Ю. С. АНАНЬЕВА, Т. С. ВОЛОЖАНИНА
ECONOMIC ENGLISH AS
BASIC INSTRUMENT OF
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Учебное пособие
ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО
САНКТ-ПЕТЕРБУРГСКОГО ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА
2015
2
ББК 81.2Англ
А64
Ананьева Ю. С.
А64 Economic English as basic instrument of business communication :
учебное пособие / Ю. С. Ананьева, Т. С. Воложанина. – СПб. : Изд-во
СПбГЭУ, 2015. – 163 с.
ISBN 978-5-7310-3286-5
The aim of the book is to form the skills to understand and interpret
texts in economics. The book contains authentic English and Russian texts and
tasks to them relatively oriented at work with these texts and dictionaries of
different types. This book is considered as an effective theoretical base for
students studying at specialization of “Linguistics” and “Translation and
Theory of Translation” and for students studying at humanitarian faculties
(Upper-Intermediate, Advanced).
ББК 81.2Англ
Рецензенты:
канд. филол. наук, доцент кафедры английского языка
для обществоведческих факультетов СПбГУ Н. Ю. Осокина
канд. филол. наук, ст. преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков
Российской таможенной академии И. М. Панкова
ISBN 978-5-7310-3286-5
© СПбГЭУ, 2015
3
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Предисловие ...................................................................................................... 5
Раздел 1
Linguistic Theory: Types of Translation ........................................................ 6
Economic Practice: Money............................................................................. 8
Glossary........................................................................................................ 19
Раздел 2
Linguistic Theory: Translation Techniques (lexical level)........................... 20
Economic Practice: Banking ........................................................................ 22
Glossary........................................................................................................ 32
Раздел 3
Linguistic Theory: Translation of Terms...................................................... 37
Economic Practice: Market .......................................................................... 39
Glossary........................................................................................................ 53
Раздел 4
Linguistic Theory: Translation of Idioms..................................................... 57
Economic Practice: Companies.................................................................... 59
Glossary........................................................................................................ 68
Раздел 5
Linguistic Theory: Translation of Proper Names ......................................... 72
Economic Practice: Government.................................................................. 74
Glossary........................................................................................................ 90
Раздел 6
Linguistic Theory: Translation Techniques (syntactic level) ....................... 96
Economic Practice: Taxation........................................................................ 97
Glossary...................................................................................................... 110
Раздел 7
Linguistic Theory: Linguistic Devices in Advertisements ......................... 115
Economic Practice: Advertising................................................................. 117
Glossary...................................................................................................... 124
Раздел 8
Linguistic Theory: Mass Media Language ................................................. 129
Economic Practice: Mass Media ................................................................ 129
Glossary...................................................................................................... 145
4
Раздел 9
Linguistic Theory: Language of Negotiations............................................ 148
Economic Practice: Negotiations................................................................ 148
Glossary...................................................................................................... 152
Раздел 10
Linguistic Theory: Language for public speaking...................................... 154
Economic Practice: Public Speeches.......................................................... 155
Glossary...................................................................................................... 159
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Раздел 1
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Виды перевода Money
Text 1
There are numerous myths about the origins of money. The concept of
money is often confused with coinage. Coins are a relatively modern form of
money. Their first appearance was probably in Asia in the 7th century BC. And
whether these coins were used as money in the modern sense has also been
questioned.
To determine the earliest use of money, we need to define what we mean
by money. We will return to this issue shortly. But with any reasonable defini-
tion the first use of money is as old as human civilization. The early Persians
deposited their grain in state or church granaries. The receipts of deposit were
then used as methods of payment in the economies. Thus, banks were invented
before coins. Ancient Egypt had a similar system, but instead of receipts they
used orders of withdrawal – thus making their system very close to that of mod-
ern checks. In fact, during Alexander the Great’s period, the granaries were
linked together, making checks in the 3rd century BC more convenient than
British checks in the 1980s.
However, money is older than written history. Recent anthropological and
linguistic research indicates that not only is money very old, but it’s origin has
little to do with trading, thus contradicting another common myth. Rather,
money was first used in a social setting. Probably at first as a method of pun-
ishment.
9
Early Stone Age man began the use of precious metals as money. Until
the invention of coins, metals were weighed to determine their value. Counting
is of course more practical, the first standardized ingots appeared around 2200
BC. Other commonplace objects were subsequently used in the abstract sense,
for example miniature axes, nails, swords, etc.
Full standardization arrived with coins, approximately 700 BC. The first
printed money appeared in China, around 800 AD. The first severe inflation
was in the 11th century AD. The Mongols adapted the bank note system in
the 13th century, which Marco Polo wrote about. The Mongol bank notes were
“legal tender”, i.e. it was a capital offense to refuse them as payment. By
the late 1400s, centuries of inflation eliminated printed bank notes in China.
They were reinvented in Europe in the 17th century.
The word "money" is believed to originate from a temple of Juno, on
Capitoline, one of Rome's seven hills. In the ancient world Juno was often asso-
ciated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where
the mint of Ancient Rome was located. The name "Juno" may derive from the
Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one", "unique", "unit", "union",
"united") and "Moneta" either from the Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or
instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique). In the Western world,
a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie, stemming from Latin in spe-
cie, meaning 'in kind'.
Text 2
Currently, most modern monetary systems are based on fiat money. How-
ever, for most of history, almost all money was commodity money, such as gold
and silver coins. As economies developed, commodity money was eventually
replaced by representative money, such as the gold standard, as traders found
the physical transportation of gold and silver burdensome. Fiat currencies
gradually took over in the last hundred years, especially since the breakup of
the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s.
Commodity
Commodity money
Many items have been used as commodity
money such as naturally scarce precious metals,
conch shells, barley, beads etc., as well as many other
things that are thought of as having value. Commod-
ity money value comes from the commodity out of
which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes
the money, and the money is the commodity. Exam-
ples of commodities that have been used as mediums A 1914 British gold sovereign
10
of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, salt, peppercorns, large stones,
decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, etc. These items
were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one an-
other, in various commodity valuation or price system economies. Use of com-
modity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple
and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as money.
Although some gold coins such as the Krugerrand are considered legal tender,
there is no record of their face value on either side of the coin. The rationale for
this is that emphasis is laid on their direct link to the prevailing value of their
fine gold content. American Eagles are imprinted with their gold content and
legal tender face value.
Representative
In 1875, the British economist William Stanley Jevons described the
money used at the time as "representative money". Representative money is
money that consists of token coins, paper money or other physical tokens such
as certificates, that can be reliably exchanged for a fixed quantity of a commod-
ity such as gold or silver. The value of representative money stands in direct
and fixed relation to the commodity that backs it, while not itself being com-
posed of that commodity.
Fiat
Fiat money
Gold coins are an example of legal tender that are traded for their intrinsic
value, rather than their face value.
Fiat money or fiat currency is money whose value
is not derived from any intrinsic value or guarantee that
it can be converted into a valuable commodity (such as
gold). Instead, it has value only by government order
(fiat). Usually, the government declares the fiat cur-
rency (typically notes and coins from a central bank,
such as the Federal Reserve System in the U.S.) to be
legal tender, making it unlawful not to accept the fiat
currency as a means of repayment for all debts, public
and private.[32][33]
Some bullion coins such as the Australian Gold Nugget and American
Eagle are legal tender, however, they trade based on the market price of
the metal content as a commodity, rather than their legal tender face value
(which is usually only a small fraction of their bullion value).
Fiat money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or
coins) can be accidentally damaged or destroyed. However, fiat money has
an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that
11
created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or
destruction. For example, the U.S. government will replace mutilated Federal
Reserve notes (U.S. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be re-
constructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed. By con-
trast, commodity money which has been lost or destroyed cannot be recovered.
Coinage
These factors led to the shift of the store of value being the metal itself: at
first silver, then both silver and gold, and at one point there was bronze as well.
Now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were
mined, weighed, and stamped into coins. This was to assure the individual tak-
ing the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal.
Coins could be counterfeited, but they also created a new unit of account, which
helped lead to banking. Archimedes' principle provided the next link: coins
could now be easily tested for their fine weight of metal, and thus the value of
a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise
tampered with (Numismatics).
In most major economies using coinage, copper, silver and gold formed
three tiers of coins. Gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of
the military and backing of state activities. Silver coins were used for midsized
transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts and fealty, while
copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. This system had
been used in ancient India since the time of the Mahajanapadas. In Europe, this
system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new
gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest. Thus the overall
ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent.
