INTRODUCTION TO

POLITICS

CONCEPTIONS OF POLITICS

GCC Spring 2

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

 OUTLINE

DEFINING POLITICS

1. Politics as the art of government

2. Politics as public affairs
3. Politics as compromise and consensus
4. Politics as power and the distribution of
resources.

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

DIFFERENT CONCEPTIONS OF POLITICS

Politics As The Art Of Government

• This is a state-centered view of politics.
- Politics is what governments‖ or states‖ do.
• It means that most people, most institutions
and most social activities can be regarded as
being outside politics.
• Businesses, schools and other educational
institutions, community groups, families and so
on are in this sense nonpolitical.

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

 The Cynic View of Politics

• The implication of this state-centric

conception of politics is that politics is
thought of as a negative word.

• It raises up images of trouble, disruption and

even violence on the one hand, and deceit,
manipulation and lies on the other.

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

 The Cynic View of Politics

“One has to be a lowbrow, a bit of a murderer,

to be a politician, ready and willing to see
people sacrificed, slaughtered, for the sake of an
idea, whether a good one or a bad one”.
- Henry Miller
“The more you read and observe about this
Politics thing, you got to admit that each party is
worse than the other. The one that's out always
looks the best”. - Will Rogers

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Politics as Public Affairs

• A second and broader conception of politics

moves beyond the narrow realm of
government.
• Politics is thought of as public life or public
affairs.
• The distinction between the political and the
nonpolitical corresponds with the division
between an essentially public sphere of life
and what can be thought of as a private
sphere.
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
Aristotle • In Politics, Aristotle declared
that “man is by nature a
political animal” - He meant
that it is only within a
political community that
human beings can live the
good life.

• From this viewpoint, then,

politics is an ethical activity
concerned with creating a
just society.‖
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
One view of the public/private divide

Public Private

The State: Civil Society:

apparatus of autonomous bodies:
government Businesses, trade
unions, clubs, families
and so on

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

An Alternative view of the public/private divide

Public Private

Public realm: Personal realm:

Politics, commerce, Family and
work, art, culture and domestic life
son on.

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Hannah Arendt
• This conception of politics as something
positive and public activity was firmly
endorsed by - Hannah Arendt

• She argued that politics is the most important

form of human activity because it involves
interaction amongst free and equal citizens.

• It thus gives meaning to life and affirms the

uniqueness of each individual.
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
Politics as Compromise and Consensus
• The third conception of politics relates to the
way in which decisions are made.

• Politics is seen as a particular means of

resolving conflict: that is, by compromise,
conciliation and negotiation. –

• Politics becomes the process of “conflict

resolution.”
• In this view, the key to politics is a wide
dispersal of power.
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
• Accepting that conflict is inevitable and social
groups possess and compete for power, they
must be conciliated.
James Madison
“There are two methods of curing the
mischiefs of faction: the one, by
removing its causes; the other, by
controlling its effects….The inference
to which we are brought is, that the
causes of faction cannot be removed,
and that relief is only to be sought in
the means of controlling its effects” .
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
Politics as power and the distribution of resources.
Politics as Power
• The fourth definition of politics is both the
broadest and the most radical.

• Rather than confining politics to a particular

sphere; - this view sees politics at work in all
social activities and in every corner of human
existence.
• In this sense, politics takes place at every level
of social interaction.
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
• It can be found within families and amongst
small groups of friends just as much as
amongst nations and on the global stage.
Distribution of Power and Resources

• At its broadest, politics concerns the

production, distribution and use of resources
in the course of social existence.
• At its broadest, politics concerns the
production, distribution and use of resources
in the course of social existence.

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

• Politics is, in essence, power: the ability to
achieve a desired outcome, through whatever
means.

• From this perspective, politics is about

diversity and conflict.

• The essential ingredient is the existence of

scarcity…
• Politics can therefore be seen as a struggle over
scarce resources, and power can be seen as the
means through which this struggle is conducted
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
 CONCLUSION

The inescapable presence of diversity and

scarcity ensures that politics is an inevitable
feature of the human condition.

