A Photon Migration Method for Characterizing Fiber

Formation in Meat Analogs

Abstract:

 :
Meat analogs produced by high-moisture extrusion of soy proteins are good alternatives to animal meat and have many
health benefits. In addition to textural properties, an abundant fibrous structure in such extrudates is a key factor for
consumer acceptance. Although several techniques have been developed for quantifying fiber formation in extrudates,
their applications for real-time quality control in manufacturing process have been challenging. In this study, we
developed a nondestructive imaging technique to quantify fibrous structures in soy protein extrudates. The spatial
distribution of light reflectance on sample surface was imaged and a fiber formation index was derived based on the
random-walk theory of light transport in anisotropic media. This method has a potential to be used as a nondestructive,
real-time quality control tool for products with fibrous structures.

Nutritional Requirements
The nutrient requirements for llamas have not been determined as specifically as in most
other livestock species. This can make ration formulation a challenge. The requirements
for this section have been compiled from a number of sources which were in agreement
with each other. In general, llama nutrient requirements are considered the most similar
to sheep nutrient requirements. For the requirements not specifically known for llamas,
the sheep data is used.

All the values on this site are reported on a dry matter basis. Nutrient requirements are
typically reported on a dry matter basis. This means that the percentage values are based
on feed which has had all of the water removed, leaving only "dry matter". This makes
the values consistent between feeds because different feeds will have different moisture
levels.

The daily intake of individual animals (dry matter intake) is also measured in terms of
dry matter to maintain consistency. Llamas will eat anywhere from 1.8-2.0% of their
body weight in dry matter each day. For example, if a 300 lbs. llama ate 2.0% of it's body
weight in dry matter, the dry matter intake would be:

300 lbs. x 2% = 6 lbs of dry matter intake

If both the forage and the concentrate (grain mix or pellets) were 10% water, they would
be 90% dry matter. The calculated dry matter intake value does not account for this water
so the actual weight of the feed the llama eats is more than 6 lbs. For example, the same
300 lbs. llama eating 6 lbs. of dry matter would actually be eating 6.7 lbs. of feed (forage
and concentrate).

6 lbs of dry matter intake/90% = 6.7 lbs of actual feed intake

Normal water consumption for llamas is roughly 4 liters or 1 gallon per 100 lbs. of body
weight. Water consumption will go up with lactation and with hot weather and will go
down slightly in the colder weather. Remember that llamas are finicky about their water
and it should always be kept clean and fresh.

Nutrient Maintenance Pregnancy/Lactation Growth

TDN 55-65% 60-65% 60-65%
Crude Protein 8-10% 12-14% 13-14%
Crude Fiber 20-30% 20-30% 20-30%
Calcium 0.6-0.8% 0.8-1.0% 0.6-0.8%

TDN stands for total digestible nutrients and is a crude estimate of the energy content
of a feed. It is determined by summing the digestible crude protein, digestible
carbohydrates and 2.25 times the crude fat and is expressed in units of weight. Digestible
energy (DE) and Net energy (NE) are expressed in calories rather than weight and are
much better measurements of the energy content of feeds, but determination of these
values for a particular species can only be done through time consuming nutrition studies.

Crude protein and Crude fiber are also rough determinations of the amount of protein
and fiber in the diet. Fiber can be analyzed more specifically using ADF (acid detergent
fiber) and NDF (neutral detergent fiber). ADF is made up of only indigestible fiber and
should be greater than 19-20% for any ruminant or pseudoruminant.

Minerals are often present in such small amounts in they diet that theyre are multiple
ways to express their quantity. Mineral requirements or contents on feed labels may be
seen expressed as percent dry matter, percent as fed, mg/kg, ppm (part per million), or
just total mg. It can be difficult to sort out how much your llamas may be getting if you
cannot convert between them. The units of ppm, mg/kg and percentages are used most
often.

ppm = mg/kg
ppm = %/10,000 (or move the decimal point of the % four places to the right)
total mg = mg/kg x animal's body wieght in kg

These conversions should allow you to get all the values you might have into the same
units. Otherwise there is often no way to compare one value to the next and it can be very
confusing.

