International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction

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Fire hazards in heritage villages: A case study on Dangjia Village in China

⁎
Chunyan Yuana, , Yaping Heb, Yingbin Fengb, Pengfei Wanga
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Chang’an University, Xi’an, China
b
School of Engineering, University of Western Sydney, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fire protection for heritage villages is a complex issue involving multiple factors, especially for heritage villages
Heritage village comprising brick–timber framed buildings. This study aims to investigate fire hazards in heritage villages and to
Fire safety provide an assessment on fire safety. Site investigations were conducted in a heritage village with data collec-
Brick–timber structure tions in terms of four aspects. First, brick wall condition was investigated. Second, the integrity of timber col-
Fire hazard
umns was inspected with the measured wood moisture content. Third, the accessibility of fire brigade inter-
Assessment
vention and active firefighting facilities was assessed. Finally, other fire hazards, such as disordered electrical
Deterioration
wiring, were identified. A linear additive model with multiple attribute evaluation was then used to produce a
measure of relative fire hazards. This study revealed significant structural deteriorations in the surveyed heritage
village. Several identified fire hazard factors were quantified. Specifically, most external columns suffered dif-
ferent types of damage or erosion, and only 26% of the columns remained intact. The average surface moisture
content of timber columns was 12.7% with a standard deviation of 5.95%. Only 10% of the roadways in the
village were accessible for fire trucks. A single numerical assessment value represented that the fire safety level
in the heritage village was low. The study provided actual information for the development of systematic ap-
proach and performance-based design on fire protection in heritage villages.

1. Introduction 52 fires endangering historic buildings have been reported by the

1.1. Research background
Fire is a major threat to heritage buildings, and a portion of historic
building structures disappears every year due to the fire damages. The
irreparable damages to historic structures may cause huge losses. Fires
not only cause the loss of valued historic buildings and landscapes but
also considerably disrupt the sociocultural environment of communities
[1].
In China, several dwellings, such as residences, palaces, temples,
monasteries, commercial establishments, and government offices, are
popularly featured in a courtyard style called “siheyuan”. This type of
architecture can be found in rural villages, as well as urban suburbs, in
the northern part of China. These buildings are usually framed with
timber beams, columns, and brick walls, and are built using traditional
fire protection concepts. However, the texture of the dwellings may
have been deteriorated over a long time, and some of the functions of
the buildings may have undergone changes to some extent. For ex-
ample, many heritage villages have been converted into tourism sites
for their historical and cultural values. Thus, potential fire hazards may
be incurred on these factors. From the start of 2010 to the end of 2013,
Chinese administration [2]. From 2012 to 2015, several severe fires
occurred in heritage villages in China, which prompted the authorities
to review the fire protection systems and strategies [3,5]. New rules and
technical guidance on fire prevention or control were developed by the
Ministry of Housing and Urban Rural Development and the State Ad-
ministration of Cultural Heritage to protect those well-known historic
towns, villages, and buildings in the State Protection List [4,36].
In view of the special value of museums for cultural preservation
and tourism, several researchers have suggested improving fire pro-
tection safety [6]. Fire protection level on heritage buildings should be
prioritized more than ordinary buildings, considering life safety, cul-
tural heritage preservation, and the interest of tourism. However, no
reliable and feasible heritage protection legislations tend to be viewed
as indirect causes. Present rules and regulations in the form of pre-
scriptive provisions of building codes are formulated for present
buildings and are usually based on generalized information of building
class (or category) [7]. Heritage buildings may not be designated as a
class on their own in most building codes. Thus, inevitable conflict
exists between heritage preservation and fire protection provision of
building codes. For example, passive fire protection measures fre-
quently involve alterations of building structure or components, which

