are captured
and stored in S periodically. Local data processing at S works
in two steps. First, it maintains the identity and locations of
smart objects and connects them through contextual links.
This can help users to search for any physical object and to
browse through their contextual links (mostly with location
context) [40]. Second, contextual links between smart objects
are periodically updated to maintain their correctness.
Our novel approach is to maintain up-to-date data through
a hybrid combination of push and pull-based communication
paradigm [31]. In push-based searching, smart objects keep
updating their location to S through broadcasting. Items which
are frequently used in daily life routine are searched using
push-based searching. In pull-based searching, S broadcast the
Ipkts in the network at the time of user query. Objects which
are not needed immediately and moves less frequently are con-
sidered for the pull-based searching. Moreover, in pull-based
searching, content publisher interacts less with the content con-
sumer which allows the consumer to obtain scalability from
the network.
3) Actuation Control: NHealthIoT also supports smart
object control application using NDN in which smart
home users can control smart devices (in an obstruction-
triggered/time-based manner/remote) in an active or passive
manner (such as, lighting fixtures, TV, smart door, surveil-
lance, etc.). The obstruction-triggered approach is used on
the doors, bed, and drug cupboard to track the patient’s
pattern of movement and pattern of medicine intake using
NDN. Time-based approach automatically controls the devices
at the occurrence of pre-specified time, while devices can be
controlled remotely by the authorized users.
In Section VII, we have shown how our NHealthIoT system
implements and uses these features.
B. NDN-Based Data Forwarding
. When there is no emergency event detection; S, CS, and
Fmem communicate through the simple pub/sub mechanism
(a push-based multicast feature) where health data is published
by S and is subscribed by CS and Fmem .
When an emergency healthcare event occurs, S intimates
the CS through an Ipkt with emergency flag bit enabled. For
healthcare systems, reliability is of primary concern; therefore,
data forwarding strategy must be adaptive to the network con-
dition which refers to traffic type, content priority, network
status, such as signal quality (SQ), availability of forwarding
interfaces. The most reliable forwarding strategy is to for-
ward the Ipkts to all the available interfaces. This strategy is
resilient to network failure and adaptive to network condition
996 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS: SYSTEMS, VOL. 49, NO. 5, MAY 2019
TABLE II
C ONTEXT I TEMS
TABLE III
C ONDITION ATTRIBUTES AT E ACH NDN N ODE
changes. But it generates a large number of Ipkts and Dpkts
which consumes high bandwidth, has high delay and is not an
energy efficient solution. Therefore, we propose Cdf strategy
to forward emergency notification with high reliability.
The purpose of Cdf is to integrate the dynamic context into
the computation and apply it for data forwarding at the router
level. We consider three parameters, such as: 1) packet (traffic)
type; 2) SQ; and 3) prefix forwarding status for making the
packet forwarding decision at the router. The SQ represents
the availability of resources for data forwarding. For the SQ,
we use signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) which range from 5 dB to
more than 40 dB. We consider that if SNR is greater than or
equal to 25 dB, SQ is good. But if SNR is less than 25 dB,
then SQ is low. Moreover, in NDN, each FIB prefix maintains
three statuses [prefix forwarding status: 1) Yellow (average
performance); 2) Green (good performance); and 3) Red (no
performance)] of each interface for data retrieval, based on
the round trip time calculated from the PIT entries [11]. FIB
periodically checks and updates the status of each interface
associated with a router through the interface probing [11].
Table II shows the context item and their possible values. In
this scheme, network context items, such as packet type (C1 ),
SQ (C2 ), and prefix forwarding status (C3 ) are the condition
attributes C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } while packet is forwarded or not
is the decision attribute D = {Dforward }. Table III shows the
rules to be executed based on condition attributes and their
values at each NDN node.
These rules can be reduced where reduced set (res) is equal
to res = {C2 , C3 } as C1 is common for all rules. When C2
is high, and the C3 is Green (i.e., Green status interface for
that prefix is available), a packet will be forwarded to any
interface having the Green status for that prefix (rule 1). If
C2 is low and the C3 is Green, then to ensure that emer-
gency packet reached to the destination, a packet will be
forwarded to all interfaces having the Green status for that
prefix (rule 2). If C2 is high and the C3 is Yellow (i.e., Green
status interface for that prefix is not available), a packet will be
forwarded to any (high-ranked) interface having Yellow status
for that prefix (rule 3). When C2 is low and the C3 is Yellow,
there are high chances of packet loss due to congestion in
the network (rule 4). To handle this situation, an emergency
packet can be transferred to any Yellow status interface of the
prefix using hop-by-hop reliability. It is an energy-efficient
solution because it requires less number of data transmissions
due to shorter hop distances [42]. In hop-by-hop reliability,
each data transfer is acknowledged by the receiving node.
Moreover, hop-by-hop reliability uses the concept of store-
and-forward in which packet is stored by the transferring node
until acknowledgment arrives.
Cdf uses the multipath forwarding which provides much
sought-after communication reliability for safety-critical
systems. Moreover, it also utilizes the benefits of NDN state-
ful forwarding plane where each node detects failures (node,
link, or packet) and performs recoveries.
