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Abstract
This paper reviews the production and characterization of biodiesel (BD or B) as well as the experimental work carried out by
many researchers in this field. BD fuel is a renewable substitute fuel for petroleum diesel or petrodiesel (PD) fuel made from
vegetable or animal fats. BD fuel can be used in any mixture with PD fuel as it has very similar characteristics but it has lower
exhaust emissions. BD fuel has better properties than that of PD fuel such as renewable, biodegradable, non-toxic, and essentially
free of sulfur and aromatics. There are more than 350 oil bearing crops identified, among which only sunflower, safflower, soybean,
cottonseed, rapeseed and peanut oils are considered as potential alternative fuels for diesel engines. The major problem associated
with the use of pure vegetable oils as fuels, for Diesel engines are caused by high fuel viscosity in compression ignition. Dilution,
micro-emulsification, pyrolysis and transesterification are the four techniques applied to solve the problems encountered with the
high fuel viscosity. Dilution of oils with solvents and microemulsions of vegetable oils lowers the viscosity, some engine
performance problems still exist. The viscosity values of vegetable oils vary between 27.2 and 53.6 mm2/s whereas those of
vegetable oil methyl esters between 3.59 and 4.63 mm2/s. The viscosity values of vegetable oil methyl esters highly decreases after
transesterification process. Compared to no. 2 diesel fuel, all of the vegetable oil methyl esters were slightly viscous. The flash
point values of vegetable oil methyl esters are highly lower than those of vegetable oils. An increase in density from 860 to
885 kg/m3 for vegetable oil methyl esters or biodiesels increases the viscosity from 3.59 to 4.63 mm2/s and the increases are highly
regular. The purpose of the transesterification process is to lower the viscosity of the oil. The transesterfication of triglycerides by
methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol, has proved to be the most promising process. Methanol is the commonly used alcohol in
this process, due in part to its low cost. Methyl esters of vegetable oils have several outstanding advantages among other new-
renewable and clean engine fuel alternatives. The most important variables affecting the methyl ester yield during the
transesterification reaction are molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil and reaction temperature. Biodiesel has become more
attractive recently because of its environmental benefits. Biodiesel is an environmentally friendly fuel that can be used in any diesel
engine without modification.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
1.1. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
* Tel.: C90 462 230 7831; fax: C90 462 248 8508.
E-mail address: 8508.ayhandemirbas@hotmail.com
0360-1285/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2005.09.001
A. Demirbas / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 31 (2005) 466–487 467
1.2. The use of vegetable oils and their derivatives as alternative diesel fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
1.3. Global vegetable oil resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
2. Biodiesel (BD) as an alternative fuel for diesel engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
2.1. The importance of alcohols for diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
2.1.1. Methanol production methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
2.1.2. Ethanol production methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
2.2. Hydrogen production methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
3. Transesterification of vegetable oils and fats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
3.1. Catalytic transesterification method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
3.2. Supercritical methanol transesterification method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
3.3. Recovery of glycerol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3.4. Reaction mechanism of transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3.4.1. Acid-catalyzed processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.4.2. Alkali-catalyzed processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.4.3. Enzyme-catalyzed processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
3.4.4. Non-catalytic supercritical alcohol transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
4. Fuel properties of vegetable oils and biodiesels (BDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
4.1. Emissions from biodiesel combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
4.2. Comparison of fuel properties and combustion characteristics of methyl and ethyl alcohols and their esters 482
5. Engine performance tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
6. BD economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Table 1
Fatty acid compositions of vegetable oil samples
and palm oils are the most studied. However, there are with the high fuel viscosity. To reduce of the high
no technical restrictions to the use of other types of viscosity of vegetable oils, microemulsions with
vegetable oils. The fatty acid compositions of vegetable immiscible liquids such as methanol and ethanol and
oil samples are given in Table 1. Considering the type ionic or non-ionic amphiphiles have been studied
of the alcohol, the use of methanol is advantageous as it [12,14].
allows the simultaneous separation of glycerol. The Vegetable oils have the potential to substitute a
same reaction using ethanol is more complicated as fraction of petroleum distillates and petroleum based
it requires a water-free alcohol, as well as an oil with petrochemicals in the near future. Vegetable oil fuels
a low water content, in order to obtain glycerol are not petroleum-competitive fuels because they are
separation [13]. more expensive than petroleum fuels.