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jancyer@163.com (C. Yuan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.02.002
Received 15 August 2017; Received in revised form 30 January 2018; Accepted 1 February 2018
2212-4209/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Yuan, C., International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.02.002
C. Yuan et al.
are not suitable for historic building preservation because of its heritage
values and special building style. Generally, these measures may have a
detrimental effect on the special characteristics of heritage buildings.
Heritage villages are usually composed of a group of buildings;
however, each heritage village is unique. Each heritage village requires
rules and creative solutions on fire protection issues. Generally, the
broad safety objectives of building fire protection are life safety, fire
prevention, and property protection. Significant attention is provided
on adequate property protection without sacrificing life safety when
fire disasters occur in valuable historic buildings [8]. As such, perfor-
mance-based fire safety designs are frequently used as the acceptable
approach for heritage building fire protection [9–11]. In performance-
based approach, fire safety design is based on engineering principles
with quantitative verification methods [12]. Design solutions, which
are different to the prescriptive provisions of building codes, can be
accepted considering that they can be demonstrated to comply with the
performance requirements of the codes. Fire safety engineering design
and risk assessment rely on quantified information or data for perfor-
mance evaluations.
1.2. Research purpose and objectives
In view of performance-based design for heritage village on fire
protection, specific building information and quantified parameters
should fill the knowledge gaps between the prescriptive building codes
and performance-based design concept. The objective of this study is to
identify fire hazards and conduct a basic fire safety assessment on a
heritage village. This study aims to provide actual information on fire
safety problems in heritage villages, especially those timber structural
heritage buildings, and to urge developing appropriate policies, design
solutions, techniques, and maintenance procedures for heritage
building fire protection. To achieve the objectives, a rural village that
represents a siheyuan building complex and architectural style is se-
lected for field survey.
1.3. Previous studies of this research
Among the various risk factors that threaten the sustainability of
architectural heritage sites, fire hazard can cause the most destructive
effects [13]. Fire hazards may be presented in many forms except the
fire flames in heritage buildings. Other fire hazards may include igni-
tion sources, fuel loads, and ventilation conditions, as well as defects in
evacuation routes [12]. In a survey study on a heritage housing stock in
Sydney, structural fire hazards are defined as building structural fea-
tures that do not comply with the contemporary building regulations
[14]. In terms of non-compliances to building regulations, structural
fire hazards are digitized and then subjected for statistical analysis to
obtain probability estimates of occurrence under various conditions
[15,16]. For timber-framed buildings, fire load contents also enhance
the risk of fire deflagration. Laranjeira conducted a research on treat-
ment measurement on timber structures and claimed that the usual
approach to improve the reaction of existing timber structures to fire is
to treat wood with fire retardants [17]. However, such treatment may
cause some side effects on the historic buildings.
Vulnerability of fire hazards assessment has been suggested to en-
sure the permanent and safe existence of heritage assets [18]. The
concept of vulnerability has emerged across various disciplines, ranging
from engineering to psychology, and its definition varies accordingly.
Vulnerability is determined by physical, social, economic, and en-
vironmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a
community to the impact of hazards. It is described as a dynamic and
inner feature that is specific to any system [19]. Vulnerability usually
indicates the potential for loss, which is relative to event intensity. It
becomes visible during a disaster and can be used as the central pre-
dictive variable in risk analysis [20,21]. Vulnerability can be assessed
from a set of dimensions or parameters, such as building type and
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International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
environmental conditions [22]. Vulnerability assessment on fire safety
in heritage villages is a synthetic process, and various factors may have
interrelations, such as buildings structural deterioration and neglectful
in taking precautions. An ongoing process with a goal can achieve and
support a certain level of fire safety in heritage villages. In historic
buildings, performance-based design for fire safety tends to solve the
physical problem [23,24].
Risk assessment is the first step in fire protection management. A
disaster risk assessment is conducted in terms of cultural heritage dis-