C. Processing@Cloud
The CS supports data processing, long-term data analysis,
and visualization of data for analyzing the patient’s condi-
tion in a more effective way. In the case of emergency, CS
interfaces between the application users, such as patient and
his physician(s), caregiver(s), ambulance driver(s), and Fmem .
Also, application users can interact with the CS to take nec-
essary actions required for the patient’s support and care. The
decision-making algorithm at the CS studies patient’s vital
signs and decides on the pattern of some chronic diseases
and selects the action priorities customized for the particular
patient.
Detection of a possibility of particular disease at the early
stage allows patients, physicians, and patient’s Fmem to be
extra conscious and provides them adequate time to take care
of that. This enhances the reliability of the remote monitoring
healthcare systems and reduces the risk of hospital admission.
To find whether a patient’s vital signs are signifying any par-
ticular disease or not is a classification problem. Therefore,
at the CS, we use classification technique for developing the
probabilistic model for identifying the possibility of a disease
in a patient using his/her vital signs.
D. Classification
When the prediction model predicts that patient’s current
vital signs are not prone to any disease, then the physician can
learn easily that the patient’s having these vital signs had not
been diagnosed with the given diseases and will not be diag-
nosed in future. Otherwise, the physician will get to know that
patient’s vital signs are prone to given disease(s). These kinds
of interpretations from the model will be useful for making
the decisions, estimating the health risk during the emergencies
and will able to reduce the number of patients visit a hospital.
We use the datasets [43] containing the 400 number of
observations of different patients. Each observation of the
patient has 24 attributes with the decision whether a patient
has been diagnosed either suffering from chronic kidney dis-
ease (ckd) or not (notckd). First of all, we preprocess the
dataset and then used it to build predictive models. The distri-
bution of the dataset shows that 62.50% patients are suffering
from ckd while 37.50% do not. Before the classification,
dataset is divided into two parts: 1) the training (60%) and
SAXENA AND RAYCHOUDHURY: DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF NDN-BASED SAFETY-CRITICAL APPLICATION 997

TABLE IV
C LASSIFICATION R ESULTS

Fig. 6. AUC for TB.

Fig. 7. Correlation among different predictors of the dataset.

Fig. 5. Confusion matrix of various classifiers.

2) the test set (40%). We apply cross-validation (holdout) on

the training set and performance of classification algorithms
is calculated on the test set.
a) Classification algorithms and their performance:
We consider the most popular nine statistical classifi-
cation algorithms and then evaluate and compare their
performance on the test set. Classification algorithms are neu- Fig. 8. Out-of-bag feature importance.
ral network (NN) [44], support vector machine (SVM) [45],
Naïve Bayes (NB) [46], K-nearest neighbor (KNN) [47],
discriminant analysis (DA) [48], generalized linear model
[logistic regression (LR)] [49], decision tree (DT) [50], and
ensembles (AdaBoost (Ada) [51] and TreeBagger (TB) [52]).
All algorithms have some pros and cons which are consid-
erable according to the data being analyzed and thus have
a relative importance.
Table IV shows the performance of these nine algorithms
for the accuracy, precision (positive predictive value), recall Fig. 9. AUC for TB_r.
(actual positives that are predicted positives), F-score, and
false alarm rate. Fig. 5 shows the comparison of confusion how or why that prediction was made. Therefore, we select
matrix of all selected algorithms where Yes represents the TB to model the patient’s vital signs at the CS. Fig. 6 shows
true positive, misclassified within Yes is false negative (type the ROC curve for the TB (24 attributes) in which area under
II error), No represents the true negative while misclassified curve (AUC) is 0.99817.
within No is false positive (type I error). The performance of TB is better among others for cor-
The performance of a remote health monitoring systems rectly predicting the disease. But the false alarm rate (Type I
depends upon the accuracy of the correctly identifying the error) is still present. To reduce this, it is important to select
possibility of patient’s hospitalization (i.e., high recall) with only most important features from the dataset. First of all, we
reduced number of false detection (alarm) of an emergency calculate the correlation among different predictors as shown
case (i.e., high precision). From a healthcare system perspec- in Fig. 7, where a higher value indicates highly correlated
tive, it is more important to classify yes correctly than a no. pairs of predictors. But the results do not show any strong
According to this, TB and SVM have the best performance relationship between any two predictors. Therefore, we use
[there is no error for detecting the disease (type II error (false the out-of-bag for estimating the importance of the features
negative) is 0) which makes the system more reliable] among (see Fig. 8) and then select the features of importance greater
other algorithms. But SVM is a black-box classifier [45], i.e., than 0.3. We again train and test the TB for reduced fea-
it is not possible to know the derivation of classification results. tures set (17 attributes). The confusion matrix result of reduced
While predicting the pattern of diseases, it is not only impor- TB (TB_r) is shown in Table IV. Fig. 9 shows the ROC curve
tant to achieve correct prediction, but we require interpreting for TB_r in which AUC is 0.99991.
