Propriety, process and purpose: considerations of the use of the telephone interview

method in an educational research study

Author(s): Margaret Glogowska, Pat Young and Lesley Lockyer
Source: Higher Education, Vol. 62, No. 1 (July 2011), pp. 17-26
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41477842
Accessed: 30-09-2016 00:06 UTC

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High Educ (2011) 62:17-26
DOI 10.1007/S10734-010-9362-2

Propriety, process and purpose: considerations of the use

of the telephone interview method in an educational
research study

Margaret Glogowska • Pat Young • Lesley Lockyer

Published online: 9 August 2010

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract While the use of the telephone has increased as a means of collecting research
data in a range of areas, there are few examples of studies where telephone interviews have
been conducted to collect qualitative data. The field of educational research is no exception
to this. This paper focuses on a study carried out in Higher Education (HE) investigating
student withdrawal. It explores the ethics of interviewing by telephone a group of former
students; issues that arose in the carrying out of the research, particularly relating to the
quality of the data; and the impact of the study's purpose on its conduct. The paper
discusses the value of telephone interviewing to collect qualitative data and offers some
practical suggestions for future use.

Keywords Qualitative methodology • Qualitative research • Student withdrawal •

Telephone interviewing

Introduction

This paper discusses the use of the telephone as a way of collecting qualitative data in an
educational setting, with illustration from a study on student withdrawal from courses in
Higher Education (HE). It focuses on three main issues: the ethics of telephone inter-
viewing a group of former university students; issues that arose specifically out of the
process of carrying out telephone interviews with this group, bringing data quality to the
fore; and how the purpose of the study impacted upon its conduct. Examples taken from
the study are used to highlight points of particular importance. The paper also aims to
provide practical suggestions for others who may wish to use telephone interviews as a
way of gathering qualitative data.

M. Glogowska (И) • P. Young • L. Lockyer

Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of England,
Glenside Campus, Blackberry Hill, Bristol BS 16 1DD, UK
e-mail: margaret2.glogowska@uwe.ac.uk

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 18 High Educ (2011) 62:17-26

Background

Conducting interviews over the telephone is an increasingly utilised method of collecting

data in a variety of research fields (Thomas and Purdon 1994). Indeed, the literature
contains considerable material about the use of the telephone in the conduct of survey
research. In this context particularly, interviews have tended to be highly structured and
involve the administration of questionnaires and rating scales. The advantages and
disadvantages of using telephone interviewing compared with mailed surveys are well-
rehearsed (Arksey and Knight 1999; Robson 2002). An expansion of ownership of tele-
phones in the population means that representative sampling is not as difficult to achieve as
it was when having a telephone was an indication of wealth. Also, response rates compare
very favourably to mailed questionnaires and misunderstandings can be rectified. Possible
disadvantages include the potential difficulties with building rapport when visual cues are
lost, the need for concentration and energy on the part of the interviewer to keep the
interview on course and to remain engaged, and the likelihood of respondents being
distracted by other things around them while they are being interviewed.
Far less, however, has been written about conducting telephone interviews to collect
qualitative data (Chappie 1999). This type of interviewing does not fit the standardised
procedure aimed at in survey research. Rather, the emphasis is on asking open-ended
questions to allow the respondents to express their own experience, perceptions and
understanding of phenomena and the meanings they hold for them personally (Ritchie and
Lewis 2003). There is evidence in the literature that this method is being employed in
health care research to elicit views of health care services (Ryan et al. 2001). However, to
date, there are few examples deriving from the educational field. Dicker and Gilbert (1988)
and Wilson and Edwards (2003) are notable exceptions.
Wilson and Edwards (2003) speculate on the apparent avoidance of telephone inter-
viewing in educational research, citing the very few published examples as proof. They
question whether researchers' reluctance to employ the method is founded on suspicions
that it yields less and poorer quality data than other methods. They go on to explore the
advantages surrounding its use in educational settings and the difficulties encountered,
specifically addressing the issue of data quality and what can be done to maximise it. They
conclude that telephone interviewing, overall, has much to recommend it and that its
disadvantages - establishing rapport with the respondent and recognising limitations of
resulting data - are outweighed by its advantages, which include cost and flexibility. They
recommend its further use in conjunction with other methods and call for ongoing sys-
tematic evaluation.

Design of the study

The research, which forms the basis of the methodological reflections in this paper, was
part of a wider study in the Faculty of Health and Social Care at the University of the
West of England (UWE). In 2005, the Faculty received a grant to explore student
withdrawal from health professional programmes. The research undertaken was a wide-
ranging, mixed methodology study, which examined sources of routine information
including a student database, as well as employing survey and interview methods with
staff and present students. It was also decided to conduct telephone interviews with
former students - those who had opted to withdraw from courses in the recent past.