aster mitigation in historic cities to provide a draft proposal with pos-
sible disaster mitigation [25]. Fire hazard risk can be evaluated by the
scalar product of parameter weights and grades. A single-evaluated
value represents the fire safety level provided in a building [26,27].
From macro and micro perspectives, risk analysis on fire spreading
between properties is produced with basic documentation in relation to
future disaster-prevention measures for cultural heritage properties
[16].
2. Research methodology
2.1. Fire hazard factor identification
Fire hazards are usually regarded as the factors that cause ignition
and accelerate the spread and/or exacerbate the consequences of fire
damages. They may be related to environment, building structures, and
building content, as well as human activities. In the current study, fire
hazards are defined as (i) the features that do not comply with the
contemporary building regulations for fire safety; (ii) flaws and dete-
riorations in fire safety measures; and (iii) factors that can increase the
potential of the ignition and spread of fire.
Site survey was conducted for data collection to identify the fire
hazard factors in the heritage village. The main survey points were the
structure condition of the surrounding buildings and courtyards and the
access layout in the heritage village.
Structural stability and integrity are crucial factors for heritage
building survival. In ancient design concept, several brick walls in the
courtyards also served as fire barriers in case of fire disasters. The flaws
and damages in brick walls are regarded as a fire hazard factor.
Wood or timber elements in buildings are considered fuel load in
fire safety engineering. Wood columns and beams in heritage villages
are also bearing elements. Their present conditions are crucial to fire
safety and structural stability. When exposed to extreme heat, wood
will undergo pyrolysis and charring process. The fire-resistive char-
acteristics of exposed wood members are due to the insulated char-
acteristics of the char layer [28,29]. Wood charring rate is affected by
four factors, namely, dry density, moisture content, lignin content, and
char contraction [28]. The formed cracks in timber structure affect the
heat and mass transfer between the flame and the solid [30,31]. Wood
carbonization and charring rate are related with moisture content. A
detailed survey was conducted on timber columns with the survey on
general conditions and data collection of surface moisture content.
Accesses are regarded as active means of fire protection for fire
trucks, fire detection, and suppression/extinguishing devices in popu-
lated districts. The assurance of accessibility and ready-to-operate
condition will aid in alleviating fire danger to buildings and building
occupants. Accessibility for fire services is an important measure in
modern building fire safety and is explicitly regulated in building codes
[7]. Many building codes prescribe minimum distances between
buildings as a measure to limit radiant heat flux and minimize the
chance of fire spread between buildings [4,7]. Roads also serve as se-
paration buffer zones between buildings. The passage and widths of
lanes in the Old Village were assessed to determine accessibility.
Several other fire hazard factors were also identified during the site
survey. They may incur fire hazard for its disorder management, or they
may be the neglect of necessary precautions against fire hazard.
Therefore, the study on identified fire hazard factors focused on the
C. Yuan et al.
following aspects:
(a) Brick structure conditions;
(b) Timber column conditions;
(c) Accessibility by fire service and active fire protection system; and
(d) Other fire hazards.
Basic statistical analysis was conducted when quantifiable data were
collected. Finally, all identified fire hazard factors were summarized.
2.2. Multi-attribute assessment
The linear additive model was used for assessment of fire hazards in
heritage villages. Linear additive models are widely used in many areas
of decision making and are found to be robust even under conditions
that attribute independence assumption is not completely valid [32].
Multi-attribute evaluation is used to produce a valuable risk index
model of fire safety that rely heavily but not exclusively on demon-
strated principles of physical or management science [33]. In the linear
additive model, many attributes are included to acquire all relevant
aspects of results. The model is described as follows.
Given n attributing factors, x1, x2 , x3 , ... ,x n , an evaluation function
E (x1, x2 , x3 , ... ,x n ) should be determined over those fire hazard factors.
A linear form of the evaluation function of a system is expressed as
n Village (Fig. 2(b)). A total of 125 courtyard dwelling houses and 18
E (x1, x2 , x3 , ... ,x n ) = ∑ wi Ri (xi),
i=1 (1)
wi is the weighting constant that is greater than zero, and Ri (x i ) is
the normalizing function for the grades of attributes. The summation of
each factor or attribute weight times its grade is the scalar product
considering that the attributes are independent. This assumption in-
dicates that no interactions are accounted among the attributes during