Paper
Banknote
In premodern China, the need for credit and
for circulating a medium that was less of a burden
than exchanging thousands of copper coins led to
the introduction of paper money, commonly known
today as banknotes. This economic phenomenon
was a slow and gradual process that took place from
the late Tang Dynasty (618–907) into the Song
Dynasty (960–1279). It began as a means for mer-
chants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of
deposit issued as promissory notes from shops of
wholesalers, notes that were valid for temporary use
in a small regional territory. In the 10th century,
the Song Dynasty government began circulating Huizi currency, issued in 1160
12
these notes amongst the traders in their monopolized salt industry. The Song
government granted several shops the sole right to issue banknotes, and in the
early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce
state-issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still regionally valid and
temporary; it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform
government issue of paper money was made into an acceptable nationwide cur-
rency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Pi
Sheng's movable type printing by the 11th century was the impetus for the mas-
sive production of paper money in premodern China.
At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous
monetary economy was created during the 7th–12th centuries on the basis of
the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar).
Innovations introduced by Muslim economists, traders and merchants include
the earliest uses of credit, cheques, promissory notes, savings accounts,
transactional accounts, loaning, trusts, exchange rates, the transfer of credit and
debt,[38] and banking institutions for loans and deposits.[38]
In Europe, paper money was first introduced in Sweden in 1661. Sweden
was rich in copper, thus, because of copper's low value, extraordinarily big
coins (often weighing several kilograms) had to be made. The advantages of
paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus
lowered the risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier, since the spe-
cie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else re-
deemed the note; and it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie
backed forms. It enabled the sale of stock in joint stock companies, and the re-
demption of those shares in paper.
However, these advantages held within them disadvantages. First, since
a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from
printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it in-
creased the money supply, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed
by David Hume in the 18th century. The result is that paper money would
often lead to an inflationary bubble, which could collapse if people began de-
manding hard money, causing the demand for paper notes to fall to zero.
The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of
wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a standing army. For these
reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and
America. It was also addictive, since the speculative profits of trade and capi-
tal creation were quite large. Major nations established mints to print money
and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold
and silver stock.
At this time both silver and gold were considered legal tender, and ac-
cepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between
the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increase both in sup-
13
ply of these metals, particularly silver, and of trade. This is called bimetallism
and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver
backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists.
Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, print-
ing paper currency such as the United States Greenback, to pay for military ex-
penditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for
specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could
be redeemed.
By 1900, most of the industrializing nations
were on some form of gold standard, with paper
notes and silver coins constituting the circulating
medium. Private banks and governments across
the world followed Gresham's Law: keeping gold
and silver paid, but paying out in notes. This did
not happen all around the world at the same time,
but occurred sporadically, generally in times of
war or financial crisis, beginning in the early part
of the 20th century and continuing across
the world until the late 20th century, when the re-
gime of floating fiat currencies came into force.
One of the last countries to break away from
the gold standard was the United States in 1971.
No country anywhere in the world today has
an enforceable gold standard or silver standard Banknotes with a face value
of 5000 of different currencies
currency system.
Commercial bank
Demand deposit
Commercial bank money or demand de-
posits are claims against financial institutions
that can be used for the purchase of goods and
services. A demand deposit account is an ac-
count from which funds can be withdrawn at any
time by check or cash withdrawal without giving
the bank or financial institution any prior notice. Demand deposit in cheque form
Banks have the legal obligation to return funds
held in demand deposits immediately upon demand (or 'at call'). Demand de-
posit withdrawals can be performed in person, via checks or bank drafts, using
automatic teller machines (ATMs), or through online banking.
Commercial bank money is created through fractional-reserve banking,
the banking practice where banks keep only a fraction of their deposits in
reserve (as cash and other highly liquid assets) and lend out the remainder,
14
while maintaining the simultaneous obligation to redeem all these deposits upon
demand. Commercial bank money differs from commodity and fiat money in
two ways: firstly it is non-physical, as its existence is only reflected in the ac-
count ledgers of banks and other financial institutions, and secondly, there is
some element of risk that the claim will not be fulfilled if the financial institu-
tion becomes insolvent. The process of fractional-reserve banking has a cumu-
lative effect of money creation by commercial banks, as it expands money sup-
ply (cash and demand deposits) beyond what it would otherwise be. Because of
the prevalence of fractional reserve banking, the broad money supply of most
countries is a multiple larger than the amount of base money created by
the country's central bank. That multiple (called the money multiplier) is deter-
mined by the reserve requirement or other financial ratio requirements imposed
by financial regulators.
The money supply of a country is usually held to be the total amount of
currency in circulation plus the total amount of checking and savings deposits
in the commercial banks in the country. In modern economies, relatively little
of the money supply is in physical currency. For example, in December 2010 in
the U.S., of the $8853.4 billion in broad money supply (M2), only $915.7 bil-
lion (about 10%) consisted of physical coins and paper money.
Electronic or digital
Electronic money, or e-money, is the money balance recorded electroni-
cally on a stored-value card. These cards have microprocessors embedded
which can be loaded with a monetary value. Another form of electronic money
is network money, software that allows the transfer of value on computer net-
works, particularly the internet. Electronic money is a floating claim on a pri-
vate bank or other financial institution that is not linked to any particular ac-
count. Examples of electronic money are bank deposits, electronic funds trans-
fer, direct deposit, payment processors, and digital currencies. Since electronic
money has come about, several laws have been made to mandate the growing
popularity of electronic money worldwide.
Electronic money can either be centralized, where there is a central
point of control over the money supply, or decentralized, where the control
over the money supply can come from various sources. Electronic money that
is decentralized is also known as digital currencies. The major difference
between E-money and digital currencies is that E-money doesn't change
the value of the fiat currency (USD, EUR) it represents, but digital currency
isn't equivalent to any fiat currency. In other words, all digital currency is
Electronic money, but Electronic money isn't necessarily digital currency.
Many mobile sub-systems have been introduced in the past few years includ-
ing Google Wallet and Apple Pay.
15
II. Translate the texts given below from Russian into English and explain
linguistic devices.
Text 3
Капитал. Определение. Этимология
Text 4
Виды и формы капитала. Теории капитала
Теории капитала
Glossary
5. i.e. сокр. от
id est (Lat.) = то есть
that is
Раздел 2
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Приемы перевода Banking
Грамматические приемы:
Членение предложений – способ перевода, при котором структура
предложения в оригинале преобразуется в две и более предикативные
структуры в языке перевода.
I am anxious for her to pass her exam.
Я за нее так переживаю. Очень хочу, чтобы она сдала экзамены.
Объединение предложений – способ перевода, при котором син-
таксическая структура в оригинале преобразуется путем соединения двух
и более простых предложений в одно сложное.
He didn’t mind being solitary. Solitude had been his life.
Одиночество не тяготило, оно было частью его жизни.
Грамматические замены (члена предложения, части речи, фор-
мы слова: числа существительного, наклонения глагола, типа пред-
ложения и т. д.) Грамматическая замена – это такое преобразование, при
котором грамматическая единица в оригинале заменяется на единицу
в языке перевода с иным грамматическим значением.
Remember, Roger is a man to be watched.
Помни, Роджер – человек, за которым нужен глаз да глаз (замена
типа предложения).
Лексические приемы:
Транскрибирование – это запись русскими буквами английского
произношения.
Iowa – Айова
Ohio – Огайо
Транслитерация – способ перевода лексической единицы оригинала
путем воссоздания её графической формы с помощью букв языка перевода.
holding – холдинг
default – дефолт
21
Лексико-грамматические приемы:
Антонимический перевод – замена утвердительной формы ориги-
нала на отрицательную форму в переводе или наоборот (отрицательной на
утвердительную), причем это сопровождается заменой лексической еди-
ницы исходного языка на единицу языка перевода с противоположным
значением.
You do not have to say anything but it may harm your defence.
Вы можете хранить молчание, но на суде у вашего защитника воз-
никнут проблемы.
Экспликация – замена лексической единицы исходного языка сло-
восочетанием, эксплицирующим ее значение, т. е. дающим более или ме-
нее полное объяснение этого значения на языке перевода.
The child is a mouth-breather. – У ребенка заложен нос, он дышит ртом.
Компенсация – способ перевода, при котором элементы смысла,
утраченные при переводе единицы исходного языка в оригинале, переда-
ются в тексте перевода каким-либо другим средством, причем не обяза-
тельно в том же самом месте текста, что и в оригинале.
I. Translate the texts given below from English into Russian and note
which translation techniques you use.
Text 1
History of Banking
Rome, with its genius for administration, adopts and regularizes the bank-
ing practices of Greece. By the 2nd century AD a debt can officially be dis-
charged by paying the appropriate sum into a bank, and public notaries are ap-
pointed to register such transactions.
The collapse of trade after the fall of the Roman empire makes bankers
less necessary than before, and their demise is hastened by the hostility of the
Christian church to the charging of interest. Usury comes to seem morally of-
fensive. One anonymous medieval author declares vividly that 'a usurer is
a bawd to his own money bags, taking a fee that they may engender together'.