Problems met in long-term engine tests according to
results obtained by earlier researchers may be classified 1.3. Global vegetable oil resources
as follows: Injector coking and trumpet formation on
the injectors, more carbon deposits, oil ring sticking, Global vegetable oil production increased 56 million
and thickening and gelling of the engine lubricant tons in 1990 to 88 million tons in 2000, following a
oil [2]. below-normal increase. World vegetable and marine oil
The vegetable oils were all extremely viscous with consumption is tabulated in Table 2. Fig. 1 shows the
viscosities ranging 10–20 times greater than no. 2 diesel plots of percentages the world oil consumption by
fuel. Castor oil is in a class by itself with a viscosity years. Fig. 2 shows the total global production and
more than 100 times that of no. 2 diesel fuel [2]. consumption of vegetable oil by years. Leading the
Viscosity of oil can be lowered by blending with pure gains in vegetable oil production was a recovery in
ethanol. 25 parts of sunflower oil and 75 parts of PD world palm oil output, from 17.1 million tons in
were blending as PD fuel. Dilution, micro-emulsifica- 1997/1998 to 19.3 million in 1998/1999.
tion, pyrolysis and transesterification are the four The major exporters of vegetable oils are Malaysia,
techniques applied to solve the problems encountered Argentina, Indonesia, Philippines, and Brazil.
470 A. Demirbas / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 31 (2005) 466–487
Table 2 90000
World vegetable and marine oil consumption (million metric ton) Total production Total consumption
2H2 C CO/ CH3 OH (1) for fuel cells. The technology for making methanol
from natural gas is already in place and requires only
The chemical composition of syngas from coal and efficiency improvements and scale-up to make metha-
then from natural gas can be identical with the same nol an economically viable alternative transportation
H2/CO ratio. A variety of catalysts are capably of fuel.
causing the conversion, including reduced NiO-based In recent years, a growing interest has been observed
preparations, reduced Cu/ZnO shift preparations, in the application of methanol as an alternative liquid
Cu/SiO2 and Pd/SiO2, and Pd/ZnO [31,32].
fuel, which can be used directly for powering Otto
Biomass resources can be used to produce methanol.
engines or fuel cells [38]. Biomass and coal can be
The pyroligneous acid obtained from wood pyrolysis
considered as a potential fuel for gasification and
consists of about 50% methanol, acetone, phenols and
further syngas production and methanol synthesis [32,
water. [33,34]. As a renewable resource, biomass
33]. The feasibility of achieving the conversion has
represents a potentially inexhaustible supply of feed-
been demonstrated in a large scale system in which a
stock for methanol production. The product yield for
the conversion process is estimated to be 185 kg of product gas is initially produced by pyrolysis and
methanol per metric ton of solid waste [35,36]. gasification of a carbonaceous matter. Syngas from
Methanol is currently made from natural gas but can biomass is altered by catalyst under high pressure and
be made using wood waste or garbage via partial temperature to form methanol. This method will
oxidation reaction into syngas, followed by catalytic produce 100 gallons of methanol per ton of feed
conversion into methanol called as biomethanol. material [38] Table 5.
Adding sufficient hydrogen to the syngas to convert
all of the biomass carbon into methanol carbon would 2.1.2. Ethanol production methods
more than double the methanol produced from the same Ethanol, also known as ‘grain alcohol’, not
biomass base [37]. The composition of syngas from commonly used in making BD because of its low
biomass for producing methanol is presented in reactivity than methanol. Ethanol is an alcohol-based
Table 4. Current natural gas feedstocks are so fuel produced by fermenting sugars from crop starches.
inexpensive that even with tax incentives renewable
Currently, ethanol is generally produced from corn
methanol has not been able to compete economically.
kernels in USA. In this process, kernels are ground to a
Technologies are being developed that may eventually
fine powder, and all of it is cooked to liquefy it, without
result in commercial viability of renewable methanol.
removing the germ or fiber.