assessment. In this study, a single numerical value with fire risk index
for historic buildings was produced, which represents the general safety
level provided in the heritage village.
2.3. Appliances used during survey
Two main instruments were used in the survey for quantitative data
collection. One was an induction-type wood moisture tester, GM630
(Fig. 1(a)), which was used to measure timber moisture content and
temperature. Different gear positions could be selected depending on
wood density. The related parameters were as follows. The moisture
measurement range and error was 0.5–79.5% ± 1.5%, the temperature
range and error was 0–50 °C ± 2 °C, the wood density range was
Fig. 1. Instruments used in the survey: (a) Wood Moisture Meter GM630. (b) Leica
Distance Meter.
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International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
0.27–1.05 g/cm3, and the detection depth was 0–50 mm.
The other instrument, the Leica DISTO™ D510 point finder
(Fig. 1(b)), is a unique combination of digital point finder and 360° tilt
sensor for measurements. It was used for road width measurement in
the study. The range and error of the point finder was
0.05–200 m ± 1 mm.
3. Outline of the study area: Dangjia Village
The village for the site survey, Dangjia Village, is the largest, oldest,
and best-preserved ancient stock village in Shaanxi Province in China
(Fig. 2(a)). Dangjia Village has about 670 years of history in northeast
of Hancheng, Shaanxi. Considering that Dangjia is one of the most
beautiful and best-preserved villages in China, professor Aoki, the di-
rector of the Rural Planning Committee of the Japanese Architectural
Association, referred to it as a “living fossil of traditional oriental vil-
lage” [34]. In 2001, Dangjia Village was registered in the list of Na-
tional Key Cultural Relics Protection Units in China. In 2003, Dangjia
Village was enlisted in Chinese History and Culture Villages. On the
basis of construction period, Dangjia Village can be divided into three
sub-groups, namely, Zhengtong to Jingtai Periods of Ming Dynasty
(1436–1456), Chongzhen of Ming Dynasty to Kangxi of Qing Dynasty
(1643–1711), and Qianlong to Xianfeng Periods of Qing Dynasty
(1736–1861). Siheyuan courtyard is the basic building mode in Dangjia
public facilities are preserved in Dangjia Village.
The building complexes in the courtyards are timber framed with tiled
roofs and brick walls. The timber structures are connected with mortises
and tenons (Fig. 3). Public facilities include lanes, roads, sentry gates, etc.
In the village, traditional wisdom designs are used for fire preven-
tion [35]. The location of the village is near Mi-shui River (Fig. 4),
which makes fetching water easy in case of fire emergencies. The brick
gable and green tiled roof are designed to form a refractory barrier with
slightly exposed combustible components. The roadways serve as pas-
sages and fire separation. Water vats set in courtyards are also used as
water container for firefighting. However, the village has experienced
deterioration in its long survival due to natural and manmade aspects,
such as weathering and earthquake, fire damages, improper renovation
and restoration, air pollution, and inadequate maintenance.
At present, Dangjia Village is divided into two parts, namely, New
Village and Old Village (Fig. 4). The New Village was built in the past
few decades. The Old Village primarily consists of ancient courtyards
built during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In the Old Village, several
courtyards are too old to be used as barriers for restoration. Some
courtyards have been converted into museum sites, and some court-
yards are still used as housing complexes occupied by villagers. In the
Old Village, several intruded buildings are constructed after the Ming
and Qing Dynasties. In this study, the surveyed sites were mainly the
courtyards built during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The main survey
sites were around 10 courtyards in the Old Village (Sites 1–10 in Fig. 4).
4. Results
4.1. Deteriorations in brick structure
In traditional fire protection design in China, each courtyards was
built with high brick walls, gable and tiled roofs separately. However,
some gable walls in the Old Village have been altered to suit the con-
temporary lifestyle, which created disparity from traditional wisdom
for fire protection. High brick gables were penetrated by chimneys
(Fig. 5(a)). Deteriorations can be found in many gable and surrounding
walls in the form of erosion and cracks (Fig. 5(b)). The penetrations and
cracks, as well as the original windows in the walls can be regarded as
fire hazards because they tend to be fire spread routes to neighbor
buildings (Fig. 5). The cracks in the walls may lead to collapse during
earthquake or fire disasters.
C. Yuan et al.
Fig. 2. Photographs of Dangjia Village: (a) Scene of Dangjia Village in distance (Source: Huashang website). (b) View of a siheyuan courtyard.
4.2. Timber structure
A detailed survey was conducted on timber columns with general
conditions and surface moisture content in 8 courtyards (names in red
in Fig. 4) in the Old Village. According to the current site survey, pine