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 High Educ (2011) 62:17-26 19

Ethical approval for this aspec

students who had chosen to wit
university database. At the end
former students, explaining the s
pre-paid envelope were provided
tacted by telephone. In July an
students, were contacted on at l
contacted by telephone as they
were made, usually in the evenin
when respondents would be at h
interviews were completed. The
aspects of the research at UWE

Propriety: the ethics of telepho

In the research team, there was

university could be contacted t
courses. Their perspective appeare
number of options were consid
plagued by low response rates an
decision-making of students arou
complex and multi-factorial (G
For that reason, qualitative int
former students' in-depth perce
geographically widespread across
face-to-face interviews were pro
conducting the interviews (MG
deemed insensitive to invite form
fore, decided that former stude
considered appropriate for the
become an accepted, indeed ess
means of communication for them.
There has been recent debate about the use of students as research subjects, particularly
when the researchers are their teachers (Clark and McCann 2005), and whether in ethical
terms students constitute a 'vulnerable group'. In this study, while it was former students
who were involved and the research team had played no part in the courses they had been
taking, their possible vulnerability was accounted for in the way the study was planned,
how potential respondents were recruited, how the interviews were conducted and the
provisions made for their aftermath. The position of the former students and the use of
telephone interviewing as a means of data collection interacted to bring the ethical
dimension of the study to the forefront at each stage of the research.
To ensure that the study was ethical, former students were contacted in advance by letter
and could opt out at this very first point of contact if they wished. Because of the nature of
the study and the topics we wished to explore in the interviews, including students'
experience of academic, health, financial, family and social problems, recall of which may
have proved distressing for some of them, advance contact was especially necessary. Cold-
calling - used extensively for commercial purposes in the UK - raises particular concerns
about the intrusiveness of the telephone interview method (Smith 2005). In this study, it

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 20 High Educ (201 1) 62: 17-26

would have been particularly inap

students the opportunity to reflect
study and to be able to prepare th
Therefore, in the advance letter, th
study, the wider project and its
question the interviewer would be
The ethics of requiring the studen
viewer was subject to considerable s
research ethics committee. In all
students who did not wish to be co
advance letter, stating that that th
4 wanted something'. A number of
so had not had the option to opt ou
to be interviewed when contacted
positively to the letter; they wante
details of how they could be conta
require 'opt-out' appeared to be vin
At the point when the interviewer
could refuse to be interviewed, alth
former students were specifically i
any point during the conversation
within the research team, and anon
cases given, to tape-record the inter
ask for any part of the interview no
any point. None did so and all inter
While the interviewer was a memb
been enrolled, she had not actually
question. Furthermore, she had n
students would be talking about. T
particular, who wanted to give an a
but who was also hoping to re-enr
prejudice her chances of being acce
tell the respondent that she had no
taking part in the study would not
As already mentioned, the form
potentially distressing personal ev
family illnesses and bereavements a
were extremely frank about circum
them exhibited any overt distress d
in the literature that some respond
the telephone and may feel phys
(Chappie 1999). However, where d
sensitive to this and asked if they
further time was given to the res
they had mentioned and to 'debrief
given for students to seek counse
course of the interview distressed t
of the telephone conversation. M

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 High Educ (2011) 62:17-26 21

interview and hoped that their r

standing of withdrawal from cou
During the course of transcripti
the research team identified and
dents and these were anonymised
reports and papers, the research
which might enable an individual
students. At the end of the whol
given a summary of the project's
they could access further details.

Process: enhancing the quality

The need for planning

There is already evidence to sugg

less valid than those obtained in
However, the literature provide
undertaking of telephone intervi
Edwards 2003; Smith 2005). In th
making a favourable start to each
at its height (Dicker and Gilbert
herself, to remind respondents
respondent to participate, askin
would be prepared and analysed
Occasionally, the respondents h
these, the script was particularly
the identity of the interviewe
information letter because they w
sent or they were away at that t
amounted to 'cold-calling', respon
not they wanted to participate. A
In this study, other details ab
interviewer at the time of the in
database. These included the co
information about the student at t
qualifications gained prior to, un
at which the students had withd
their withdrawal. Before each te
looked at the information to gain
about them. The interviewer did not use these details as a 'check' on what the
respondents were saying but in some cases they helped to build up early rap
questioning could be tailored around the personal experience of the student.
could be used to clarify discrepancies between the written information and the
accounts, to ensure that the interviewer had a clear understanding of the st
circumstances.

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 22 High Educ (2011) 62:17-26

Building rapport

In qualitative interviews,the qu
interviewer establishing a good r
face-to-face interviewing are w
interviewing, a new set of dif
impressions are likely to be equ
meetings, the introductory scrip
of respondents asking questions
rapport also had to be reflected
viewer may deal with responde
answered at the end of the interv
smile and open posture, can conve
just being awkward or defensive.
to answer questions posed by the
make them feel that they wer
questions was to do with the posit
had to do with the courses the
personal information about the
fessional background was giv
straightaway appeared to be an
building up a relationship with t
university also proved to be of u
'naïve' listener regarding aspects
tell the respondents as much. Fo
aspects of the campus on which t
this part of the university and c
without any pre-conceptions.
While the interviewer felt able
when needed, the distancing eff
cases and may have improved th
the 'pseudanonymity' achieved by
channel and the corresponding e
interviewer talked to a number o
they may have felt more comfor
male respondent in particular, th
were predominantly women, and
about whether he should withdr
give him support at that time. H
meant that he was able to broac
not felt able.
This also raises more general iss
they may impact upon the respo
vast majority of the respondent
less threatening and thus enabled
the respondents ranged from ear
and this position 'in the middle
younger and
mature groups of st
accents and this was mirrored, to