998 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS: SYSTEMS, VOL. 49, NO. 5, MAY 2019
VI. C ASE S TUDY AND D ISCUSSION
In this section, we illustrate the need and functionalities of
our proposed NHealthIoT system for older adults. We assume
80-year-old Mr. Smith lives alone in his smart home. He has
common old-age ailments such as, dizziness, nausea, loss of
balance, etc. We assume that the NHealthIoT is deployed in
his home to monitor his location and vital signs round-the-
clock. One evening, Mr. Smith has shortness of breath and his
BP and quintessential biological signal—the heartbeat became
very low. He fell down in the bathroom floor unconscious,
and the impact with the floor is detected by the accelerom-
eter. His vital signs are recorded by the health sensors and
processed by the S. S finds this event as an emergency where
immediate medication is necessary for Mr. Smith. S also inti-
mates the CS so that some necessary steps, such as inform
the physician, Fmem , etc., can be taken as early as possible.
Therefore, it can be said that the best and immediate med-
ication for Mr. Smith depends on how efficiently S and CS
collaborate during the emergency event and take the necessary
decisions.
In NHealthIoT, S and CS maintains a set of rules to follow
during the emergency events. NHealthIoT has subsequent rules
to follow during the emergency.
T1 S periodically fetches data from healthcare sensors
for short-term analysis and detects the PoE and send
notification of an emergency to CS.
T2 The patient waits to be treated.
T3 CS sends the request to S and patient for emergency con-
dition verification, and it checks availability of necessary
resources at the hospital, such as ambulance, etc.
T4 The patient gives no response due to unconsciousness.
CS keeps waiting for a prespecified time period.
T5 The patient asks for immediate medication.
T6 False detection of emergency, inform the current situa-
tion to the patient, physician(s), and Fmem .
T7 CS ask to another hospital(s).
T8 Inform the physician(s), caregiver or hospital authority,
and Fmem about the emergency situation and send an
ambulance to patient’s home.
T9 Ambulance reaches to patient’s home, and a Fmem
remotely opens the door after temporarily sharing the
necessary credentials with the hospital authorities (shar-
ing of the secret key).
T10 S senses the presence and turns on the porch light.
T11 Fmem remotely searches patient’s insurance smart card
and other necessary items and share search result with
the hospital authorities.
T12 Caregiver or hospital authority checks the present health
condition of the patient and gives instant medication to
that patient, if necessary.
T13 Do not take that patient to hospital.
T14 Take that patient to hospital.
T15 An Ambulance leaves home for the hospital, and smart
home is locked remotely by the Fmem .
Another most important factor is that the response work-
flow for handling the emergency must be flexible, intu-
itive, and should be free from semantic errors. Therefore,
we extend WIFA to analyze the flexibility, intuitiveness,
to detect semantic errors and for modeling and verify-
ing workflow correctness of NHealthIoT. The key fea-
ture of WIFA over other formal methods, such as Petri-
nets, is that WIFA can be easily modified as per the
requirements of different systems. A workflow consists of
processes and activities which are represented by well-defined
tasks [21].
A workflow is WF = (T, P, C, A, S0 ).
1) T = {T1 , T2 , . . . , Tm } is a set of tasks, where m = 1.
2) P = (Pij )m∗m is precedence matrix of T. If Ti is the direct
predecessor of Tj , then Pij = 1; otherwise, Pij = 0.
3) C = (Cij )m∗m is the conflict matrix of T. Cij ∈ {0, 1} for
i = 1, 2, . . . , m and j = 1, 2, . . . , m.
4) A = (A(T1 ), A(T2 ), . . . , A(Tm )) defines the precondition
set for each task. ∀Tk ∈ T, A(Tk ) : ∗ T1 → 2∗ Tk . Let
set A ∈ A(Tk ). Then, Ti ∈ A implies Pik = 1.
5) S0 ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}m are initial state of the WF.
Denote a state of the WF by S = (S(T1 ), S(T2 ), . . . , S(Tm )),
where S(Ti ) ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}.
1) S(Ti ) = 0 means Ti is not executable at state S and not
executed previously.
2) S(Ti ) = 1 means Ti is executable at state S and not
executed previously.
3) S(Ti ) = 2 means Ti is not executable at state S and
executed previously.
4) S(Ti ) = 3 means Ti is executable at state S and executed
previously.
The dynamics of a WF is captured by state transitions,
Sa (Ti )Sb , i.e., during the execution task Ti , state changes from
Sa to Sb . The state transitions rules are as follows.
If Sa (Ti )Sb , then ∀T j ∈ T.
1) If Tj = Ti , then Sb (Tj ) = 2.
2) If Tj = Ti , then the state value of Tj at new state Sb
depends on its state value at state Sa . We consider the
following four cases.
Case A) Sa (Tj ) = 0
If Pij = 1 and ∃A ∈ A(Tj ) such that Sb (Tk ) =
2 for any Tk ∈ A, then Sb (Tj ) = 1; otherwise,
Sb (Tj ) = 0.
Case B) Sa (Tj ) = 1
If Cij = 0, then Sa (Tj ) = 1; otherwise,
Sb (Tj ) = 0.