wood was the material used for the timber frame systems in the 8
courtyards.
4.2.1. Cracks and deteriorations in timber columns
Timber frames are the main structure feature in the village. Thus,
the survey focused on timber columns. Their diameters vary from 20 cm
to 30 cm. Several columns are hollow due to erosion, and other columns
are either completely or partially cracked (Fig. 6(a), (b)). To prevent
further deterioration, several cracks in the column were filled with
unknown materials by local residents (Fig. 6(c), (d)). Erosions can also
be found usually in several column root balls (Fig. 7(a), (b)). Some
cracked columns were reinforced with steel bands (Fig. 8).
A total of 70 external timber columns were inspected, and the sta-
tistical data are listed in Table 1. The last column in Table 1 shows the
proportion of occurrence over the total number of inspected columns.
The damages listed in Table 1 are not exclusive to each other, that is,
multiple conditions can occur in one column. Therefore, the proportion
values do not necessarily total to 100%. The reinforcement proportion
over the number of damaged (crack and erosion) columns was 25.7%.
Fig. 3. Joint of timber frame: (a) Joint of beam and column. (b) Main entrance of the timber structure. (c) Connection of timber door beam.
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Several damaged columns require repair.
4.2.2. Moisture content in timber columns
To avoid destructive sampling, moisture content was obtained at the
column surface. Moisture content was measured on May 15, 2016,
sunny. The ambient temperature was 31 ± 0.5 °C, and relative hu-
midity was 54%. Two courtyards (ID Nos. 1 and 8 in Fig. 4) were not
open for visit on that day. The data collected from the courtyards are
listed in Table 2. The columns were divided into two groups based on
their location in the courtyard, namely, outside and inside the court-
yards (Table 2).
The columns outside the courtyards are facing roads or lanes, which
are directly exposed to potential fire sources from neighbor courtyards
or from the streets. They are more vulnerable to external fire attacks
than the columns inside the courtyards. The average moisture content
of timber columns was 12.7%, and all the columns were in dry condi-
tion or below 20% (Table 3).
4.3. Accessibility in the Old Village
Effective accessibility provisions for fire rescue are the basic re-
quirements in populated villages, and higher requirements are needed
than ordinary buildings during fire intervention, such as causing un-
necessary water damage to buildings and their content. Road conditions
C. Yuan et al.
Fig. 4. Layout of Dangjia Village.
and fire suppression system are presented in case of firefighting in the
Old Village. Firefighting equipment and water supplies were discussed
in the assessment.
4.3.1. Access layout
The road network in the Old Village is slightly irregular (Fig. 9).
Two main roads (R2 and R10 in Fig. 9) run through the village in ap-
proximately east-to-west direction. Most courtyards are connected to
main roads by lanes. Specially, north–south oriented lanes are con-
nected to the main roads with “T” intersections. A different number was
assigned to indicate the different section with the change of road (lane)
width (Fig. 10(a)).
A total of 30 road and lane sections were designated. The road
widths measured at the narrow point are listed in details (Table 4).
Several roads (lanes) with overhead or side obstacles (Fig. 10(b)) are
indicated with letter “O” in Table 4, which are unavailable for fire truck
access.
According to the Code for Building Fire Protection Design in Rural
Fig. 5. Brick-wall condition: (a) Penetrated brick gable with chimney. (b) and (c) Cracked and eroded walls.
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Areas of China [7], the road width for fire vehicle access should not be
less than 3.5 m. The main roads R2, R4, and R10 are compliant with the
Code (Table 4). Statistics in Table 5 show the roadway inaccessibility by
fire trucks. Only 10% of roadways satisfy the accessibility in the Old
Village.
Fire isolation buffer zones are required between adjacent built-up
areas, buildings, or complexes to prevent or minimize fire spread in
densely populated areas that are larger than 3000 m2, and the width of
the buffer zones should not be less than 10 m [4]. Roads can be re-
garded as buffer zones, as well as evacuation routes for building oc-
cupants. In the Old Village, one courtyard area is approximately
260 m2, and the total area of the Old Village is estimated to be more
than the 3000-m2 limit. Therefore, fire isolation zones are required.
However, no road more than 10 m in width can be used as a buffer zone
for fire separation in the Old Village.
4.3.2. Firefighting equipment and water supplies
Firefighting appliances should meet the following requirements: (i)
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Fig. 6. Cracked columns: (a) and (b) Complete and partially cracked columns in courtyards (Nos. 2 and 7 in Fig. 4). (c) Cracked column outside of Dang Ancestral Shrine (No. 4 in Fig. 4).
(d) Partially filled crack in a column in the courtyard of Dang Ancestral Shrine (No. 4 in Fig. 4).