Text 2
Types of Banks
When we talk about banks, we are talking about several different types of
financial institutions, conducting different kinds of business. Some banks are
very large and carry out many different functions, others are more specialised.
Some have operated for hundreds of years and some have taken on new kinds
of business quite recently. Not all banks carry out the same range of activities.
Banking activities can be generally divided into the following types:
• Central Banking
The duty of central banks is to maintain financial stability, otherwise
a country's economy will not operate properly. Central banks act as regu-
lators of their country's interest rates by controlling the amount of money
in circulation and buying and selling currencies. They amass reserves and
act as lenders of last resort, should another bank get into trouble. They ex-
ist as a separate entity from all the other banks.
• Retail Banking
Retail banks are the high street banks we are all familiar with. They take
deposits from individuals, provide saving facilities and pay interest on
these accounts. They also lend money to individuals, in the form of loans
and overdrafts, and charge interest on the money they lend. They provide
a range of other financial services.
• Commercial Banking
Commercial banks, or divisions of banks, provide banking services to
businesses, from small companies through to corporate banking directed
at large corporations. They help companies raise finance to expand their
27
II. Translate the texts given below from Russian into English and note
which translation techniques you use.
Text 3
Сущность, функции и принципы кредита
Text 4
Ценные бумаги
Glossary
Раздел 3
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Перевод Терминов Market
I. Translate the texts given below from English into Russian and note
which translation techniques you use while translating economic terms.
Text 1
What is Market?
Usually, Market means a place where buyer and seller meets together in
order to carry on transactions of goods and services.
But in Economics, it may be a place, perhaps may not be. In Economics,
market can exist even without direct contact of buyer and seller. This fact can
be explained with the help of
the following statement:
"Market refers to an arrange-
ment, whereby buyers and sell-
ers come in contact with each
other directly or indirectly, to
buy or sell goods."
Thus, a market is an envi-
ronment that allows buyers and
sellers to trade or exchange
goods, services, and informa-
40
tion. These interactions define demand and supply characteristics and are there-
fore fundamental to economies.
A market can be defined as a place where any type of trade takes place.
Markets are dependent on two major participants – buyers and sellers. Buyers
and sellers typically trade goods, services and/ or information. Historically,
markets were physical meeting places where buyers and sellers gathered to-
gether to trade. Although physical markets are still vital, virtual marketplaces
supported by IT networks such as the internet have become the largest and most
liquid.
Some markets are very competitive, with a number of vendors selling
the same kinds of products or services. Conversely, some markets have low
or no competition, particularly if the industry is protected by government
legislation.
The number of buyers and sellers involved will have a direct bearing on
the price of the good or service to be sold, and has become known as the law of
supply and demand. Where there are more sellers than buyers, the availability
of supply will push down prices. If there are more buyers than sellers, the in-
creased demand will push up prices.
Markets can appear spontaneously when there are goods or services to be
exchanged, or they can be planned and regulated.
Free Markets
Free markets operate under ‘laissez-faire’ conditions, in that the govern-
ment does not intervene in how the market operates. These markets may be dis-
torted if a seller gains monopoly power by managing the majority of supply (or
indeed if a buyer develops monopsony power by managing demand). Govern-
ments or trade bodies often step in when such distortions undermine the smooth
functioning of free markets.
Currency Markets
The currency markets are the largest continuously traded markets in
the world. Twenty four hours a day, seven days a week, governments, banks,
investors and consumers are buying and selling every currency, leading to mas-
sive money flows constantly changing hands.
Stock Markets
Stock markets have become highly complex markets that allow investors
to buy shares in companies or in funds that aggregate companies or industries
together. Most stock markets today are primarily electronic networks, although
they often maintain a physical location for buyers, sellers and market makers to
interact directly.
41
Text 2
Economics Basics: Supply and Demand
By Reem Heakal
buyers purchase at a higher price is less because as the price of a good goes up, so
does the opportunity cost of buying that good. As a result, people will naturally
avoid buying a product that will force them to forgo the consumption of something
else they value more. The chart below shows that the curve is a downward slope.
A, B and C are points on the demand curve. Each point on the curve re-
flects a direct correlation between quantity demanded (Q) and price (P). So, at
point A, the quantity demanded will be Q1 and the price will be P1, and so on.
The demand relationship curve illustrates the negative relationship between price
and quantity demanded. The higher the price of a good the lower the quantity
demanded (A), and the lower the price, the more the good will be in demand (C).
B. The Law of Supply
Like the law of demand, the law of supply demonstrates the quantities
that will be sold at a certain price. But unlike the law of demand, the supply re-
lationship shows an upward slope. This means that the higher the price,
the higher the quantity supplied. Producers supply more at a higher price be-
cause selling a higher quantity at a higher price increases revenue.
A, B and C are points on the supply curve. Each point on the curve re-
flects a direct correlation between quantity supplied (Q) and price (P). At point B,
the quantity supplied will be Q2 and the price will be P2, and so on.
43
D. Equilibrium
When supply and demand are equal (i.e. when the supply function and
demand function intersect) the economy is said to be at equilibrium. At this
point, the allocation of goods is at its most efficient because the amount of
goods being supplied is exactly the same as the amount of goods being de-
manded. Thus, everyone (individuals, firms, or countries) is satisfied with
the current economic condition. At the given price, suppliers are selling all
the goods that they have produced and consumers are getting all the goods that
they are demanding.
44
E. Disequilibrium
Disequilibrium occurs whenever the price or quantity is not equal to P*
or Q*.
1. Excess Supply
If the price is set too high, excess supply will be created within the econ-
omy and there will be allocative inefficiency.
At price P1 the quantity of goods that the producers wish to supply is in-
dicated by Q2. At P1, however, the quantity that the consumers want to con-
sume is at Q1, a quantity much less than Q2. Because Q2 is greater than Q1, too
45
much is being produced and too little is being consumed. The suppliers are try-
ing to produce more goods, which they hope to sell to increase profits, but those
consuming the goods will find the product less attractive and purchase less be-
cause the price is too high.
2. Excess Demand
Excess demand is created when price is set below the equilibrium price.
Because the price is so low, too many consumers want the good while produc-
ers are not making enough of it.
Like a movement along the demand curve, a movement along the supply
curve means that the supply relationship remains consistent. Therefore,
a movement along the supply curve will occur when the price of the good
changes and the quantity supplied changes in accordance to the original supply
relationship. In other words, a movement occurs when a change in quantity
supplied is caused only by a change in price, and vice versa.
2. Shifts
A shift in a demand or supply curve occurs when a good's quantity de-
manded or supplied changes even though price remains the same. For instance,
if the price for a bottle of beer was $2 and the quantity of beer demanded in-
creased from Q1 to Q2, then there would be a shift in the demand for beer.
Shifts in the demand curve imply that the original demand relationship has
changed, meaning that quantity demand is affected by a factor other than price.
A shift in the demand relationship would occur if, for instance, beer suddenly
became the only type of alcohol available for consumption.
47
Conversely, if the price for a bottle of beer was $2 and the quantity sup-
plied decreased from Q1 to Q2, then there would be a shift in the supply of
beer. Like a shift in the demand curve, a shift in the supply curve implies that
the original supply curve has changed, meaning that the quantity supplied is ef-
fected by a factor other than price. A shift in the supply curve would occur if,
for instance, a natural disaster caused a mass shortage of hops; beer manufac-
turers would be forced to supply less beer for the same price.
II. Translate the texts given below from Russian into English and note
which translation techniques you use while translating underlined
economic terms and concepts.
Text 3
Рынок как понятие. Эволюция взглядов на рынок
1 2
Text 4
Действенность рынка и его провалы
Действенность рынка
В результате выполнения своих функций рынок неплохо решает три
ключевые задачи экономической жизни: что, как и для кого производить.
Поэтому говорят о действенности рынка, т. е. об эффективности рынка в
решении этих трех задач. Действенность (эффективность) рынка подтвер-
ждается следующим.
1. Именно рынок наилучшим образом определяет тот набор продук-
тов, который необходим потребителю. Свобода потребительского выбора
(суверенитет потребителя) в рыночной экономике несравненно выше, чем
в традиционной и тем более социалистической экономической системе.
51
Провалы рынка
Действенность рынка делает его весьма эффективным механизмом.
Однако это не означает, что рыночные отношения являются совершенны-
ми и обеспечивают только прогрессивное развитие экономики. Обособле-
ние экономических агентов, неполное совпадение их интересов, а зачас-
тую их антагонизм неизбежно ведут к обострению многих противоречий
между ними. Примером могут быть отрицательные экстерналии, слабая
ориентация рынка на производство общественных благ и т. д.