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

 Overview
of
Political Ideologies

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

 OUTLINE
A. Ideologies
• Liberalism
• Conservatism
• Socialism
• Communism

B. Right-wing and left-wing politics

• Historical origin of the terms
• Practice
• Spectrum

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

What is a political ideology?
• A coherent set of ideas of on how people
should live together
• A plan of action for applying these ideas

How it is applicable in four key functions;

• Explanatory
• Evaluative
• Orientation
• Programmatic

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Four key functions
1. Explanatory: How the world Works -
Empirical

2. Evaluative: Deciding whether things are

good or bad – Normative

3. Orientation: Supplies the holder with a sense

of identity

4. Programmatic:
What to do and how to do it
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
Foundational Disputes

Human Nature
• ‘Naturally’ good, cooperative, even perfectible
• Inherently flawed, evil, dangerous

Individual versus Collective

• A normative choice with empirical implications

Conception of Freedom
• Freedom as an ‘essentially contested concept’
• ‘Freedom from…’ versus ‘Freedom to…’
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
I. Liberalism

• Desire for a free, open, tolerant society

• Humans as rational and able to recognize

and promote self-interest

• Liberty and equality of opportunity

• Classical Liberalism versus Modern

(Welfare) Liberalism

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Liberalism’s ‘Four Functions’

Explanatory:
• Social conditions are the result of individual choices
and actions
Evaluative:
• Societies work best when individuals are free to do as
they wish without harming or violating rights of others
Orientation:
• Rational, self-interested individuals
Programmatic:
• programs for promoting individual liberty and
opportunity

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

II. Conservatism
• Human imperfection

• Focused on conserving existing social order

• Custom and tradition as ‘latent wisdom’

• Organic view of society

• Acceptance of inequality

• Freedom and order

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
Conservatism’s ‘Four Functions’

Explanatory:
• Social conditions are the result of human
imperfections (intellectual and moral)
Evaluative:
• Success is a question of social order and harmony
Orientation:
• Each of us is part of a greater whole, and we should
act with interest of society (not just self) in mind
Programmatic:
• Slow and cautious change

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

III. Socialism
Flaws of Liberalism
• Individualism and Social Class
• Economics and Political Power

Economic Equality as ‘True Equality’

Economic Planning and the Welfare State

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Socialism’s ‘Four Functions’
Explanatory:
• Social conditions can only be understood by reference
to economic and class relations
Evaluative:
• Sharpness of economic divisions (exploitive?)
determines health of society
Orientation:
• People should think of themselves in terms of their
economic (class) position
Programmatic:
• Policies must be put into place to advance economic
equality

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

IV. Communism

Historical Materialism
• Economic (material) foundation of social change
• Class conflict as engine of history
Historical progression
• Primitive Communism Slave-based Empires
• Feudalism Capitalism Communism
Inherent contradictions
• Capitalism, profit and exploitation
• Revolution

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Communism’s ‘Four Functions’
Explanatory:
• Social conditions determined by economic and class
relations
Evaluative:
• Sharpness of class divisions determines ‘stage of
development’
Orientation:
• People should think of themselves in terms of their
class position
Programmatic:
• Policies must be put into place to advance movement
toward communist revolution and ‘classless society’

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Right – Wing vs Left – Wing

Politics

Spectrum

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Historical origin of the terms
• The terms Right and Left refer to political affiliation
which originated early in the French Revolutionary era
of 1789 – 1896
• The seating arrangement in the French parliament –
18th century
Socio-political system which existed in most of Europe
during the 18th century
Countries were ruled by absolutism – the monarch had
absolute control over the government
Classes of people – privileged and unprivileged
Unprivileged people – paid taxes and treated badly
Privileged people – did not pay taxes and treated well

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

• The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies
considerably between different countries and
at different times

• Generally, the right wing often values tradition

while the left wing often values reform and
classlessness,

• with the center seeking a balance between the

two such as with social democracy or
regulated capitalism.

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Radical Liberal Moderate Conservative Reactionary

Left Right

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Left of Moderate
Liberal

• Believe that the government should actively

promote social reform to increase individuals’
well being.

• Favor change but work peacefully within the

existing political system. (Democrats, Green
Party - US)

By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College

Right Side of Moderate
Conservative

• Government should stay out of the lives of

citizens and businesses, except on moral
issues.

• Favor the status quo, (the way things are).

Hesitant to change.

• Will work peacefully within the existing

political system.
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College
Liberals Change Conservatives
Tradition
Problems are circumstantial
Problems are individual
Gov’t is responsible for social reform
Gov’t needs to be less involved
Freedom – personal choices
Equality–fairness–level the playing field
Human rights
Property rights
Moral Principles
Relative Values
By Joseph Ochieng Okumu: Global Citizens’ College