Republic of the Philippines

PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY

Graduate School
Iba, Zambales

Panes, John Oliver F. SED 217 (Organic and Inorganic Chemistry)

MAED- SCIENCE Course Facilitator: Mrs. Adelia D. Calimlim

Topic: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS

Chemical bond

 The nature and type of the chemical bond is directly responsible for many physical and
chemical properties of a substance: (e.g. melting point, conductivity).
 Most matter in nature is found in form of compounds: 2 or more elements held together
through a chemical bond.
 Elements combine together (bond) to fill their outer energy levels and achieve a stable
structure (low energy).
 Noble gases are un-reactive since their energy levels are complete.
 When the conductivity apparatus is placed in salt solution, the bulb will light.
 But when it is placed in sugar solution, the bulb does not light.
 This difference in conductivity between salt and sugar is due to the different types of bonds
between their atoms.
 Two common types of bonding are present: ionic & covalent.
 Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875 - 1946) was a famous American physical chemist known for
the discovery of the covalent bond (see his Lewis dot structures and his 1916 paper "The
Atom and the Molecule")
 Other major contributions were his theory of Lewis acids and bases and Lewis coined the
term "photon" for the smallest unit of radiant energy.
 Drawings of cubical atoms, the corners of the cube represented possible electron positions
 Lewis later cited these notes in his classic 1916 paper on chemical bonding, as being the
first expression of his ideas.

Lewis Bonding Theory

 Atoms bond because it results in a more stable electron configuration.
 Atoms bond together by either transferring or sharing electrons so that all atoms obtain an
outer shell with 8 electrons.
 Octet Rule
 There are some exceptions to this rule – the key to remember is to try to get an electron
configuration like a noble gas.
 Cations have Lewis symbols without valence electrons.
 Lost in the cation formation
 Anions have Lewis symbols with 8 valence electrons.
 Electrons gained in the formation of the anion

CHEMISTRY-WRITTEN REPORT
 Republic of the Philippines
PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
Iba, Zambales

Ionic Bonding

 The Stable Electronic Configuration of a Noble Gas What are Noble Gases? • Elements
that belong to Group 0 of the Periodic Table • Examples: He, Ne, Ar, Kr and Rn • Atoms
of noble gases are stable and unreactive. • They exist in nature as single atoms.
 What is the Noble Gas Structure? • Noble gases have full or complete outer shells. Helium
has a duplet configuration (2 outer electrons). All other noble gases have an octet
configuration (8 outer electrons).
 Why Do Atoms React? • Atoms of most other elements are reactive because they do not
have the noble gas structure (i.e. their outer shells are not fully-filled). • Atoms of these
elements lose, gain or share outer electrons to attain the noble gas configuration and form
compounds.
 Chemical Bonding Atoms gain or lose electrons to attain noble gas configuration Ionic
bonding Atoms share electrons to attain noble gas configuration Covalent bonding 7
 Forming Ions What is an Ion? Recall: Atoms have an equal number of protons and
electrons. They are electrically neutral. • An atom loses or gains electrons to form ions. •
Ions are charged particles. No. of electrons ≠ No. of protons.
 Positively-charged ions are called cations. •Ions can be positively- or negatively-charged.
Negatively-charged ions are called anions.
 Atoms of metals lose electrons to form positively-charged ions called cations. •In this way,
they achieve the noble gas configuration.
 Example 1: Formation of sodium (Na+) ion Na atom Electronic configuration: 2, 8, 1
Number of protons = 11 Number of electrons = 11 The Na atom loses one outer electron
to form the Na+ ion. Why? To achieve stable octet (noble gas) configuration. Neon (2, 8)
 Example 1: Formation of sodium (Na+) ion 2, 8 2, 8, 1 sodium atom loses one outer
electron Na atom: 11p, 12n, 11e Charge = 11p + 11e = (+11) + (–11) =0 Neutral Na atom
+ Na+ ion: 11p, 12n, 10e Charge = 11p + 10e = (+11) + (–10) = +1 Positively-charged Na+
ion
 Formation of calcium (Ca2+) ion 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8, 2 calcium atom loses two outer electrons
Ca atom: 20p, 20n, 20e Charge = 20p + 20e = 20(+1) + 20(–1) = (+20) + (–20) = 0 Neutral
Ca atom 2+ Ca2+ ion: 20p, 20n, 18e Charge = 20p + 18e = 20(+1) + 18(–1) = (+20) + (–
18) = +2 Positively-charged Ca2+ ion
 Common Cations and Their Charges Metal Ion Formula of ion sodium sodium ion Na+
potassium potassium ion K+ calcium calcium ion Ca2+ magnesium magnesium ion Mg2+
aluminium aluminium ion Al3+
 Formation of Anions • Atoms of non-metals gain electrons to form negatively-charged ions
called anions. •In this way, they achieve the noble gas configuration.
 Example 1: Formation of chloride (Cl–) ion Cl atom Electronic configuration: 2, 8, 7
Number of protons = 17 Number of electrons = 17 What happens in the formation of a
chloride ion? The chlorine atom gains one electron in its outer shell to achieve a stable
octet (noble gas) configuration. Argon (2, 8, 8)