Methanol from coal could be a very important
Ethanol has been used in Germany and France as
source of liquid fuel in the future. The coal is first
early as 1894 by the then incipient industry of ICEs.
pulverized and cleaned, then fed to a gasifier bed where
it is reacted with oxygen and steam to produce the Brazil has utilized ethanol as a fuel since 1925.
syngas. Once these steps have been taken, the Currently, ethanol is produced from sugar beets and
production process is much the same as with the other from molasses in Brazil. A typical yield is 72.5 liter of
feedstocks with some variations in the catalyst used and ethanol per ton of sugar cane. Modern crops yield
the design of the converter vessel in which the reaction 60 ton of sugar cane per hector of land. Production of
is carried out. Methanol made using synthesis gas ethanol from biomass is one way to reduce both the
(syngas) with hydrogen and carbon monoxide in a 2–1 consumption of crude oil and environmental pollution
ratio (Table 4). The syngas was transformed to [39]. The use of gasohol (ethanol and gasoline mixture)
methanol in a fixed catalyst bed reactor. Coal-derived as an alternative motor fuel has been steadily increasing
methanol has many preferable properties as free of in the world for a number of reasons. Domestic
sulfur and other impurities, could replace petroleum in production and use of ethanol for fuel can decrease
transportation, or be used as a peaking fuel in dependence on foreign oil, reduce trade deficits, create
combustion turbines, or supply a source of hydrogen
Table 5
Table 4 Composition of syngas from biomass for producing methanol (% by
Analysis of syngas from typical coal volume)
Supercritical fluid extraction Conventional pyrolysis Steam gasification Transesterification means taking a triglyceride
molecule or a complex fatty acid, neutralizing the
50
free fatty acids, removing the glycerin, and creating an
Yield of hydrogen, vol.%
45
40
alcohol ester. The reaction is shown in Eq. (7).
35 Theoretically, transesterification reaction is an equili-
30 brium reaction. In this reaction, however, more amount
25 of methanol was used to shift the reaction equilibrium
20
15
to the right side and produce more methyl esters as the
10 proposed product. A catalyst is usually used to improve
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 the reaction rate and yield.
Temperature, K
Alcohols are primary or secondary monohydric
Fig. 3. Plots for yield of hydrogen from supercritical fluid (water) aliphatic alcohols having 1–8 carbon atoms Amongs
extraction, pyrolysis and steam gasification [(W/S)Z2] of beech wood the alcohols that can be used in the transesterification
at different temperatures. Source: Ref. [48]. reaction are methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and
amyl alcohol. Methanol and ethanol are used most
production from supercritical water gasification of wet
frequently, ethanol is a preferred alcohol in the
biomass was several times higher than the current price
transesterification process compared to methanol
of hydrogen from steam methane reforming. Biomass
because it is derived from agricultural products and is
was gasified in supercritical water at a series of
renewable and biologically less objectionable in the
temperature and pressure during different resident
environment. However methanol is preferable because
times to form a product gas composed of H2, CO2,
of its low cost and its physical and chemical advantages
CO, CH4, and a small amount of C2H4 and C2H6 [47].
(polar and shortest chain alcohol). The transesterifica-
Fig. 3 shows the curves for yield of hydrogen from
tion reaction can be catalyzed by alkalis [10,49], acids
supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), pyrolysis and steam
[50], or enzymes [51–55].
gasification [(W/S)Z2] of beech wood at different
Several alcoholysis catalysts, known to be effective
temperatures. Distilled water was used in the SFE (the
for reactions between simple alcohols and soybean oil,
critical temperature of pure water is 647.7 K). As seen
were evaluated and found to be ineffective toward
from Fig. 3, the yield of hydrogen from SFE was
alcoholysis of ethylene glycol with soybean oil under
considerably high (49%) at lower temperatures. The
traditional reaction conditions. An initial survey of
pyrolysis was carried out at the moderate temperatures
alternative catalysts revealed that organometallic tin
and steam gasification at the highest temperatures [48].
complexes were effective but unsatisfactory due to
The oily liquid fraction from pyrolysis consisted of
toxicity and difficulty in recovering the catalyst.
two phases: an aqueous phase containing a wide variety
Satisfactory performance for several alcoholysis
of organo-oxygen compounds of low molecular weight
reactions was achieved with calcium carbonate cata-
and a non-aqueous tarry phase containing insoluble
lysts even though at higher temperatures, typically
organics of high molecular weight. Tar a viscous black
greater than 475 K [56].
fluid that is a byproduct of the pyrolysis of woody
The physical properties of the primary chemical
biomass. The chief constituents of tar are pyrocatechol,
products of transesterification are given in Tables 7 and
phenol, guaiacol, cresol, creosol, methyl-creosol,
8 [11,57,58].