Case C) Sa (Tj ) = 2
If Pij = 1 and ∃A ∈ A(Tj ) such that Sb (Tk ) =
2 for any Tk ∈ A, then Sb (Tj ) = 3; otherwise,
Sb (Tj ) = 2.
Case D) Sa (Tj ) = 3
If Cij = 0, then Sb (Tj ) = 3; otherwise,
Sb (Tj ) = 2.
The main characteristics of WIFA are that it supports
sequential execution, concurrency, conflict, synchronization,
and loops (some tasks are executed repeatedly, etc.). A loop
with atleast one entry task and one exit task is called a healthy
loop. Otherwise, the loop is called an unhealthy loop. To
handle the unhealthy loops, we extend the WIFA model for
NHealthIoT workflow.
SAXENA AND RAYCHOUDHURY: DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF NDN-BASED SAFETY-CRITICAL APPLICATION 999

A(T6 ) = {{T3 , T4 }} A(T7 ) = {{T3 }}

A(T8 ) = {{T4 , T5 }} A(T9 ) = {{T8 }} A(T10 ) = {{T9 }}
A(T11 ) = {{T9 }} A(T12 ) = {{T2 , T10 }}
A(T13 ) = {{T12 }} A(T14 ) = {{T12 , T11 }}
A(T15 ) = {{T13 , T14 }}.
Fig. 10. Precedence graph of a 15-task workflow. ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢2 0⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
A. Extended WIFA Model for NHealthIoT ⎢ 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢3 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎥
In any workflow, there can be a possibility of self-loop ⎢
⎢0
⎥
⎥
⎢
⎢0 0 0 1 0 1
⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎥
where a task Ti is a predecessor of itself while in another ⎢
⎢0
⎥
⎥
⎢
⎢0 1 0 1 1 0
⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎥
case, a task Ti is a predecessor of Tj and Tj is a prede- ⎢
⎢0
⎥
⎥
⎢
⎢0 0 0 0 0 0
⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎥
cessor of task Ti (closed loop). We assume that closed and ⎢
p = ⎢ 0
⎥  ⎢
, =
⎥
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥ c ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
self-loops are executed only once. To consider the situations ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
where there are needs to check any condition more than once, ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
then either number of counts or a timestamp can be added to ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥
WIFA model. ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥
To find the new precedence matrix P of T for detecting the ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1⎥⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎥
condition of self and closed loops, we reduce P to P . ⎢
⎢0
⎥
⎥
⎢
⎢0 0 0 0 0 0
⎥
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1⎦ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0⎥
P = (Pij )m∗m is precedence matrix of T. ⎣ ⎣ ⎦
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1) If Pij = 1 where i = j, then Pij = 2.
2) If Pij = 1 and Pji = 1, i < j, then Pij = 2 and Pij = 1. For example, P [1], [2] and P [1], [3] are 1 in P , i.e., T1
In NHealthIoT, we also consider that if a task Ti is conflict is direct predecessor of T2 and T3 ; C [1], [6] is 1 in C , i.e.,
to Tj and Tk then it is not necessary that Tk is also conflict to Ti . T1 conflicts with T6 ; A(T1 ) = ∅ in precondition set shows that
Therefore, the state transitions rules for extended WIFA model T1 is executable when the workflow is started while A(T2 ) =
are as follows. {{T1 }} shows T2 is executable when T1 is executed.
If Sa (Ti )Sb , then ∀Tj ∈ T. Now, to examine the execution of this workflow, T1 is only
1) If Tj = Ti , we consider the following two cases. executable task. So, state S0 = (1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0).
Case A) If Pij = 0 then Sb (Tj ) = 2. Let S0 (T1 )S1 , then based on the state transition rule, we have
Case B) If Pij = 2 then Sb (Tj ) = 2.
2) If Tj = Ti , then the state value of Tj at new state Sb
S1 (T1 ) = 2 (Rule 1A)
depends on its state value at state Sa . We consider the
following four cases. S1 (T2 ) = S1 (T3 ) = 1 (Rule 2A)
Case A) Sa (Tj ) = 0 S1 (T4 ) = S1 (T5 ) = S1 (T6 ) = S1 (T7 )
If Pij = 1 and ∃A ∈ A(Tj ) such that = S1 (T8 ) = S1 (T9 ) = S1 (T10 )
Sb (Tk ) = 2 for any Tk ∈ A, then Sb (Tj ) = 1;
= S1 (T11 ) = S1 (T12 ) = S1 (T13 ) = S1 (T14 )
otherwise, Sb (Tj ) = 0.
Case B) Sa (Tj ) = 1 = S1 (T15 ) = 0
If Cij = 0, then Sa (Tj ) = 1; otherwise, Thus, state S1 = (2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0).
Sb (Tj ) = 0.