CHEMISTRY-WRITTEN REPORT
 Republic of the Philippines
PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
Iba, Zambales

 Example 1: Formation of chloride (Cl–) ion 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 chlorine atom gains one electron
Cl atom: 17p, 18n, 17e Charge = 17p + 17e = (+17) + (–17) =0 Neutral Cl atom Cl– ion:
17p, 18n, 18e Charge = 17p + 18e = (+17) + (–18) = –1 Negatively charged Cl– ion
 Example 2: Formation of oxide (O2–) ion 2, 6 oxygen atom gains two electrons 2, 8 2– O
atom: 8p, 8n, 8e O2– ion: 8p, 8n, 10e Charge = 8p + 8e = (+8) + (–8) =0 Charge = 8p +
10e = (+8) + (–10) = –2 Neutral O atom Negatively charged O2– ion
 Common Anions and Their Charges Non-metal Ion Formula of ion chlorine chloride ion
Cl– bromine bromide ion Br– oxygen oxide ion O2– sulfur sulfide ion S2–
 Why do metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations) but non-metals gain electrons
to form negative ions (anions)?
 Ionic bonds are formed between metals and non-metals. Examples: Group VII: Fluorine,
chlorine Group VI: Oxygen, sulfur Examples: Group I: Sodium, potassium Group II:
Magnesium, calcium • This is done through the transfer of electron(s) from metals to non-
metals.
 Transferring Electrons Ionic Bonding Metallic atom loses electron(s) Non-metallic atom
gains electron(s) Positive ion Negative ion (cation) (anion) electrostatic forces of attraction
(hold oppositely charged ions together)
 Example 1: Sodium chloride Step 1: Formation of Positive Ions Each sodium atom (Na)
loses its single outer electron to form a positively-charged sodium ion (Na+). Na 2, 8, 1
Na+ + e− 2, 8 27
 Step 2: Formation of Negative Ions Each chlorine atom gains an electron from a sodium
atom to form a negatively-charged chloride ion (Cl−). Cl 2, 8, 7 + e− Cl – 2, 8, 8
 Step 3: Formation of Ionic Bonds Loses one electron Sodium atom 2, 8, 1 Gains one
electron Chlorine atom 2, 8, 7 Electrostatic forces of attraction Sodium ion Chloride ion 2,
8, 8 2, 8 Sodium and chlorine react in the ratio of 1 : 1 to form sodium chloride (NaCl).
 Example 2: Magnesium chloride Magnesium atom loses two electrons. Chlorine atoms
gain one electron each. Chloride ion Magnesium Chloride ion 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8 ion 2, 8
Magnesium reacts with chlorine in the ratio of 1 : 2 to form magnesium chloride (MgCl2).
 The formula of an ionic compound is constructed by balancing the charges on the positive
and negative ions. • All the positive charges must equal all the negative charges in an ionic
compound.
 Example: Magnesium oxide Oxygen forms O2− ions. Magnesium forms Mg2+ ions. Mg2+
O2− Charge: +2 Charge: −2 Since 1 × (+2 charge) balances out 1 × (−2 charge), The
formula is MgO.
 Example: Copper(II) hydroxide Copper ion Hydroxide ion Cu2+ Charge: +2 OH− Charge:
−1 To balance the charges, multiply the smaller charge (−1) by 2 to make it equal to +2.
Since 1 × (+2 charge) balances out 2 × (−1 charge), The formula is Cu(OH)2.
 Example 1 Write the chemical formula of aluminium oxide. oxide ion aluminium ion Al 3
+ O 2− Charge: −2 Charge: +3 Al2O3 Therefore, the formula is Al2O3.
 Example 2 Write the chemical formula of calcium carbonate. calcium ion Ca 2 + carbonate
ion CO3 2 − Charge: +3 Ca2(CO3)2 Charge: −2 CaCO3 Since ‘2’ is a common factor, it
can be removed. Therefore, the formula is CaCO3.