a fixed location and logo, (ii) a fire call and the person on duty, (iii) fire
extinguisher, and (iv) professional or volunteer firefighters [4]. Por-
table fire extinguishers were found at the visited courtyards (Fig. 11).
No extinguisher signposts, fire call, and special person on duty were
found.
Water vats were set in the courtyards with no water (Fig. 12).
Table 6 lists the quantities of firefighting appliances and water vats set
in the courtyards. No public water supply and fire water supply pipes or
water tank were found in the village. The distance to the Mi-shui River
fails to meet the fire-fighting requirement.
Not all the courtyards in the Old village were set with firefighting
appliances (e.g., Nos. 2 and 9 courtyards in Fig. 4). No automatic fire
protection measures, such as fire detection and sprinkler systems, were
employed in the Old Village. This condition is considered a fire hazard
in fire appliance provision.
Fig. 8. Reinforced columns with new materials and steel bands.

4.4. Other fire hazard factors Table 1

Column condition statistics.
Other identified fire safety hazards include an unfenced transformer
Condition Number of columns Proportion
and electrical equipment with poorly arranged bare and live cables on
the ground (Fig. 13(a)). Many electricity lines are old and tangled on Crack 47 67%
the wall or around the wooden structures (Fig. 13(b)–(e)). Several Erosion 12 17%
Reinforcement 18 25.7%
electrical switches are old and primitive without proper protection
(Fig. 13(e)).
No exit signs were found in the Old Village. Exiting from some sites 4.5. Fire hazard assessment
to the main road without a local guide was difficult. For fire safety and
emergency evacuation, having no exit signs is also a hazard factor. Based on the study and investigation for fire safety in the Old
Village, the identified fire hazards and vulnerability factors are

Fig. 7. Root conditions of some columns: (a) Cracked and shifted column. (b) Cracked column with root erosion.

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Table 2 grade were defined according to the fire hazard factor analysis and the
Measured external wood column moisture content (%). true environment of the Old Village in Dangjia Village (Table 8).
Column location and ID no. Courtyard ID no.
5. Analysis and discussion
2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10