Несовершенства (провалы, фиаско) рынка – это недостатки рынка,
которые связаны с отклонением от условий, обеспечивающих совершен-
ную конкуренцию, и неспособностью обеспечить производство важных
благ в достаточных объемах.
В чем же проявляются несовершенства, или, как их нередко называ-
ют, провалы, фиаско рынка?
1. Рынок не способен противостоять несовершенной конкуренции.
В условиях рыночной стихии часто возникают монополии и олигополии,
завышающие цены на свою продукцию. Это вызывает необходимость го-
сударственного регулирования цен, скажем, на продукцию сырьевых мо-
нополий, электроэнергию, транспорт, а также проводить государственную
политику защиты конкурентной среды.
52
Glossary
23. law of supply закон спроса и предложения (состоит в том, что рыноч-
and demand ная цена определяется взаимодействием предложения
товаров и услуг и спроса на них)
Раздел 4
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Перевод Фразеологизмов Companies
I. Translate the texts given below from Russian into English paying special
attention to the translation of the underlined idiomatic expressions.
Text 1
Как открыть свое дело
Text 2
Как обойти конкурентов по бизнесу?
II. Translate the texts given below from English into Russian paying
special attention to the translation of the underlined idiomatic expressions.
Text 3
3 Ways to Increase Your Profits Even With Slow Sales
OK so your product isn't selling well right now. All is not lost. You can
still turn a profit as you try to turn things around on the sales side.
Want to make more profit? Just sell more, right? Well, you know it's not
that easy. In fact, there's been some dire economic news lately, the gist of which
says sales are down across most industries. In the face of falling retail sales and
low expectations for a swift recovery, what are the chances your company will
be the one to defy the odds and triumph with a record sales season?
You might very well be that exception to the rule. But if you're not, that's
OK too – there are other options. Here are the three quick ways to increase your
company's profitability without making more sales.
consider both the safety and sustainability of your preferred growth strategy.
That's why, when considering the most appropriate path to profitability, more
companies are turning to pricing improvements."
While it can take years to build a meaningful increase in sales volume,
pricing hikes can be implemented quickly – often in less than three months –
and have an immediate impact. Take Amazon, which raised the price of its an-
nual Prime subscription from $79 to $99 in 2014. Despite the $20 increase in
price, the company expects to lose less than 5 percent of customers, resulting in
a hefty $400 million in extra income.
margin. Again, while you don't have to nix discounts altogether, you should set
a discount ceiling to keep your profits from leaking too dramatically.
Let's be clear about one thing though. There must be very little tolerance
for a lack of sales. While you should always be pushing for that in the long run,
you can make a nearly immediate impact on your profit margin by following
these three steps.
Text 4
How to Cut Costs and Spend Less in a Cash-Strapped Business
When customers are scarce and you're having a hard time paying your
bills, you need to start hoarding your cash. There are many ways to reduce
the amount of money flowing out of your business – and implementing just
a few can make a big difference.
Cutting expenses, of course, is easier said than done. Here are some crea-
tive ways to cut back on specific kinds of spending without crippling your busi-
ness.
cially if your business downsizes, rent out unused space if your lease allows it
(you may need to obtain your landlord's prior consent). You might even want to
look at moving your business to another location and renting out your entire
building.
You might conclude that it would be impossible to find a subtenant be-
cause other businesses also have surplus space. But it can put real dollars in
your pocket to think again. List your vacancy online and canvass your area for
a subtenant who can no longer afford space of its own.
Glossary
6. cash-strapped Безденежный
9. costly Дорогой
10. debt load долговая нагрузка (общая сумма долгов физического лица,
предприятия или страны)
11. debt forgiveness прощение долга (списание части или всего долга по вза-
имному согласию должника и кредитора)
12. Write off списывать со счёта; вычёркивать, аннулировать (долг
и т. п.)
Раздел 5
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Перевод Имен Собственных Government
I. Translate the texts given below from Russian into English paying special
attention to the translation of proper names and exoticisms.
Text 1
Основные теории государственного регулирования экономики
Text 2
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ БЮДЖЕТ
Бюджетный процесс
Действия исполнительных и представительных органов власти по
разработке и осуществлению финансово-бюджетной политики и управле-
нию бюджетной системой страны называют бюджетным процессом. Его
универсальные закономерности можно рассмотреть на примере нашей
страны.
82
Структура госбюджета
Бюджетная система зависит от формы государственного и админи-
стративного устройства страны. В унитарных государствах бюджетная
система состоит из двух основных звеньев – государственного и местных
бюджетов, в федеративных – из трех – федерального бюджета, бюджетов
субъектов (частей) федерации и местных бюджетов. Иногда местные
бюджеты в свою очередь подразделяются на отдельные уровни. Такое де-
ление существует, например, в США.
83
II. Translate the texts given below from English into Russian paying
special attention to the translation of proper names and exoticisms.
Text 3
What is a subsidy?
The word subsidy is derived from the Latin word subsidium, which meant
"support, assistance, aid, help, protection". In medieval times it referred to
a payment made to the king. While the definition has since moved on from that,
85
the habit of royalty accepting subsidies has not. For example, in 2004 the Queen
of England and the Duke of Westminster each received half a million pounds
sterling, and Prince Albert of Monaco 287,000 Euros.
Nowadays, to most people, a subsidy means a payment from a govern-
ment to a person or company. Many subsidies are indeed provided in that form,
as grants or, more generically, direct payments. Grants are the elephants in
the subsidy zoo: they are large and highly visible. But there are numerous other
subsidy beasts which are better camouflaged, stealthier, and keep closer to
the ground.
The only internationally agreed definitions of a subsidy are those of
the United Nations Statistics Division, which is used for the purpose of con-
structing national accounts, and of the World Trade Organization (WTO),
which is used for the purpose of regulating the use of subsidies that affect trade.
The WTO definition is the more comprehensive of the two and can be summed
up as follows: A subsidy is a financial contribution by a government, or agent
of a government, that confers a benefit on its recipients.
Subsidy types
bounties. They are far from archaic, however. In some states of the United
States, for example, companies producing liquid biofuels receive direct subsi-
dies for every gallon of ethanol they produce. Cash payments to producers are
also sometimes linked to prices. The main form is a deficiency payment, which
makes up the difference between a target price for a good (typically an agricul-
tural commodity) and the actual price received in the market.
Various cash subsidies are paid to workers. Canada, for example, pro-
vides targeted wage subsidies to assist individuals to prepare for, obtain and
maintain employment. Many countries provide grants in order to encourage
people who are out of work to undergo training in new skills, or to relocate.
Consumers also benefit from direct payments or vouchers, particularly
for the purchase of necessities, like food, medicine or heating fuels. Alterna-
tively, a government may regulate the consumer price for a good or service, and
instead pay a subsidy to the supplier of that good or service, to cover its losses.
Tax concessions
In countries with well-developed tax systems, subsidies provided by re-
ducing companies' tax burdens are commonplace. Examples include tax exemp-
tions (when a tax is not paid), tax credits (which reduce a tax otherwise due),
tax deferrals (which delay the payment of a tax) and a host of other instruments.
In common language these preferential tax treatments are called tax breaks or
tax concessions; public-finance economists refer to them as tax expenditures.
They should not, however, be confused with general tax reductions.
Generally, when a government provides a tax break its budget is affected
in much the same way as if it had spent some of its own money. The exception
is a tax credit, which is worth more to a corporate recipient (and costs a gov-
ernment more) than a direct payment of an equivalent nominal value, as a direct
payment raises a company's taxable income and therefore is itself taxable.
In-kind subsidies
The phrase "in-kind" means provided in a form other than money. Typical
in-kind benefits provided by governments are subsidized housing, specific in-
frastructure (like a road servicing a single mine or factory), the services re-
quired to maintain that infrastructure, and various services to help exporters.
They may be considered subsidies if they involve expenditure (or foregone
revenue) by a government and they confer a specific benefit on the recipient.
However, government provision of general infrastructure – e.g., highways and
ports – is often excluded from the definition of an in-kind subsidy, as is the case
in the WTO's general agreement on subsidies, the Agreement on Subsidies and
Countervailing Measures.
The value of an in-kind benefit depends on the price charged for the re-
source, good or service. When a government undercharges for something,
87
the unit subsidy is usually considered equal to the difference between the price
paid and the market price. When it charges a market price, the transaction is
considered commercial, and not a subsidy. Often, however, the government is
a monopoly supplier of a good or service – i.e., there is no private market against
which the government's prices can be compared – which increases significantly
the difficulty of determining whether a subsidy is involved.
One important variant of an in-kind subsidy is privileged access to a gov-
ernment-owned or controlled natural resource. Primary industries benefit
greatly from such access – e.g., to public lands for mining or grazing livestock,
to state forests for logging, to rivers for irrigation, and to foreign seas (through
so-called "access agreements") for fishing – for free or at a below-market price.