Case C) Sa (Tj ) = 2 For the remaining steps, we follow the state transitions rules
If Pij = 1 and ∃A ∈ A (Tj ) such that Sb (Tk ) = of extended WIFA model till no more tasks are executable in
2 for any Tk ∈ A, then Sb (Tj ) = 3; otherwise, the executed state. For example, we consider the execution of
Sb (Tj ) = 2. tasks of an emergency WF of NHealthIoT. Fig. 11 shows the
If Pij = 2, then Sb (Tj ) = 2; flow of task execution for one possible case
Case D) Sa (Tj ) = 3
If Cij = 0, then Sb (Tj ) = 3; otherwise, T1 → T3 → T4 → T8 → T9 → T2 → T7 → T10 → T11 →
Sb (Tj ) = 2. T12 → T13 → T15
A precedence graph of NHealthIoT for handling the emer-
gency WF as T = {T1 , T2 , T3 , T4 , T5 , T6 , T7 , T8 , T9 , T10 , where state S15 is (2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2) has no
T11 , T12 , T13 , T14 , T15 } is shown in Fig. 10. The precedence more executable task.
matrix P , conflict matrix C, and precondition set of each task NHealthIoT workflow model shows that S and CS are coor-
A are as follows: dinating, and synchronizing their tasks efficiently for handling
the emergency event. Moreover, it is adaptive to new possible
A(T1 ) = ∅, A(T2 ) = {{T1 }}, A(T3 ) = {{T1 }} changes on the existing workflow as it requires changes only
A(T4 ) = {{T3 , T4 }}, A(T5 ) = {{T3 }} in the task and the relationship among them.
1000 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS: SYSTEMS, VOL. 49, NO. 5, MAY 2019
Fig. 11. State transition diagram of the example workflow.
Fig. 12. Floor plan to setup different sensors.
VII. S YSTEM S ETUP AND I MPLEMENTATION
We develop the complete NHealthIoT system in and around
the Information Security Laboratory of the Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Roorkee, India. Being
a big room, we have logically divided the laboratory area as
per the following plan (see Fig. 12).
A. System Setup
To setup the communication from home-to-room and then to
table-level, we arrange S, Raspberry Pi, Arduinos and sensors
in a hierarchical manner (see Fig. 13).
In NHealthIoT, S is attached to a Raspberry Pi Model
B+ [53], [54]. We have written Python scripts on Raspberry Pi
which is then connected to Arduino using a Pyserial library in
serial connection through USB. Through this, Raspberry Pi can
access analog and digital ports of Arduino and can command
to Arduino. Tenda Wi-Fi USB Dongle is used to provide Wi-Fi
connection to Raspberry Pi. Each Arduino (a programmable
microcontroller board based on ATMEGA 328) [55], have
XBee Radio module (IEEE 802.15.4 protocol) [56], XBee
wireless shield, and XBee Explorer for the communication.
At the end, e-Health sensor shield V2.0 [57] has the fol-
lowing sensors—accelerometer, glucometer, body temperature,
BP, pulse, and oxygen in blood (SPO2), airflow (breathing),
galvanic skin response (sweating), ECG, and EMG, etc. Other
sensors used for actuation control and smart items search
are LED, infrared (IR) sensor, and RFID tags and readers,
respectively.
First of all, a laptop is connected to Raspberry Pi [54]
remotely using the Xming [59] and Putty [58]. We also use
Fig. 13. System setup using NDN-IoT.
Fig. 14. Vital sign sensor subsystem (a) Health sensors sub-
system. (b) Healthcare data collection interface and plot of sensor data.
PyNDN, and NDN client library for providing the NDN
communication [61], [62]. Further, NDN-Cxx library [63] is
installed to support the basic NDN primitives. For forwarding
support, NDN forwarding Daemon (NFD) [60] and NDN rout-
ing Daemon (NRD) [64] are used. NFD supports the essential
features of NDN to forward the packets, while NRD is used to
build the forwarding table. We use the Repo-ng [65] to imple-
ment NDN repo . It uses the repo protocol to insert, delete, and
retrieve data objects from data repository nodes. It is using
SQLite [66] for database implementation.
E-health sensor shield periodically captures vital signs of
the user and send the readings to the Arduino microcontroller.
Arduinos at the room level remains attached to RFID read-
ers. Moreover, items are attached with the RFID tags. All
sensors periodically update their values and send to the micro-
controller. Smart entities associated with the Arduinos can be
controlled by the S and can perform specific action(s) during
an event occurrence. A sketch on Arduino is written using
C/C++ which is customizable according to the hardware char-
acteristics. Moreover, messages are cached in the 4 GB SD
card attached to the Arduino wireless SD shield.
For better visualization, we have shown NHealthIoT system
setup individually in Figs. 14–16.
CS comprises of a desktop computer (Intel Core i7 3770
3.4 GHz CPU 8 GB RAM and 64-bit Ubuntu 14.04 LTS),
ndn-cxx, NFD and ndn-traffic-generator [67]. NHealthIoT is
residing in the same wireless LAN.
B. System Implementation
In Raspberry Pi, many virtual nodes can be created. There is
a need to setup an NDN network by creating the set of nodes
where one node acts as a controller. Controller responsibility
is to issue certificates to nodes (takes public key information of
SAXENA AND RAYCHOUDHURY: DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF NDN-BASED SAFETY-CRITICAL APPLICATION
Fig. 15. System setup for customized device control using NDN.