Minerals
Nutrient All Life Stages
Phosphorus (P) more than 0.4%
 Magnesium (Mg) 0.25-0.4%
Potassium (K) 1.0-2.0%
Sulfur (S) 0.2-0.25%
Iron (Fe) 300-800ppm
Zinc (Zn) 40-300ppm
Manganese (Mn) 200-300ppm
Copper (Cu) 10-20ppm
Molybdenum (Mo) 60-120ppm
Cobalt (Co) 1-2ppm
Iodine (I) 0.25-0.5ppm
Selenium (Se) 0.5-3.0mg

What are all these nutrients used for in the llama?

Fiber
Necessary for the health of rumen flora (bacteria and protozoa), to help prevent
ulcer formation, and to stimulate health of the ruminal epithelium (layer of cells
on the inside surface).
Protein
A source of amino acids used for cellular building blocks, growth, tissue repair,
immune system function, lactation, enzyme systems and fiber production.
Calcium (Ca)
Needed for bones and teeth, proper function of the nervous system, muscle
contraction, contraction of the heart and blood clotting. Must be balanced with
phosphorus in a Ca:P ratio ranging from 1.5:1 up to 2.0:1.
Phosphorus (P)
Needed for bones and teeth, lipid (fat) transport and metabolism, cell membranes,
energy metabolism, DNA and RNA, protein synthesis, and enzyme systems. Must
be balanced with calcium, see above.
Magnesium (Mg)
Necessary for proper nervous system function, bones, enzyme systems and energy
metablolism.
Potassium (K)
Maintains fluid balance, acid-base balance and is used in enzyme systems for
energy, protein synthesis and carbohydrate metabolism.
Sulfur (S)
Necessary for digestive enzyme metabolism, connective tissue and collagen,
blood clotting, acid-base balance inside cells, B-vitamin synthesis by microbes in
the rumen, protein structure, wool growth, and body secretions.
Iron (Fe)
Used in hemoglobin production, energy metabolism, copper and molybdenum
metabolism and immune system function.
Zinc (Zn)
Necessary for many enzyme systems, skin integrity, growth, reproduction, protein
synthesis, wool growth and appetite.
Manganese (Mn)
Used in growth, normal bone formation, carbohydrate and lipid (fat) metabolism
and tissue repair.
Copper (Cu)
Essential for hair and body pigments, blood and hemoglobin production, normal
bone formation, connectie tissue and collagen formation, integrity of the nervous
system, vital enzyme systems and crimping of fiber. Llamas and sheep are very
sensitive to copper and it can be toxic if fed at levels above 20ppm. Copper must
also be balanced with molybdenum in a 6:1 ratio of Mo:Cu.
Molybdenum (Mo)
A part of some enzyme systems and interacts with copper. Too much
molybdenum prevents copper from being absorbed and used resulting in a relative
copper deficiency.
Cobalt (Co)
A component of Vitamin B12. Necessary for synthesis of vitamin B12 by the
rumen microbes and enzyme systems.
Iodine (I)
Used in the synthesis of thyroid hormones which are needed for multiple
functions in the body.
Selenium (Se)
Part of an antioxidant enzyme and needed for reproduction, growth, normal
pancreatic function and proper immune function. Selenium does not need to be
supplemented in regions which have sufficient selenium levels in the soil. Llamas
should have 0.5-0.75mg in mildly deficient areas, 1.0-1.5mg in moderately
deficient areas and 2.0-3.0mg in severely deficient areas.

Vitamins
Nutrient Any diet
Vitamin A 200,000 IU/lb
Vitamin D 3,000 IU/lb
Vitamin E 1 IU/lb
Biotin 0.2-0.3mg
dl-methionine 0.25%
Vitamin A
 Necessary for vision,the lining of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts,
hearing, skin, bone growth and remodeling, immune system function, and as an
antioxidant.
Vitamin D
Helps maintain teeth and bones. Necessary for intestinal absorption of calcium
and phosphorus.
Vitamin E
An antioxidant which maintains cell membranes all over the body. Needed in
muscle, fat, for reproduction and proper immune system function.
Thiamine
Important for nervous system function, energy metabolism, and decreasing stress,
especially due to heat.

Last updated September 2,1997