Outside the (1) 10.0 9.0 9.0 13.5 11.5 12.0 13.5 12.5 Dangjia Village was built over a long period with different building
courtyards (2) 10.5 13.5 10 16.5 11.5 12.5 18.0 11.5 rules and fire safety standards. Several fire protection measures are
(3) 11.0 11.0 8.5 – – 10.0 15.0 20.0 simple and rudimentary. In the long period, several buildings under-
(4) 11.5 12.0 10 – – 9.0 18.0 – went renovations or repairs, and the purpose of several buildings has
(5) 13.5 13.5 – – – 12.0 10.0 –
(6) 18.0 11.0 – – – 13.0 8.5 –
been changed. At present, some historic residential courtyards (si-
(7) 10.5 9.5 – – – – 11.0 – heyuan) are maintained as public museums, which leads to the re-
(8) 12.0 – – – – – 15.5 – consideration on building class or category in terms of fire protection.
(9) 10.0 – – – – – – – The fire safety code for public buildings [4] are relatively different from
(10) 16.0 – – – – – – –
residential buildings because of the differences in occupant density and
Inside the courtyard (1) –a 10.0 10.0 14.5 9.0 17.0 – – the relationship and familiarity to the buildings. Therefore, mixed oc-
(2) – 9.0 9.5 8.5 9.5 13.5 – –
cupancy in Dangjia Village makes fire protection more complex than
(3) – 14.5 9.5 17.5 – 14.5 – –
(4) – 14.5 10.0 15.0 – 13.0 – –
before.
(5) – 13.0 12.5 18.5 – 13.0 – – Cracks and erosions were found in the buildings, which posed fra-
(6) – 11.5 9.0 18.0 – 15.5 – – gility in fire resistance or structure safety. About 74% columns were
(7) – 12.0 – 19.0 – – – – erosions or cracks in surveyed courtyards. Moisture content is a major
Average 12.3 11.7 9.7 15.9 10.4 12.9 13.6 14.7 influential factor in fire ignition and propagation along timber products
Standard deviation 2.6 1.8 1.0 3.1 1.1 2.1 3.4 3.8 [28]. The average moisture content in timber-framed structures were in
dry condition with the average value 12.7%. All the wood column
a
“–” indicates that the column does not exist.
surface are naked without any retardant. As the main component in
timber-framed buildings, columns are too fragile to resist the ignition
Table 3
and fire spread in the Old Village. Future studies should be conducted
Statistical data of moisture content (%) for all surveyed external timber columns.
to provide a detailed quantitative performance assessment and design
Minimum Maximum Average STD on the fire-resistant capability for one courtyard with the detailed data.
Several identified fire hazards were caused by insufficient structural
8.5 20 12.7 5.95
maintenance with no effective intervention in fire disasters. The width
and layout of roads (lanes) in the village could not meet the require-
summarized in Table 7. The items with quantified results are in italic. ments for fire brigade intervention or fire separation buffer zone. Many
A linear multi-attribute assessment was conducted based on the siheyuan (courtyards) in the Old Village are open for public, but visitors
identified hazard factors. Historic Fire Risk Index was introduced in the are not familiar with the layout of the siheyuan complexes. Clear exit
fire safety assessment to provide a single numerical value for fire safety signs should be installed when navigating inside and around the com-
decision making [27]. The Old village has been transformed as a his- plexes. Evacuations routes must be maintained free from obstacles.
torical house or museum for visiting, and the selected weight for the Considering linear relations among the parameters, the linear ad-
parameters were the same with the index for museums. The parameter ditive model of multiple attribute evaluation method was adopted in
this study. Likert scaling, as the simplest and most direct, was used to

Fig. 9. Road layout in Dangjia Village and the labeling for the current study.

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Fig. 10. Obstacles in the lanes.

Table 4 accessibility, and presence and maintenance of fire service facilities.