Fig. 16. Remotely searching objects in the smart home using
NDN. (a) Bedroom drawer. (b) Drawing room drawer. (c) Interface for object
access.
nodes) of the same network. Controller also maintains a list of
nodes available in the same network with their possible capa-
bilities (services). Whenever a new node joins the network,
that node must be paired with the controller to exhibit node
capabilities to the rest of the network. A node creates differ-
ent commands and periodically updates them to the controller.
A node provides a response to incoming command Ipkts if they
are verifiable (coming from authorized user). It also sends cer-
tificate signing request to the controller. Initially, NDN allows
devices to connect without any name or address. Naming and
trust schemes play an important role for initial configuration
data. After the establishment of trust with the root node(s)
and getting the name, service discovery and node(s) capabil-
ities can be accessed through the exchange of node-to-node
metadata.
Nodes attached to a controller can be further used either
for collecting data from sensors or for sending commands to
fixtures, such as TV, lights, microwave, etc. There is another
class base-node which provides security to the network using
PyNDN. It contains policy manager which provides methods
for creating certificates for signing the Ipkt-Dpkt. Moreover,
policy manager also provides the hierarchical trust model to
verify the trust in certificates. Both controller and node inherit
the base-node for getting the certificates to sign the Ipkts
and/or Dpkts.
We assigned “/health” name to the controller, i.e., a name
of the network. Further, we created a set of nodes for
performing all operations of NHealthIoT, one for collecting
the vital signs of patient (C-node), second to search the smart
objects (S-node), and third to control the lights and/or fixtures
(Co-node) and the fourth node for the user (U-node). C-node,
S-node, and Co-node directly control the Raspberry Pi which
then sends messages to the Arduino. As discussed above,
information of C-node, S-node, and Co-node are maintained
in the controller with their capabilities. A U-node requests
list of available nodes and their capabilities from controller
and then directly sends signed command (request certificate
from the controller) to those nodes for getting the required
1001
service(s). Signed version of a command includes name pre-
fix, command name, and security parameters. Moreover, each
node has a function update_capabilities () to update available
capabilities to the controller. For example, to show the working
of light control, three capabilities are added to Co-node, such
as “switch on light” (remote or time-based), “switch off light”
(remote or time-based), and “monitor” (for the occurrence
of a particular event). Whenever Co-node receives any Ipkt,
it extracts the information of required operation to perform.
Moreover, CS is using NDNrepo [65], [66] to store the fetched
data using the fields patient name, patientID, and timestamp.
C. Naming Scheme
CN used for collecting vital signs from deployed healthcare
sensors through S is “/health/patientID/CVS/*/I” where I is
the data fetching interval calculated via HMM.
When a request is issued to search the smart
card, the application interface generates an Ipkt
“/health/op/search/SmartCard” to S. Then, S maps the
object to its id and searches the requested object in its
updated database, NDN repo and returns the corresponding
location in human understandable form. If no information is
available in S, then Ipkt is broadcasted to all the room level
smart entities augmented with RFID. In response to the Ipkt,
the corresponding item replies.
The Co-node issues Ipkt “/health/op/control/action” to
home devices at the occurrences of triggers, such as sensor
readings or user commands or time where an action is the
available services (on, off, dim, etc.) with the fixtures.
VIII. P ERFORMANCE R ESULTS AND A NALYSIS
We have tested the performance of our proposed
NHealthIoT system using prototype testbed, and we evaluate
the performance of Cdf using ndnSIM [68].
In the following section, we shall discuss the results of our
prototype testbed and ndnSIM simulation.
A. Simulation Experiments
To evaluate the performance of Cdf, we simulate it on
ndnSIM for the metrics: packet delivery ratio (PDR), and
Latency (L). PDR is necessary to find true performance of the
forwarding scheme while L shows the efficacy of the content
delivery. We formally define the performance metrics.
1) Packet Delivery Ratio: It is the ratio of the number of
Dpkts successfully reached to the requesting node to the
total number of Ipkts generated.
2) Latency: It is the interval between the Ipkt(s) to reach the
destination node and returning of corresponding Dpkt to
the requester.
For the simulation scenario, we consider a 500 m2 grid
topology for 100 nodes with constant mobility. The packet size
is set to a constant value of 1024 bytes. The time to live field
is set to 5 in order to guarantee a maximum 6-hop transmis-
sion. The Interest rate is 50 Ipkts/s. We run the simulation for
600 s. Furthermore, we run the simulation 100 times to reduce
the hardware dependency and plot the average. We consider
multiple simultaneous multihop Adhoc communication where,
1002 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS: SYSTEMS, VOL. 49, NO. 5, MAY 2019
Fig. 17. Packet delivery ratio.
Fig. 18. Latency.
source and sink nodes are randomly selected from node id
ranges (0–49) and (50–99), respectively. A scheme is robust
and reliable if it can perform all its operations under worst cir-
cumstances. For the worst-case scenario, we consider no node
in the simulation has the Green status interface for any prefix,
and SQ is always low in the network.