Cross subsidies
A cross subsidy is a market transfer induced by discriminatory pricing
practices within the scope of the same enterprise or agency. Typically it ex-
ists when a government-owned enterprise, such as a public utility, uses reve-
nues collected in one market segment to reduce prices charged for goods in
another.
One of the most common forms of cross subsidy is that between consum-
ers of electricity and consumers of irrigation water. Managers of large hydro-
electric works that store and channel water for irrigation as well as generate
electricity have to decide how to allocate the costs that are common to both ac-
tivities (notably, the construction and maintenance of the dam and reservoir) be-
tween farmers and buyers of electricity. Government regulations will often dic-
tate that an even smaller portion of the costs be allocated to irrigation than
would be efficient according to established pricing principles.
Text 4
Regulation of Monopoly
Quality of service.
If a firm has a monopoly over the provision of a particular service, it may
have little incentive to offer a good quality service. Government regulation can
ensure the firm meets minimum standards of service.
Monopsony power.
A firm with monopoly selling power may also be in a position to exploit
monopsony buying power. For example, supermarkets may use their dominant
market position to squeeze profit margins of farmers.
Promote Competition.
In some industries, it is possible to encourage competition, and therefore
there will be less need for government regulation.
Natural Monopolies.
Some industries are natural monopolies – due to high economies of scale,
the most efficient number of firms is one. Therefore, we cannot encourage
competition and it is essential to regulate the firm to prevent the abuse of mo-
nopoly power.
Amongst their functions, they are able to limit price increases. They can do this
with a formula RPI-X
X is the amount by which they have to cut prices by in real terms.
If inflation is 3% and X= 1%
Then firms can increase actual prices by 3-1 = 2%
3. Merger Policy
The government has a policy to investigate mergers which could create
monopoly power. If a new merger creates a firm with more than 25% of market
share, it is automatically referred to the Competition Commission. The Compe-
tition commission can decide to allow or block the merger.
4. Breaking up a monopoly
In certain cases, government may decide a monopoly needs to be broken
up because the firm has become too powerful. This rarely occurs. For example,
the US looked into breaking up Microsoft, but in the end the action was
dropped. This tends to be seen as an extreme step, and there is no guarantee
the new firms won’t collude.
Glossary
22. market share доля рынка (удельный вес компании в общем объеме ры-
ночных продаж)
33. target price целевая цена (цена, по которой планируется продать или
приобрести какой-л. товар, финансовый инструмент и т. п.)
34. actual price фактическая цена (цена, по которой действительно про-
дается или покупается товар (в отличие от плановой
или ожидаемой цены))
35. consumer price потребительская [розничная] цена (цена, по которой то-
вар приобретается конечным потребителем; в отличие
от оптовой цены)
36. market price рыночная цена (сложившаяся на рынке цена продукта
или услуги, определяемая взаимодействием спроса и
предложения)
94
Раздел 6
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Грамматические приемы Taxation
перевода
Text 1
A short history of TAXATION
of Russia, perhaps because of the mighty works his taxes produced. This is
the eternal fate of taxation: to be the abused or abusive means towards noble or
ignoble ends, never quite able to escape its association with extortion and war.
In the beginning
The word ‘tax’ first appeared in the English language only in the 14th
century. It derives from the Latin taxare which means ‘to assess’. Before that,
English used the related word ‘task’, derived from Old French. For a while,
‘task’ and ‘tax’ were both in common use, the first requiring labour, the second
money. ‘Tax’ then developed its meaning to imply something wearisome or
challenging. So words like ‘duty’ were used to suggest a more appealing pur-
pose. Political spin has just as long a history as taxation, and neither has been
detained unduly by the meaning of words.
such as the relief of the poor. In India, Islamic rulers imposed a tax called jizya
in the 11th century. In Latin America the Aztec, Olmec, Maya and Inca cultures
all seem to have raised forms of taxation, usually in association with ritual ob-
servance. Both Hindus and Buddhists sustained their temples and monasteries
with contributions of time, skill and resources from the faithful.
Doomsday
Land was the basic commodity of feudal Europe and service (military or
labour) its currency. Aspiring monarchs had little access to revenues in cash,
though ‘scutage’ was sometimes accepted in lieu of military service. Then the
Vikings, sailing from Scandinavia, started demanding protection money. In 845
they extorted six tons of silver in return for not sacking Paris; in 994 a similar
amount from London. Though the Viking threat subsided, ‘Dangeld’ (restyled
‘carucage’ in England) was still collected by rulers. After the invasion of Eng-
land in 1066 by the Normans (themselves descended from Vikings), William
the Conqueror commissioned the Doomsday Book, a land survey to assess his
new kingdom’s tax potential.
Imperial measures
More modern systems of taxation followed the expansion of imperial
Europe, together with towns and cities, where tribute in kind was less useful –
cash was the currency here. The monarchies of Spain and Portugal, however,
still transposed feudal structures, and an obsession with gold – which was port-
able – to their occupation of Latin America. Others followed the example of
the city states of Italy, particularly Venice, which had grown rich on trade with
the East; taxes on trade were relatively easy to raise. France, the Netherlands
and Britain in particular began to establish commercial outposts, and then mili-
tary control, across Africa and Asia. Traditions of tribute through human bond-
age revived, however, with the triangular slave trade between Africa, Europe
and the Americas. In Britain, a disagreement on the rights of taxation between
Parliament and King Charles I in 1629 led to civil war. Nation states Resent-
ment of tax fuelled the French Revolution between 1789 and 1799. Thereafter,
Napoleon centralized the tax system and employed private collectors who could
keep a proportion of their takings. Revolt against taxation – levied from impe-
rial Britain – also fuelled the formation of the United States, though an inde-
pendent Congress soon enacted the Federal Property Tax in 1798. By now, no
aspiring nation, in Europe or elsewhere, could dispense with the machinery of
a state or the taxes to pay for it. At the same time, the principle of ‘no taxation
without representation’ was becoming more firmly established – though repre-
sentation was still largely limited to the wealthy.
100
Promises, promises
As the power of monarchies declined and of industrial capitalism in-
creased, a new settlement was required. This was pioneered in Britain. Income
tax was first imposed on personal wealth in Britain in 1798, to pay for the wars
with Napoleon. It was billed as a ‘temporary’ measure, renewable annually by
Parliament – and has remained so ever since (it still expires on 5 April every
year). A year after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 it was repealed. In the general
election of 1841 Sir Robert Peel opposed income tax, but once elected he reim-
posed it, reducing customs duties at the same time. Tax ‘commissioners’ (who
came from the landed gentry) were transformed into the Board of Inland Reve-
nue in 1849 to produce an efficient bureaucracy. In the general election of 1871,
both Gladstone and Disraeli opposed income tax. Disraeli won, but the tax
stayed. In 1908, Lloyd George as Chancellor introduced non-contributory old-
age pensions, and – in the ‘People’s Budget’ of 1909 – plans for a super-tax on
the rich. The rejection of this by the House of Lords led to the 1911 Parliament
Act which removed the Lords’ power of veto. As taxation increased, so the right
to vote and the principle of democratic consent were extended, culminating in
universal adult suffrage.
Cold war
Great expectations also followed World War Two. Worldwide liberation
movements made ‘nation building’ (and the state machinery to go with it)
an urgent priority for newly independent states in Africa and Asia. However,
the Cold War between the ‘West’ and the Soviet Union ensured that vast mili-
101
Global consensus
As the Cold War came to an end, triumphant free-market orthodoxy de-
manded ‘small’ government, privatization and cuts in taxes on the wealth of
private individuals and corporations. Corporate globalization was, in any event,
making it more difficult for nation states to exercise control (or collect taxes),
rather than compete with each other to offer the most favourable rates. In Rus-
sia, the tax rap became a nationalist tool against oligarchs and foreign busi-
nesses. Everywhere, the ‘neoliberal’ process has continued, but its outcome is
increasingly uncertain. Public expenditure as a proportion of national wealth
has not fallen in rich countries. Private or corporate wealth still relies on gov-
ernments to provide (or, more often, finance) a vast range of services – includ-
ing ‘bail-outs’ when free-market orthodoxy turns out to be flawed, as in the re-
cent ‘credit crunch’. Military expenditures have still not been reduced signifi-
cantly. In poor countries, revenues for desperately needed public services re-
main minimal. A ‘global consensus’ agrees, as the saying goes, that ‘only
the little people pay tax’.
Text 2
Types of Taxes
U.S. Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes once said, “Taxes are
the price we pay for a civilized society.” One can argue about the extent and
quality of the civilization that we receive for our tax dollars, but it can’t be de-
nied that we do pay a lot for it.