Widths and obstacles of roads in the Old Village. The single numerical value of 1.44 indicates that the present condition
in the heritage village is considerably optimistic on fire safety. The
Road or lane Width (m) Road or lane Width (m) Road or lane Width (m)
conclusions are summarized as follows.
R1 2.10 (O)a R11 3.06 R21 1.90 In the heritage courtyards, brick structures have deteriorated due to
R2 3.60 R12 2.54 R22 2.90 natural erosion or manmade alterations. Several brick walls have been
R3 1.50 R13 1.89 (O) R23 3.10 (O) damaged or have flaws to some extent. They are too fragile to resist
R4 3.80 R14 1.75 R24 2.40 (O)
R5 1.40 (O) R15 1.90 R25 2.40
collapse in earthquake and could not function as fire barriers during fire
R6 1.75 R16 1.50 R26 1.60 hazards. Timber structures have also suffered from deteriorations.
R7 2.60 (O) R17 2.40 R27 2.60 Wood frames are in highly dry condition, and cracks can be found in
R8 2.10 (O) R18 1.90 R28 2.20 wood columns with high proportion, which make them vulnerable to
R9 2.20 R19 1.60 R29 2.00
fire attacks. Limited rudimentary and ad hoc repairs of cracks for wood
R10 5.20 R20 2.10 (O) R30 2.60
columns might provide temporary solutions, although they may not aid
a
(O) indicates the existence of obstacles for fire truck access. in preserving the aesthetic beauty and architectural harmony of
buildings.
Table 5 The main roadways are not compliant with the present regulations
Statistics on roadway inaccessibility by fire trucks. for fire emergency access. Fire service facilities require upgrading and
maintenance. Water supply or water reserve are insufficient for fire
Inaccessibility factor Number Fraction of total (%)
emergency rescue. Poor and messy electrical wiring, obsolete and de-
Width less than code prescription 27 90.0 crepit electrical equipment in the village are also considered fire hazard
Having obstacles 8 26.7 factors.
Subtotal of inaccessible roadways 27 90.0 The preliminary results in this study revealed many fire hazards in
the heritage village. These fire hazards compromise the fire safety and
structural integrity of brick–timber-framed heritage villages. Fire safety
grade parameters as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, reading from unfavorable to
protection is related with the physical and structural conditions of
favorable [27]. The single numerical value of 1.44 in this study re-
buildings in the heritage village. However, building renovations and
presents the fire safety level was low in an unfavorable condition.
repairs could cause inadvertent breach of fire protection.
The study serves a guide in preserving the heritage village against
6. Conclusion potential fire damages. It provides a detailed site inspection paths and
methods in heritage villages with brick–timber structure buildings. The
The study provided an audit survey on fire hazards in a heritage study is valuable in analyzing the fire hazards and structure vulner-
village in China. Significant potential fire hazard factors were identi- ability in heritage villages, especially for heritage villages that currently
fied. A basic fire safety assessment was then conducted with the scalar serve as museums.
product of parameter weights and grades considering brick wall in- This study may contribute to the performance-based design on fire
tegrity, timber column integrity and moisture content, fire service

Fig. 11. Portable fire extinguishers in the courtyard.

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C. Yuan et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 12. Traditional firefighting measures-water vat (no water). (a) Water vat in Shuangqigan yard. (b) Water vat in Jia Ancestral Shrine.

Table 6 Table 7
Quantities of firefighting appliances and water vats in courtyards. Identified fire hazard factors.

Firefighting appliance Sample courtyard ID no. Notation number Identified fire hazard factor

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 Manmade damage to walls

2 Natural cracks and erosion in walls
Portable Powder MF3ABC 1 – 1 1 3 2 3 – – 2 3 Bare electric cables
Extinguishers MF5ABC 2 – 2 2 1 4 1 2 – 2 4 Messy and old electrical wiring
Firefighting spade a
– – – – – – – – – 1 5 Crack and erosion in timber frame
Firefighting bucket – – – – – – – – – 2 6 Timber structure in dry condition
Water vat – – – eb e e – – – e 7 Non-compliant or unsafe switches and other electrical
appliances
a
– indicates no existence. 8 Blocked egress routes and no evacuation signs
b
e indicates the existence of vat with no water. 9 Poor accessibility
10 Empty water vats and lack of firefighting water source
11 Insufficient firefighters
protection for heritage villages. Systematic technical support and ef-
12 Lack of buffer zones
fective hazard response system should be provided with synthesis
measures and methods from specialists in different fields. A systematic
approach undertaken for fire protection may cover not only the reg- design for heritage villages. This study is also intended to enhance
ulatory and management aspects but also the technical fire protection awareness about the urgency in fire protection for brick timber-framed
with structural strengthening design. The focused analysis is essential to heritage villages.
support the development of performance-based fire protection system

Fig. 13. (a) Unfenced transformer. (b) Tangled electricity lines around a gable corner. (c) Electricity lines under a roof. (d) Electricity lines near a wooden window. (e) Primitive electrical
switch and tangled electricity lines.

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C. Yuan et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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