In ndnSIM, three forwarding strategies, flooding, smart-
flooding, and best-route strategy are defined. In flooding,
packets are forwarded to all available Green and Yellow
interfaces. In smart-flooding, a packet is forwarded to only
one Green interface or all yellow interfaces while in best-route
strategy, a packet is forwarded to high-ranked Green interface
or high ranked Yellow interface. We skipped the implemen-
tation of smart-flooding, since in a wireless setting, under
the worst-case scenario, smart-flooding strategy performance
reduces to flooding. Moreover, in the worst case scenario,
best-route strategy performs equal to Cdf (but Cdf is more
reliable because of the use of hop-to-hop reliability scheme).
Therefore, we compare the Cdf performance with Flooding
for finding the reliability with respect to the varying number
of consumers.
Fig. 17 shows the PDR of Cdf and flooding schemes for
the varying number of consumers. Fig. 18 shows the com-
parison of latency for Cdf and flooding schemes. The result
shows that Cdf manages to maintain high PDR as compared
to flooding while at the same time Cdf is achieving low L
(Fig. 18). As the network becomes more congested, the nega-
tive effects of broadcast storm [69] problem cause flooding to
require more time to deliver the Ipkt notifications. On the other
hand, Cdf manages to counterbalance the effect of broadcast
storm problem by maintaining almost constant latency values
as the number of consumer increases.
Flooding scheme is reliable as there are high chances of get-
ting the data, but it does not guarantee good performance under
the worst circumstances, such as network congestion. The
main reason behind the poor performance of flooding is that
Fig. 19. Latency between the sink node and S.
flooding generates lots of redundant messages which waste
network capacity and increases network contention and packet
collisions. On the other hand, Cdf is reducing the generation
of a number of messages (forwards to only selected interfaces)
by exploiting the benefits of NDN stateful plane and multipath
forwarding. Cdf outperforms flooding and showing that Cdf is
more suitable for forwarding emergency notifications even in
worst situations.
B. Prototype Testbed Experiments
For testbed evaluation, we measure the latency (L) and PDR
for different scenarios using NDN-based communication. We
have already defined them in Section VIII-A. In the following
section, we discuss the testbed evaluation.
To analyze the prototype performance, we have arranged
all communicating nodes in the line topology (represents the
hierarchy) in which the first node is acting as a source node,
while end node of the topology is acting as a sink node con-
nected to sensors. Moreover, all nodes are static. In a static
environment, no packet is lost; therefore, we consider only L
as the performance metric.
Fig. 19 shows the L between the sink node and S with
respect to number of intermediate nodes in which one end is
S while the other is a patient monitoring healthcare sensors.
Healthcare sensors keep generating vital signs of the patient(s).
S sends an Ipkt to healthcare sensors in a fixed interval (calcu-
lated using HMM as discussed above) to fetch the data. Then,
sensors send Dpkt with valid content in response. It can be
observed that each intermediate node between S and sink is
adding some extra cost because of overhead to add a PIT
entry and time to search the FIB for forwarding the Ipkt(s)
upward.
Fig. 20 shows the L to control the actuator remotely from
the S. For this, topology’s one end is the S while another
end is an actuator attached with sensors. We increased the
number of nodes between the S and actuator one-by-one and
then computed the L. As the numbers of nodes are increasing,
L is also increasing as each intermediate node consumes time
to join the network, and time to forward Ipkts/Dpkts, etc.
Fig. 21 shows the L to search the smart items from S using
pull and push-based communication. We searched six items
and repeated the procedure for ten times, and an average is
taken to mitigate the effect of hardware dependency. After the
first round of collection, L reduced to its half as intermediate
nodes cache the content.
SAXENA AND RAYCHOUDHURY: DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF NDN-BASED SAFETY-CRITICAL APPLICATION
Fig. 20. Latency between the S and actuator (remote access).
Fig. 21. Latency for pull and push-based search.
Fig. 22. TRK-MPC5604B free-scale motor car.
When all nodes in the network are in fixed position (static),
we can say through results that caching plays an important
role as it increases the data availability and reduces the L
(content retrieval delay). But the L can increase when node
are mobiles. If an intermediate node is switched off or moved
after the Ipkt transfer, then Dpkt will not reach to a destination
node as in NDN, Dpkt follows the corresponding Ipkt path in
reverse. This shows that the routing of Ipkts and Dpkts in the
resource-constrained IoT also plays a significant role in reduc-
ing the L which is not addressed yet. Therefore, to analyze the
impact of NDN routing on caching for efficiently retrieving
the requested content in a mobile resource-constrained envi-
ronment, we develop a scenario in which smart vehicles are
moving in a specified area and communicating with each other
and to the stationary road side units (RSU) (Fig. 22). In order
to strengthen our experimental analysis, we further carry out
experiments with three moving and six static vehicles inter-
mittently communicating with each other and facing frequent
disconnection.
The proposed mobile scenario consists of three TRK-
MPC5604B Freescale [70] motor cars and six desktop com-
puters (acting as RSUs) intercommunicating through IEEE
802.15.4. Each motor car and RSU is enabled with the
programmed Freeduino board with Arduino wireless SD shield
Xbee. The messages are stored in the 4 GB SD card attached
to the Arduino wireless SD shield.
We placed all three cars in such a way that they are not in
communication ranges of each other initially (run for 600 s.).