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 High Educ (201 1) 62:17-26 23

Timing of the interviews

It is generally accepted in the liter

will be shorter than for a face-to-f
'businesslike' mode of communic
information being considered in
maximum feasible time for a telep
both shorter and longer times th
study, none of the respondents see
way uncomfortable with the lengt
interview which had been set at
interviews took longer than 30 mi
that the respondents were still hap
One of the interviews took place
Loss of signal occurred a number o
complete than normal and that t
points. However, with prompting
discussed and the interruptions d
time limit for an interview and ne
matter of courtesy. However, aw
their engagement with the interv
collected and a fuller account co
seemed to be key in bringing this

Technical considerations

To collect high quality data, it is imperative to plan carefully the way it will be recorded.
The research team felt that the need for audio-recording as a record of the interview was
more pronounced than in face-to-face interviews. Maintaining a telephone conversation,
keeping track of the questions that had been asked and writing the sort of detailed notes
that would have been necessary for analysis appeared to be too difficult to undertake at the
same time. Thus, in the introductory part of the interview, the interviewer carefully
explained to respondents why there was a need for audio-taping and how the verbatim
account would be used and protected in the course of the research. The interviewer used a
two-way device that was connected to the handset of the telephone and to a tape recorder.
This type of device effectively screens out background noise, meaning that the quality of
the sound on the tape was excellent. This in turn made transcription much easier, less time-
consuming and more accurate. Very few parts of the interviews had to be repeatedly
listened to, in order to make sense of what was being said at that point.

The use of field notes

In this study, the interviewer needed to keep a careful record of what had happened when
contact was made and to log after each call the outcome and what needed to happen next,
for example, to call back at a different time because the respondent was not available or to
call back when children had been put to bed. Each time it was necessary to record to whom
the interviewer had spoken and at what time. Similarly, field notes and impressions were
written down after each interview had been completed. During the analytical phase, the
importance of these became apparent, as they helped to situate the transcripts and recall to

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24 High Educ (201 1) 62: 17-26

the interviewer's mind the manner

respondent after the tape had been
do this needed to be built into the
her to record her feelings and perc
the amount of calls and interviews
study, the interviewer was essen
respondent specifically requested f
need to write notes and not to ring
possibly three calls at the most.

Purpose: the importance of clear

In the literature it is argued that t

well-suited to studies that have cle
for a telephone interview may be
2005). The study discussed in this
students who had left university c
wanted to ask questions around sp
learning experience at the univers
finances and other employment wh
that time.
The telephone interview study w
casestudy but seeing the phenome
students was considered to be very
students who had considered leavin
provided other viewpoints on stu
personally could explain the motiv
how they have emerged from it.
In preparing for the telephone in
be conducting the interviews (M
another member of the research te
her withdrawal from her univers
discussion - including modification
study to potential respondents over
These new topics included asking
their future plans regarding emplo
interpretation of events that had
understood more easily in the con
finding out why a former nursing
to illuminate why that student m
needed to withdraw. Similarly, hear
same course in the future suggest
rejection of the institution or the c
While investigating withdrawal,
whose unique stories would greatl
This also related to the ethical p
2006) - to do good and not to har
interviewing is to build rapport wi

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 High Educ (2011) 62:17-26 25

While asking former students que

outside the remit of a study exp
information in an interested way
listened to and that their account
research project as a whole.

Suggestions for using telephone

From the experience of conduc

conducting telephone interviews

• It is crucial to consider at the

approach is particularly approp
asked. If face-to-face interview
needs to be fully justified. The
interviews over the telephone m
• It is necessary to pay attentio
comfortable with the use of tele
sections of the population, par
hearing impairment, speak En
cognitively disabled. All such
interview design is being consid
• If there is no opportunity to
important to give details befor
identified and the purpose of t
calling may make responden
recommended. responde Even so,
need to have a full explanation
time to decide whether they wis
• It is essential that the process is
is very important that the rights
and that systems are in place,
respondents afterwards.
• It is very important to have a li
to minimise wasted calls and red
to be given.
• Piloting of the interview schedule and practice beforehand is highly recommended. A
written script to introduce the interviewer professionally and succinctly is vital. If the
respondents have been told in advance what the questions will be, these should be used,
although other topics and issues as they are raised by the respondents should be
explored, as is usual in qualitative interviewing.
• Time should be allowed for debriefing' and the interviewer should try not to be in too
much of a hurry to get on to the next call. Respondents should feel that they are listened
to and that their contribution has been of value and importance.
• It is courteous to let respondents know the findings and outcome of the study. The
interviewer should ask at the end of the interview how respondents would like to be
informed of study findings, by e-mail, letter or by giving them website details.

£) Springer

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 26 High Educ (201 1) 62: 17-26

The research team concurs with W

has much to offer and its advan
potential to enfranchise sections of
project, the importance of the te
project focused on - students who
have a voice. Because of the interv
become part of the process of for
withdrawal.

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