In fact, when every tax is tallied – federal, state and local income tax
(corporate and individual); property tax; Social Security tax; sales tax; excise
tax; and others – Americans spend 29.2 percent of our income in taxes each
year.
There are many different kinds of taxes, most of which fall into a few ba-
sic categories: taxes on income, taxes on property, and taxes on goods and ser-
vices.
102
Taxes on Income
The federal government, 43 states and many local municipalities levy in-
come taxes on personal and business revenue and interest income. In most
cases, income tax brackets are progressive, meaning that the greater the income,
the higher the rate of taxation. Federal rates for the 2013 tax year range from 10
to 39.6 percent. State and city rates are generally much lower. In addition, many
systems allow individuals to trim their tax bill with various credits, deductions
and allowances. Businesses pay taxes on their net income.
In addition to federal income taxes, the U.S. government also mandates
that employers subtract payroll taxes from their workers’ paychecks each pay
period, and then match the sums deducted. These payments are called FICA
taxes because they are authorized by the Federal Insurance Contribution Act.
Total FICA taxes on individual workers are 7.65 percent of income; 6.2 percent
goes to fund the nation’s Social Security system, while 1.45 percent goes to
Medicare. Self-employed individuals are liable for the entire 15.3 percent, al-
though one half of that amount can be taken as an above-the-line business de-
duction on a person’s income tax return.
Capital gains taxes are those paid on any profits made from the sale of
an asset and are usually applied to stock and bond transactions. The capital
gains tax rate has recently been raised from 15 to 20 percent. Profits made
from the sale of real estate are also subject to a capital gains tax. Single
homeowners may exclude up to $250,000 of capital gain on the sale of
a home, as long as the home was a principal residence for at least two of
the five years before the sale; married couples filing jointly can exclude up to
$500,000.
Estate taxes are imposed on the transfer of property upon the death of
the owner. They were created to prevent the perpetuation of tax-free wealth
within the country’s most affluent families. Since the tax exempts the first
$5.43 million of an estate’s worth, estate taxes only affects about 1 percent of
the citizenry. The maximum top estate tax rate is 40 percent. Many states also
impose their own estate tax, sometimes known as an inheritance tax. Oppo-
nents of these types of taxes believe that they are an unfair confiscation of
wealth passed on to an heir and call them “death taxes.” A tax related to
the estate tax, and assessed in a similar manner, is the gift tax, levied on
a transfer of wealth during a person’s lifetime. The first $14,000 of a gift is
excluded from the tax.
Taxes on Property
Property tax, sometimes known as an ad valorem tax, is imposed on
the value of real estate or other personal property. Property taxes are usually
imposed by local governments and charged on a recurring basis. For example,
103
homeowners will generally pay their real estate taxes either once a year or as
a monthly fee as part of their mortgage payments.
Real estate taxes are often subject to fluctuation based upon a jurisdic-
tion’s assessment of the worth of a property based on its condition, location and
market value, and/or changes to the amounts apportioned to various recipients
of the tax. For example, if residents of a community have voted to increase
the millage rate (the amount per $1,000 that is used to calculate taxes) for
a school system, homeowners could see an increase in the tax levied on their
properties. Conversely, if property values have fallen due to adverse economic
circumstances, home taxes may decrease.
Other items that may be subject to a property tax are automobiles, boats,
recreational vehicles and airplanes. Some states also tax other types of business
property such as factories, wharves, etc.
II. Translate the texts given below from Russian into English and note
which translation techniques you use.
Text 3
Сущность и функции налогов
Text 4
Чем грозит неуплата налогов
либо лишение свободы на срок до одного года. При особо крупном разме-
ре штраф возрастает до 200–500 тыс. рублей, а срок лишения свободы уве-
личивается до 3 лет. То есть, законодательство предусматривает как ад-
министративную (финансовую), так и уголовную (лишение свободы) от-
ветственность за неуплату налогов.
Руководителям юридических лиц при уклонении от уплаты налогов
в крупном размере грозят те же санкции, что и физическим лицам, а до-
полнением к ним может быть запрет на занятие определенных руководя-
щих должностей на различные сроки.
Glossary
12. excise tax акцизный сбор (сбор или налог, которым облагаются оп-
ределённые товары)
13. FICA tax налог [взнос] FICA, социальный налог (налог, который
должны уплачивать работники и работодатели в фонды
социального страхования; социальный налог включает
собственно пенсионный налог (т. е. обязательное стра-
хование для пенсионного обеспечения престарелых,
вдов/сирот и инвалидов) и налог для медицинского обес-
печения престарелых; c трудовых доходов сверх опреде-
ленной суммы взимается только налог для медицинского
обеспечения престарелых; сверх того работодатель вы-
плачивает государству сумму, равную общим взносам
работника)
22. net income чистый доход (валовой доход физического лица за выче-
том налогов)
30. sales tax налог с продаж (косвенный налог, взимаемый в виде про-
цента от розничной цены продаваемых товаров)
Раздел 7
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Языковые и стилистические Advertising
средства создания and Advertisements
рекламных текстов
Text 1
Importance and the need for publicity and advertising
in the modern business world
selling a product to a customer if the enterprise is not advertising about the pro-
ducts even though it has good qualities, unique features, and obvious selling
points. The unadvertised product will be pushed down in the market.
Advertising and salesmanship differs from each other. Salesmanship deals
with customers directly so it is possible to find out what the customers feel
about the product, their reactions. It also gives an opportunity to the salesman to
demonstrate the usefulness of product. The main disadvantage in salesman, he
can convey the information to single customer at time. But advertising over-
comes this and it is effective one it can appeal to a large mass or public at
a time and give a brief description about their products. Advertising is not per-
sonnel selling of a product.
Advertising therefore has an influence over all the categories in the mar-
ket and any type of customers. Advertising a particular product is possible only
when it can be properly defined, which is the possible way of branding a prod-
uct. The job of advertising is to make the product known to the people and
make them buy the product. It helps salesman finding new markets, improving
sales of the product, and maintaining customers goodwill. Good and efficient
advertisement is capable of moving people into the shops and thus in fact sell-
ing itself.
Advertising has done more in commercial world. The manufacturer and
the consumer have been brought near to each other. Advertising creates demand
for the goods and possible for the introduction to mass production and reducing
the cost of the product. It is also considered as a method of strengthening
the power and ability of the salesmen. Another important aspect of advertising
the manufacturer should not give false promises to the consumer; it will bring
dissatisfaction among the customers, which would normally decline the sales of
the product, and it would create a negative impact about the brand of the prod-
uct. Honesty is the best policy in selling a product to the customers. The con-
sumer should rely on guarantee of uniformity and consistency in quality of
goods given by the advertiser. Advertising not only beneficial to the manufac-
turer or the retailer and also the customers.
2. Since advertising helps in finding a way to stabilize the price. Retailer will be
confident of selling the product with more profits.
3. It also reduces the percentage overhead of the retailer.
Text 2
Window display
Attractive window display is very vital factor in effecting the sales. In this
the product is displayed which would help the customers about the new prod-
ucts and make the product more appealing and in this way the customer should
be motivated to buy the product. The main aim to attract many people to store
by sufficiently arousing their interest. The location of the show room should be
in very area of that trade. This gives good chance of sales promotion. The ar-
rangements inside the showroom should be such that visitor should feel at
home. The goods shown in the show room should be in high quality same as
that of the product sold.
Press publicity
Advertising can be divided into two parts direct and indirect advertising.
The direct advertising is one where it is addressed directly to the persons in
the form letter or by other means. Indirect advertising is that which is addressed
directly to the public. Press advertising has become one of the most popular and
widely used means of distributing advertisement because it very economical
and large number of people can be covered.
Press advertising is normally done in newspapers, magazines, women pa-
pers, trade journals, foreign newspapers etc. Readership of the newspaper
should be analyzed before giving advertisements about the products, hence they
120
should be carefully chosen. The main advantages in press publicity are large
demand and wider circulation of newspaper. It serves as an introduction to fol-
low-up system and forms a means of distributing applications forms, folders
etc, provides an opportunity to give lengthy appeal. Appeal can be made to se-
lected class of people.
Outdoor advertising
There are many ways of advertisings important being the cards, posters,
skywriting, railway stations, vehicular advertising, sandwich men etc. This is
also referred as mural advertising placed on walls or large photograph attached
to the walls. The outdoor publicity gives good opportunities for concentrating
on one area. It also gives an advantage of bridging the gaps in other media of
advertising and hence avoids waste through overlapping. It helps the retailer
whose cooperation can be more readily secured by using this form advertising.
It also helps in bringing strong and commanding effect upon the mind of
the persons.