First, we started with only two cars and repeated the procedure
1003
Fig. 23. Impact of caching on L.
Fig. 24. Min. and Max. L (caching enabled).
Fig. 25. Packet delivery ratio.
for ten times to mitigate the effect of hardware dependency.
Then, an average is taken. Cars are going near to RSUs in
a random manner, and they are sparsely connected. Moreover,
we increased the number of nodes (cars and RSUs alike) one-
by-one to analyze the impact of the number of nodes on the
network.
Fig. 23 shows the impact of caching on L during data col-
lection. We used three mobile and six static nodes in which
one mobile node acted as a consumer and another mobile node
as a producer. In the first round, with-caching case consumes
higher delay than without-caching case because caching adds
some extra data storage and data retrieval time in the delay.
Once data is spread in the network, the delay is decreasing
over time and is almost constant in rounds 8–10. Fig. 24 shows
the variation of the L (minimum and maximum value) when
caching is done on the intermediate nodes of the network.
When a Dpkt can choose any path to reach the request-
ing node (!Dpkt-R), packet loss decreases with the increase of
nodes density. On the other hand, when a Dpkt follows the cor-
responding Ipkt path in reverse (Dpkt-R), chances of packet
loss increases as intermediate nodes can be switched off or
has moved after the transfer of Ipkt. Fig. 25 shows the impact
of the Dpkt-R and !Dpkt-R schemes on the PDR (requesting
node is generating 5 Ipkts/s). In !Dpkt-R, packet loss is high
when the numbers of nodes are less in the network, while it
1004 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS: SYSTEMS, VOL. 49, NO. 5, MAY 2019
is decreasing with the increase in the number of intermediate
nodes. In Dpkt-R, a rate of packet loss is increasing as neigh-
bor nodes are continuously changing, i.e., nodes density does
not affect the network performance.
IX. F URTHER D ISCUSSION
NDN uses CNs to organize data access, identity and
trust management and access control. Moreover, NDN deals
directly with the CNs which supports the content secu-
rity instead of channel security. NDN provides intrinsic
data caching, multicast, multipath forwarding and disruption
recovery mechanisms. Applications built on NDN should not
need to address these at the application layer, which gives them
the potential of being more efficient and robust than those built
on IP. Content caching increases the content availability and
makes caching more beneficial by the use of persistent in-
network storage [11], [16]. As NDN is an emerging area of
research, it offers several novel features which might be bene-
ficial for IoT as discussed earlier but still it has plenty of open
research challenges.
The use of CNs in IoT environment increases the bur-
den on the already resource-constrained nodes. So, naming
contents in IoT will have prohibitive demand on already con-
strained memory resources. Adopting NDN-type security in
IoT requires securing each Dpkt which puts the overhead at
the content producer which might be resource-constrained.
Contents in IoT are sometimes produced and consumed by
a single fixed pair of nodes in which case, caching will not
be of much (or, any) help even if the resource-constrained IoT
nodes at all support it. Also, caching requires refreshing the
cached copies along with the original. If the frequency of orig-
inal data production is high, high cache replacement time may
slow down data access. Moreover, it is not preferable for the
resource-constrained as it consumes high memory.
Existing NDN solutions on Internet work mostly as NDN
overlay on top of IP. But, edge devices of IoT network are
severely resource-constrained compared to that in the Internet
(edge devices in the Internet are still home or office PCs
or smart handheld devices). It is already very challenging to
deploy an IP stack on an IoT device. So, supporting an NDN
overlay on top of IP is even more difficult for an IoT device.
X. C ONCLUSION
In this paper, we presented NHealthIoT which is a human
and data-centric smart system that uses NDN for naming, boot-
strapping and service discovery, device registration, securely
pub/sub data, caching, scalable forwarding, etc. NHealthIoT
collects vital signs of smart home inhabitants and transfers
them to S for early detection and diagnosis of critical health
condition changes using HMM. Regular health data is pub-
lished by S and is subscribed by the CS and Fmem . Emergency
notifications are sent to CS using a novel Cdf. CS collects the
vital signs and uses the probabilistic modeling to predict
the possibility of chronic diseases based on irregularities in
the patient’s vital signs. We extended the WIFA model for
verifying the correctness of NHealthIoT system during an
emergency. We evaluated the data forwarding strategy using
ndnSIM for the reliability and robustness. We have also devel-
oped an NHealthIoT prototype and evaluated it extensively to
prove the usability of NHealthIoT. In the future, we will opti-
mize the performance of NHealthIoT on a wider scale, under
different scenarios and applications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Prof. C. Becker from
Universität Mannheim for his valuable suggestions.
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development-kit
Divya Saxena (M’14) is currently pursuing the
Ph.D. degree with the Department of Computer
Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
Her current research interests include named
data networking, Internet of Things, and mobile
computing.
Vaskar Raychoudhury (SM’07) received the
Ph.D. degree in computing from the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, in 2010.
He is currently an Alexander von Humboldt
Post-Doctoral Research Fellow with the Universität
Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany. In 2011, he
joined the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, India, as an
Assistant Professor. His current research interests
include mobile and pervasive computing and
networking, IoT, and WSN.