CHEMISTRY-WRITTEN REPORT
 Republic of the Philippines
PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
Iba, Zambales
 Ionic compounds form giant ionic structures. Also known as giant lattice structures or
crystal lattices Consist of an endlessly repeating three-dimensional lattice of positive and
negative ions Ions are closely packed, arranged in an orderly manner and held in place by
ionic bonds
 Structure of NaCl Sodium chloride crystal Three-dimensional arrangement of sodium ions
and chloride ions Sodium ions and chloride ions alternate with each other.
 Structure of NaCl Strong forces of attraction between ions in crystal lattice Na+ Cl – Na+
Cl– A large amount of energy is required to overcome these forces of attraction between
ions. Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl– Na + Na+ Cl– Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl– Cl– Na+ Cl – Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl–
Na+ Cl – Na + Na+ Cl– Cl– Cl– Na+ Na Na+ Cl– + Na+ Cl– Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl–
Na+ Cl– Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+
 Cl− ion Each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. Na+ ion Each sodium ion is
surrounded by six chloride ions. The ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions is 1 : 1. Hence,
the formula unit of sodium chloride is NaCl.
 Melting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds • High melting and boiling points Na+ Cl
– Na+ • Non-volatile Cl– Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl– Na + Na+ Cl– • Exist as solids at room
temperature Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl– Cl– Na+ Cl – Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na + Na+ Cl– Cl–
Cl– Na+ Na Na+ Cl– + Na+ Cl– Cl– Na+ Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+
Cl– Na+
 Solubility of Ionic Compounds • Usually soluble in water Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl – Na + Cl
dissolve in water Na+ – Na+ Cl– Na+ Na+ Water molecules • URL Cl– Usually insoluble
in organic solvents E.g. ethanol, turpentine, petrol
 Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compounds solid NaCl aqueous NaCl molten NaCl
 Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten and aqueous states. • They do not
conduct electricity in the solid state. • In the molten and aqueous states, mobile ions are
present. • Mobile ions conduct electricity.

Covalent Bonding
 typical of molecular species
 atoms bonded together to form molecules
 strong attraction
 sharing pairs of electrons to attain octets
 molecules generally weakly attracted to each other
 observed physical properties of molecular substance due to these attractions
 The smallest particles of covalent compounds are molecules.
 Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between two atoms.
 Covalent bonds form between two
non-metals.
SINGLE COVALENT BONDS
 two atoms share one pair of electrons
 2 electrons
 one atom may have more than one single bond