Hence without publicity and advertising a manufactures brand would to
go into the mind of the consumers so there is rise in demand in advertising of
the product. A planned mission will always be a successful one. So before go-
ing to the public through media all the possible ways should be analyzed and
best possible way should found out. Thus advertising plays a key role in the de-
velopment of the business enterprise.
II. Translate the advertisements pieces below from English into Russian
and explain linguistic devices
121
Availability
The internet is available to your customers 24 hours a day, 365 days
a year. There's no need to wait for potential customers to call you
about your products or services – simply give us the details and we'll
publicise your business for you. Over 200 people search our database
each week and they will all be able to access your own advertising
space at the click of the button.
Be Stupid
122
III. Translate the advertisements pieces below from Russian into English
and explain linguistic devices.
Text 3
Первая реклама в России
Ads Pieces
Glossary
2. ad Реклама
3. advantage Преимущество
5. attention Внимание
20. direct mail прямая почтовая рассылка (метод маркетинга, при ко-
тором компании рассылают рекламные материалы и
образцы своей продукции потенциальным покупателям)
Раздел 8
Language Theory Economic Practice
Тексты СМИ Mass Media
Text 1
The information distributed to people on a large scale through the use of television,
radio, movies, newspapers, Internet, magazines and books is termed as
Mass Media.
Mass Media has been evolving through the ancient periods when kings
patronized their writers and poets for writing books and creating dramas.
The power of mass media is known to the world. It has thrown away mighty
dynasties and created new empires. Mass media has helped in creating social
awareness and has also provided people with an easy way of living life. The
print media played an important part in the historical events such as, The Ren-
aissance, The American War of Independence, The French Revolution and
many more. The mass media started evolving as early as 3300 B.C., when the
Egyptians perfected the hieroglyphics. This writing system was based on sym-
bols. Later in 1500 B.C., the Semites devised the alphabets with consonants. It
was around 800 B.C. that the vowels were introduced into the alphabet by the
Greeks.
Mass media are tools for the transfer of information, concepts, and ideas
to both general and specific audiences. They are important tools in advancing
public health goals. Communicating about health through mass media is com-
plex, however, and challenges professionals in diverse disciplines. In an article
in the Journal of Health Communication, Liana Winett and Lawrence Wallack
wrote that "using the mass media to improve public health can be like navigat-
ing a vast network of roads without any street signs—if you are not sure where
you are going and why, chances are you will not reach your destination".
Using mass media can be counterproductive if the channels used are not
audience-appropriate, or if the message being delivered is too emotional, fear
arousing, or controversial. Undesirable side effects usually can be avoided
through proper formative research, knowledge of the audience, experience in
linking media channels to audiences, and message testing.
cating simple warnings about the connection between Reye's syndrome and the
use of aspirin in children.
Despite the potential of news media to perform valuable health-education
functions, Moynihan et al. conclude that media stories about medications con-
tinue to be incomplete in their coverage of benefits, risks, and costs of drugs, as
well as in reporting financial ties between clinical trial investigators and phar-
maceutical manufacturers.
The mass media are capable of facilitating short-term, intermediate-term,
and long-term effects on audiences. Short-term objectives include exposing au-
diences to health concepts; creating awareness and knowledge; altering out-
dated or incorrect knowledge; and enhancing audience recall of particular ad-
vertisements or public service announcements (PSAs), promotions, or program
names. Intermediate-term objectives include all of the above, as well as changes
in attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions of social norms. Finally, long-term ob-
jectives incorporate all of the aforementioned tasks, in addition to focused re-
structuring of perceived social norms, and maintenance of behavior change.
Evidence of achieving these three tiers of objectives is useful in evaluating the
effectiveness of mass media.
Mass media performs three key functions: educating, shaping public rela-
tions, and advocating for a particular policy or point of view. As education
tools, media not only impart knowledge, but can be part of larger efforts (e.g.,
social marketing) to promote actions having social utility. As public relations
tools, media assist organizations in achieving credibility and respect among
public health opinion leaders, stakeholders, and other gatekeepers. Finally, as
advocacy tools, mass media assist leaders in setting a policy agenda, shaping
debates about controversial issues, and gaining support for particular view-
points.
Television. Television is a powerful medium for appealing to mass audi-
ences—it reaches people regardless of age, sex, income, or educational level. In
addition, television offers sight and sound, and it makes dramatic and lifelike
representations of people and products. Focused TV coverage of public health
has been largely limited to crises. However, for audiences of the late 1950s,
the 1960s, and the 1970s, television presented or reinforced certain health mes-
sages through product marketing. Some of these messages were related to tooth-
paste, hand soaps, multiple vitamins, fortified breakfast cereals, and other items.
Public health authorities have expressed concern about the indirect influ-
ence of television in promoting false norms about acts of violence, drinking,
smoking, and sexual behavior. A hypothetical equation for viewers might be:
drinking plus smoking equals sex and a good time. Safe sex practices are rarely
portrayed on television. An additional public health concern is that TV viewing
promotes sedentariness in a population already known for its multiple risk fac-
tors for cardiovascular disease and other chronic illnesses.
132
Association, and the American Lung Association. Though widely used, their
actual utility is infrequently evaluated (e.g., units distributed vs. changes in
awareness, cost analysis). Until the 1990s, few of these print media were devel-
oped with the assistance of target audiences, and few contained varied mes-
sages, were culturally tailored, or employed readability and face validity tech-
niques. The extent to which persons read, reread, and keep these devices—or
circulate them to other readers—is not well evaluated. Thus, their permanence
is unknown.
Outdoor Media. Outdoor media include billboards and signs, placards
inside and outside of commercial transportation modes, flying billboards (e.g.,
signs in tow of airplanes), blimps, and skywriting. Commercial advertisers such
as Goodyear, Fuji, Budweiser, Pizza Hut, and Blockbuster all make extensive
use of their logo-bearing blimps around sports stadiums. In the United States,
none of these outdoor modes are used extensively to convey health messages,
although billboards and transit placards are the most likely forms to contain
health information. For persons who regularly pass by billboards or use public
transportation, these media may provide repeated exposure to messages. Pro-
health messages displayed on urban public transportation may suffer, however,
from the image problems that afflict urban buses and subways. In addition,
the effectiveness of such postings wears out quickly as audiences grow tired of
their sameness.
Tobacco and alcohol manufacturers have made extensive use of bill-
boards and other outdoor media. However, the 1998 Master Settlement Agree-
ment between the states and the tobacco industries outlawed billboard advertis-
ing of cigarettes. In their 1994 Chicago-based study, Diana Hackbarth and her
colleagues revealed how billboards promoting tobacco and alcohol were con-
centrated in poor neighborhoods. Similar themes were seen in other urban cen-
ters (Baltimore, Detroit, St. Louis, New Orleans, Washington, D.C., and San
Francisco) where alcohol and tobacco billboards were much more concentrated
in African-American neighborhoods than in white neighborhoods. The tobacco
industry now pursues the same strategy in developing countries.
MEDIA EFFECTS
Important Inventions
Text 2
THE RELATIONSHIP OF MASS MEDIA TO OTHER FORMS
OF COMMUNICATION
face-to-face encounters) offer personal support and may invoke trust, but are
labor intensive, have limited reach, and may require ancillary materials. Mass
media channels transmit information rapidly and to general or specific audi-
ences. Mass media can set agendas, but questions have been raised concerning
their impartiality and integrity. Community channels (e.g., coalitions, commu-
nity action groups, and the like), have less "reach" than mass media, but they
reinforce, expand, and localize media messages and offer institutional and so-
cial support. Knowledge of the complementary strengths of various channels
helps to optimize penetration and effectiveness of health messages.
Inc. PRIZM divides the United States into sixty-two lifestyle clusters, or groups
of people with similar "geodemographic characteristics, consumer behaviors,
psychosocial beliefs, and media habits" (Parvanta and Freimuth 2000, p. 22). It
provides data on 250 sociodemographic census variables and approximately
500 items concerning media preferences, purchasing behaviors, and lifestyle ac-
tivities.
Following a needs assessment that revealed an abnormally high birth-
defect rate in a four-county area of Virginia, mass media were tapped to inform
more than 22,000 women of child-bearing age about the health benefits of folic
acid supplements and folate-rich foods. The campaign included television and
radio PSAs, brochures, posters and display boards, as well as the cooperation of
a local grocery store chain that provided other print media (food information
cards and special food labels on folate-dense products). In a 1999 evaluation,
CDC investigators reported a statistically significant increase in folic acid
awareness between 1997 and 1999.
Mass media have been major sources of information about HIV/AIDS
and other sexually transmitted infections. In a 2000 study, 96 percent of 1,290
men aged twenty-two to twenty-six reported hearing about these subjects
through television advertisements, radio, or magazines. Some authorities have
expressed skepticism about the mass media's future motivation to provide posi-
tive sex education messages, since portrayal of sex attracts viewers, which in
turn, increases revenues.
