2.

2 | Cell Structure and it's
Functions
Cell Structure And Function
Some functions performed by cells are so vital to
the existence of life that all cells perform them
(e.g. cellular respiration). Others are highly
specialised (e.g. photosynthesis).

The cell theory developed in 1839 by

microbiologists Schleiden and Schwann describes
the properties of cells. It is an explanation of the
relationship between cells and living things. The
theory states that:


o all living things are made of cells
and their products.
o new cells are created by old cells
dividing into two.
o cells are the basic building blocks of
life.

The cell theory applies to all living things, however

big or small. The modern understanding of cell
theory extends the concepts of the original cell
theory to include the following:
 animal cell. The diagram shows the structures
o The activity of an organism
depends on the total activity of
independent cells.
o Energy flow occurs in cells through
the breakdown of carbohydrates by
respiration.
o Cells contain the information
necessary for the creation of new cells.
This information is known as 'hereditary
information' and is contained within DNA.
o The contents of cells from similar
species are basically the same.
Cells are the smallest form of life; the functional
and structural units of all living things. Your body
contains several billion cells, organised into over
200 major types, with hundreds of cell-specific
functions.
Figure 2.1a: Diagram of the cell ultrastructure of
an animal cell.
Fig 2.1 a shows a two-dimensional drawing of an
visible within a cell at high magnification. The
structures form the ultrastructure  of the cell.
 
We will now look at some of the basic cell
structures and organelles in animal and plant cells.
Cell wall 
The cell wall is a rigid non-living layer that is
found outside the cell membrane and surrounds
the cell. Plants, bacteria and fungi all have cell
walls. In plants, the wall is comprised of cellulose.
It consists of three layers that help support the
plant. These layers include the middle lamella, the
primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall.
Middle lamella: Separates one cell from another. It
is a thin membranous layer on the outside of the
cell and is made of a sticky substance called
pectin.
Primary cell wall: Is on the inside of the middle
lamella and is mainly composed of cellulose.
Secondary cell wall: Lies alongside the cell
membrane. It is is made up of a thick and tough
layer of cellulose which is held together by a hard,
waterproof substance called lignin. It is only found
in cells which provide mechanical support in
plants.
Functions of the cell wall
 hydrophobic tails point towards one another and
o The main function of the wall is to
protect the inner parts of the plant cell, it
gives plant cells a more uniform and
regular shape and provides support for
the plant body.
o The cell wall is completely
permeable to water and mineral salts
which allows distribution of nutrients
throughout the plant.
o The openings in the cell wall are
called plasmodesmata which contain
strands of cytoplasm that connect
adjacent cells. This allows cells to interact
with one another, allowing molecules to
travel between plant cells.
Cell membrane
The cell membrane, also called the plasma
membrane, physically separates the intracellular
space (inside the cell) from the extracellular
environment (outside the cell). All plant and
animal cells have cell membranes. The cell
membrane surrounds and protects the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm is part of the protoplasm and is the
living component of the cell.
The cell membrane is composed of a double layer
(bilayer) of special lipids (fats)
called phospholipids. Phospholipids consist of
a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and
a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail. The
hydrophobic head of the phospholipid
is polar (charged) and can therefore dissolve in
water. The hydrophobic tail is non-
polar (uncharged), and cannot dissolve in water.
The lipid bilayer forms spontaneously due to the
properties of the phospholipid molecules. In an
aqueous environment, the polar heads try to form
hydrogen bonds with the water, while the non-
polar tails try to escape from the water. The
problem is solved by the formation of a bilayer
because the hydrophilic heads can point outwards
and from hydrogen bonds with water, and the
are 'protected' from the water molecules (Fi g  2.1
b)
 
Figure 2.1b : The lipid bilayer showing the
arrangement of phospholipids, containing
hydrophilic, polar heads and hydrophobic, non-
polar tails.
All the exchanges between the cell and its
environment have to pass through the cell
membrane. The cell membrane is selectively
permeable to ions (e.g. hydrogen, sodium), small
molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide) and larger
molecules (glucose and amino acids) and controls
the movement of substances in and out of the
cells. The cell membrane performs many
important functions within the cell such as
osmosis, diffusion, transport of nutrients into the
cell, processes of ingestion and secretion. The cell
membrane is strong enough to provide the cell
with mechanical support and flexible enough to
allow cells to grow and move.
Six Main Cell Functions
A cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
Each cell contains smaller organelles that perform
various functions such as metabolism,
transportation and secretion of substances.
Because some cells perform specific functions,
they have special modified structures. For
example, red blood cells are the oxygen carriers in
the body. They lack a nucleus to make more
space for the oxygen-carrying pigment,
hemoglobin. The various structures and
organelles in a cell float in a liquid called
the cytoplasm
1.  Provide Structure and Support
Like a classroom is made of bricks, every
organism is made of cells. While some cells such
as the collenchyma and sclerenchyma are
specifically meant for structural support, all cells
generally provide the structural basis of all
organisms.)For instance, skin is made up of a
number of skin cells. Vascular plants have evolved
a special tissue called xylem, which is made of
cells that provide structural support.
2.  Facilitate Growth Through Mitosis
In complex organisms, tissues grow by simple
multiplication of cells. This takes place through the
process of mitosis in which the parent cell breaks
down to form two daughter cells identical to
it. Mitosis is also the process through which
simpler organisms reproduce and give rise to new
organisms.
3.  Allow Passive and Active Transport
Cells import nutrients to use in the various
chemical processes that go on inside them. These
processes produce waste which a cell needs to
get rid of. Small molecules such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide and ethanol get across the cell
membrane through the process of simple
diffusion. This is regulated with a concentration
gradient across the cell membrane. This is known
as passive transport. However, larger molecules,
such as proteins and polysaccharides, go in and
out of a cell through the process of active
transport  in which the cell uses vesicles to excrete
or absorb larger molecules.
4.  Produce Energy
An organism's survival depends upon the
thousands of chemical reactions that cells carry
out relentlessly. For these reactions, cells require
energy. Most plants get this energy through the
process of photosynthesis whereas animals get
their energy through a mechanism called
respiration.
5.  Create Metabolic Reactions
Metabolism includes all the chemical reactions
that take place inside an organism to keep it alive.
These reactions can be catabolic or anabolic. The
process of energy production by breaking down
molecules (glucose) is known as catabolism.
Anabolic reactions, on the other hand, use energy
to make bigger substances from simpler ones.
6.  Aids in Reproduction
Reproduction is vital for the survival of a species.
A cell helps in reproduction through the processes
of mitosis (in more evolved organisms) and
meiosis. In mitosis cells simply divide to form new
cells. This is termed asexual reproduction. Meiosis
takes place in gametes or reproductive cells
where there is a mixing of genetic information.
This causes daughter cells to be genetically
different from the parent cells. Meiosis is a part of
sexual reproduction.