CHEMISTRY-WRITTEN REPORT
 Republic of the Philippines
PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
Iba, Zambales
DOUBLE COVALENT BOND
 two atoms sharing two pairs of electrons
 4 electrons
 shorter and stronger than single bond
TRIPLE COVALENT BOND
 two atoms sharing 3 pairs of electrons
 6 electrons
 shorter and stronger than single or double bond
POLAR & NON-POLAR BONDS
 Two types of covalent bonds exist:
 Non-polar covalent bonds occur between similar atoms.
 In these bonds the electron pair is shared equally between the two protons.
 Polar covalent bonds occur between different atoms.
 In these bonds the electron pair is shared unequally between the two atoms.
 As a result there is a charge separation in the molecule, and partial charges on each atom.
DIPOLE MOMENTS
 A dipole is a material with positively and negatively charged ends
 Polar bonds or molecules have one end slightly positive, d +; and the other slightly
negative, d-
 not “full” charges, come from nonsymmetrical electron distribution
 Dipole Moment, m, is a measure of the size of the polarity
 measured in Debyes, D
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
 Electronegativity (E.N.) is the ability of an atom involved in a covalent bond to attract the
bonding electrons to itself.
 Linus Pauling derived a relative Electronegativity Scale based on Bond Energies.
BOND POLARITY & ELECTRONEGATIVITY
 Polarity is a measure of the inequality in the sharing of bonding electrons
 The more different the electronegativity of the elements forming the bond
 The larger the electronegativity difference
(EN)
 The more polar the bond formed
BONDING & LONE PAIR ELECTRONS
 Electrons that are shared by atoms are called bonding pairs
 Electrons that are not shared by atoms but belong to a particular atom are called lone
pairs
 also known as nonbonding pairs
 In a Lewis structure, a shared electron pair is indicated by two dots between the atoms, or
by a dash connecting them.
 Unshared pairs of valence electrons (called lone pairs) are shown as belonging to
individual atoms or ions.

CHEMISTRY-WRITTEN REPORT
 Republic of the Philippines
PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
Iba, Zambales
 Structures must satisfy octet rule (8 electrons around each atom).
 Hydrogen is one of the few exceptions and forms a doublet (2 electrons).
 Covalent molecules are best represented with electron-dot or Lewis structures.
 Bonding electrons can be displayed by a dashed line.
POLYATOMIC IONS
 The polyatomic ions are attracted to opposite ions by ionic bonds
 Form crystal lattices
 Atoms in the polyatomic ion are held together by covalent bonds
Lewis Formulas of Molecules
 shows pattern of valence electron distribution in the molecule
 useful for understanding the bonding in many compounds
 allows us to predict shapes of molecules
 allows us to predict properties of molecules and how they will interact together
LEWIS STRUCTURES
 More complex Lewis structures can be drawn by following a stepwise method:
 1. Count the number of electrons in the structure.
 2. Draw a skeleton structure.
- most metallic element generally central
- halogens and hydrogen are generally
Terminal
- many molecules tend to be symmetrical
- in oxyacids, the acid hydrogens are attached to an oxygen
 3. Connect atoms by bonds (dashes or dots).
 4. Distribute electrons to achieve Octet rule.
 5. Form multiple bonds if necessary.
WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR POLYATOMIC IONS
 the procedure is the same, the only difference is in counting the valence electrons
 for polyatomic cations, take away one electron from the total for each positive charge
 for polyatomic anions, add one electron to the total for each negative charge
EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE
 H & Li, lose one electron to form cation
 Li now has electron configuration like He
 H can also share or gain one electron to have configuration like He
 Be shares 2 electrons to form two single bonds
 B shares 3 electrons to form three single bonds
 expanded octets for elements in Period 3 or below
 using empty valence d orbitals
 some molecules have odd numbers of electrons
RESONANCE
 we can often draw more than one valid Lewis structure for a molecule or ion
 in other words, no one Lewis structure can adequately describe the actual structure of the
molecule

CHEMISTRY-WRITTEN REPORT
 Republic of the Philippines
PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
Iba, Zambales
 the actual molecule will have some characteristics of all the valid Lewis structures we can
draw
 Lewis structures often do not accurately represent the electron distribution in a molecule
 Lewis structures imply that O3 has a single (147 pm) and double (121 pm) bond, but
actual bond length is between, (128 pm)
 Real molecule is a hybrid of all possible Lewis structures
 Resonance stabilizes the molecule
 maximum stabilization comes when resonance forms contribute equally to the hybrid
 we can often draw more than one valid Lewis structure for a molecule or ion
 Real molecule is a hybrid
 of all possible Lewis structures
 The three oxygens are chemically equivalent, so it makes no difference to the ion which
oxygen assumes the double bond.

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