Other evidence of the media's ability to improve reproductive health and
promote population control exists, especially from developing countries. Mass
media have made people aware of modern contraception and where to access it,
as well as linking family planning to other reproductive health care and to
broader roles for women. Communication about family planning and population
control creates awareness, increases knowledge, builds approval, and encour-
ages healthful behaviors. In Egypt, where nearly all households have television,
population control objectives have been achieved through televised PSAs. Data
also support the positive effects of mass media messages on contraception use
in Zimbabwe, Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya. In a 1999 Tanzania-based study,
a team of researchers led by Everett M. Rogers showed how the popularity of
a radio soap opera promoting family planning increased listeners' self-efficacy
with respect to discussing contraception with spouses and peers.
Although mass media are important for disseminating health messages
and encouraging an adoption of healthful lifestyles, they currently fall short of
their potential. The realization of this potential in the future depends, in part, on
increasing the media advocacy skills of public health authorities, improving un-
derstanding of competing antihealth media messages, and organizing channels
for an optimal media mix.
140
II. Translate the texts given below from Russian into English and explain
linguistic devices
Text 3
История появления и развития журналистики
«Службы новостей»
Text 4
СМИ в чрезвычайных ситуациях
Glossary
Раздел 9
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Язык Переговоров Negotiations
Her Majesty the Queen has asked me to form a new government and I
have accepted.
Before I talk about that new government, let me say something about
the one that has just passed.
Compared with a decade ago, this country is more open at home and more
compassionate abroad and that is something we should all be grateful for and
on behalf of the whole country I'd like to pay tribute to the outgoing prime
minister for his long record of dedicated public service.
In terms of the future, our country has a hung parliament where no party
has an overall majority and we have some deep and pressing problems – a huge
deficit, deep social problems, a political system in need of reform.
For those reasons I aim to form a proper and full coalition between
the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats.
I believe that is the right way to provide this country with the strong,
the stable, the good and decent government that I think we need so badly.
149
Nick Clegg and I are both political leaders that want to put aside party
differences and work hard for the common good and for the national interest.
I believe that is the best way to get the strong government that we need,
decisive government that we need today.
I came into politics because I love this country. I think its best days still
lie ahead and I believe deeply in public service.
And I think the service our country needs right now is to face up to our
really big challenges, to confront our problems, to take difficult decisions, to
lead people through those difficult decisions, so that together we can reach bet-
ter times ahead.
One of the tasks that we clearly have is to rebuild trust in our political
system. Yes that's about cleaning up expenses, yes that is about reforming par-
liament, and yes it is about making sure people are in control – and that the
politicians are always their servant and never their masters.
But I believe it is also something else. It is about being honest about what
government can achieve. Real change is not what government can do on its
own – real change is when everyone pulls together, comes together, works to-
gether, where we all exercise our responsibilities to ourselves, to our families,
to our communities and to others.
And I want to help try and build a more responsible society here in Brit-
ain. One where we don't just ask what are my entitlements, but what are my re-
sponsibilities.
One where we don't ask what am I just owed, but more what can I give.
And a guide for that society – that those that can should, and those who
can't we will always help.
I want to make sure that my government always looks after the elderly,
the frail the poorest in our country.
We must take everyone through with us on some of the difficult decisions
we have ahead.
Above all it will be a government that is built on some clear values. Val-
ues of freedom, values of fairness, and values of responsibility.
I want us to build an economy that rewards work. I want us to build a so-
ciety with stronger families and stronger communities. And I want a political
system that people can trust and look up to once again.
This is going to be hard and difficult work. A coalition will throw up all
sorts of challenges.
But I believe together we can provide that strong and stable government
that our country needs based on those values – rebuilding family, rebuilding
community, above all, rebuilding responsibility in our country.
Those are the things I care about. Those are the things that this govern-
ment will now start work on doing.
Thank you very much.
150
II. Translate the text given below from Russian into English and explain
linguistic devices.
Text 2
Речь президента Владимира Путина на Параде Победы в Москве
Glossary
17. common good общее благо (благо, которое принадлежит всем или по-
давляющему большинству членов данного сообщества,
или же благо, из которого все или подавляющее боль-
шинство членов сообщества извлекают пользу)
Раздел 10
Linguistic Theory Economic Practice
Public Speeches Public speeches
ПРЕСС-КОНФЕРЕНЦИЯ
I. Translate the text given below from Russian into English and explain
linguistic devices.
Text 1
Песков: Путин может расширить список
попавших под продэмбарго стран
/ 05.08.2015 /
Президент России Владимир Путин, скорее всего, поддержит расши-
рение списка стран, которые подпадают под продовольственное эмбарго.
Об этом заявил Дмитрий Песков, пресс-секретарь президента. Он
отметил, что в данном случае основополагающим является принцип вза-
156
имности. Кроме того, он отметил, что под ответные санкции могут по-
пасть те страны, которые недавно присоединились к ограничительным
мерам, введенным Евросоюзом.
Напомним, что на прошлой неделе Черногория, Албания, Исландия,
Норвегия, Лихтенштейн, Украина присоединились к антироссийским
санкциям.
В связи с этим в Кремле и МИД РФ пригрозили ЕС ответными огра-
ничительным мерами.
Text 2
Песков: В Кремле следят за ситуацией с выдачей США виз
членам Совфеда
/ 06.08.2015 /
В Кремле внимательно следят за ситуацией с выдачей американ-
ских виз сенаторам РФ и другим представителям высшего руководства
страны.
Комментируя информацию о том, что спикеру Совфеда Валентине
Матвиенко и другим членам российской делегации могут не выдать визы
США для участия в работе межпарламентского совета в Нью-Йорке,
пресс-секретарь Путина Дмитрий Песков отметил, что в Кремле при-
стально следят за ситуацией с выдачей американских виз членам руково-
дства РФ.
При этом Песков призвал не обсуждать гипотетические допущения,
а дождаться окончательного решения консульства США.
В минувшем июле Финляндия не пустила в страну спикера Гос-
думы Сергея Нарышкина для участия в сессии ПА ОБСЕ.
Text 3
Украинский кризис стал серьезным испытанием для проверки проч-
ности фундамента миропорядка и международного права. Речь идет о
таких фундаментальных принципах, как сохранение территориальной
целостности с одной стороны, и право народов на самоопределение –
с другой стороны.
Интервью постпреда России в СБ ООН Виталия Чуркина раскры-
вает те глубокие противоречия, заложенные в фундаменте междуна-
родных отношений, основанном по итогам Второй мировой войны. Мы
предлагаем вашему вниманию развернутый текст беседы российского
дипломата на одном из российских телеканалов.
157
Text 4
Пресс-конференция Министра иностранных дел России С.В. Лаврова
«на полях» саммитов БРИКС и ШОС, Уфа, 9 июля 2015 года
Glossary
Check Point 2
Translate the text from English into Russian
Current Tax Issues
Tax policy remains controversial, and some economists continue to argue for
large-scale revision of the federal tax system. Princeton’s David F. Bradford and Stan-
ford’s Robert E. Hall have advocated slightly different forms of a flat-rate tax on labor
income coupled with immediate deduction (“expensing”) of the cost of all investment
for the corporate income tax. Some conservative economists, such as Charles E.
McLure Jr., and some liberal ones, such as Alice M. Rivlin, argue for a broad-based
federal tax on consumption, like the sales taxes imposed by the states or the value-
added tax (VAT) widely used in Europe. A key issue to consumption-tax advocates is
how the proceeds of the tax would be used. Some would insist that the money go to
increase federal spending; some would demand that it be used to cut federal income
taxes; and some would require that it reduce the deficit. Advocates argue that a tax on
consumption would encourage saving; opponents claim that such a tax would unfairly
burden low-income families.
In past years, some economists, including Princeton’s Alan Blinder, argued that
the income tax should provide a comprehensive adjustment (“indexation”) for inflation
to eliminate the inflationary mismeasurement of interest income and expense, deprecia-
tion of business investment, and capital gains. A few economists would maintain that
indexation should be pursued today. However, an adjustment for inflation would be
quite complex; and with inflation as low as 2 percent now, and with little short-term
prospect of a substantial increase in inflation, many economists contend that the costs in
complexity would exceed the benefits in precise measurement of income.
162
Библиографический список
Интернет-источники
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2. http://study-english.info/10_origins_of_money.php
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money
4. http://dictionary-economics.ru/word/Капитал
5. http://www.grandars.ru/student/ekonomicheskaya-teoriya/kapital.html
6. http://www.main.isuct.ru/files/dept/ino/lk%20n3.doc
7. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac19
8. http://www.risksandrewards.org.uk/background_banks_152.html
9. http://www.grandars.ru/student/finansy/kredit.html
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