phlorol, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, and other
In the conventional transesterification of animal fats
hydrocarbons.
and vegetable oils for biodiesel production, free fatty
acids and water always produce negative effects, since
the presence of free fatty acids and water causes soap
3. Transesterification of vegetable oils and fats
formation, consumes catalyst and reduces catalyst
effectiveness, all of which resulting in a low conversion
The transesterification reaction proceeds with cata-
[59].
lyst or without any catalyst by using primary or
secondary monohydric aliphatic alcohols having 1–8
3.1. Catalytic transesterification method
carbon atoms as follows:
Triglycerides C Monohydric alcohol% Glycerin The catalyst is dissolved into methanol by vigorous
stirring in a small reactor. The oil is transferred into the
C Mono- alkyl esters (7) BD reactor and then the catalyst/alcohol mixture is
A. Demirbas / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 31 (2005) 466–487 475
Table 7 Table 9
Physical properties of chemicals related to transesterification Critical temperatures and critical pressures of various alcohols
Name Specific Melting Boiling Solubility Alcohol Critical temperature Critical pressure
gravity point point (!10%) (K) (MPa)
(g/ml) (K) (K)
Methanol 512.2 8.1
Methyl 0.875 291.0 – – Ethanol 516.2 6.4
myristate 1-Propanol 537.2 5.1
Methyl 0.825 303.8 469.2 Benzene, 1-Butanol 560.2 4.9
palmitate EtOH, Et2O
Methyl 0.850 311.2 488.2 Et2O,
stearate chloroform
Methyl 0.875 253.4 463.2 EtOH, Et2O
3.2. Supercritical methanol transesterification method
oleate [7]
Methanol 0.792 176.2 337.9 H2O, ether,
EtOH The transesterfication of triglycerides by supercriti-
Ethanol 0.789 161.2 351.6 H2O, ether
cal methanol (SCM), ethanol, propanol and butanol, has
Glycerol 1.260 255.3 563.2 H2O, ether
proved to be the most promising process. Table 9 shows
Source: Refs. [7,57]. critical temperatures and critical pressures of various
alcohols. A non-catalytic BD production route with
pumped into the oil. The final mixture is stirred supercritical methanol has been developed that allows a
vigorously for 2 h at 340 K in ambient pressure. A simple process and high yield because of simultaneous
successful transesterification reaction produces two transesterification of triglycerides and methyl esterifi-
liquid phases: ester and crude glycerol. Crude glycerol, cation of fatty acids [9]. Because of having similar
properties to PD, BD, a transesterified product of
the heavier liquid, is collected at the bottom after
vegetable oil, is considered as the most promising one
several hours of settling. Phase separation can be
for diesel fuel substitute. A reaction mechanism of
observed within 10 min and can be complete within 2 h
vegetable oil in SCM was proposed based on the
of settling. Complete settling can take as long as 20 h.
mechanism developed by Krammer and Vogel [60] for
After settling is complete, water is added at the rate of
the hydrolysis of esters in sub/supercritical water. The
5.5% by volume of methyl ester of oil and then stirred
basic idea of supercritical treatment is a relationship
for 5 min and the glycerin is allowed to settle again.
between pressure and temperature upon thermophysical
Washing the ester is a two-step process, which is
properties of the solvent such as dielectric constant,
carried out with extreme care. A water wash solution at
viscosity, specific weight, and polarity [61]. The
the rate of 28% by volume of oil and g of tannic
transesterification of sunflower oil was investigated in
acid/liter of water is added to the ester and gently
SCM and supercritical ethanol at various temperatures
agitated. Air is carefully introduced into the aqueous
(475–675 K) [62]. Fig. 4 shows a SCM transesterifica-
layer while simultaneously stirring very gently. This
tion system.
process is continued until the ester layer becomes clear.
The most important variables affecting the methyl
After settling, the aqueous solution is drained and water
ester yield during transesterification reaction are molar
alone is added at 28% by volume of oil for the final
washing [2,7,11].
Table 8
Melting points of fatty acids, methyl esters and mono-, di-, and
triglycerides (K)
100 100
90
80 80
1.0:1.0
70
1.0:3.0
60 60
1.0:9.0
50 1.0:20
450 K
40 40 1.0:41
493 K
30
503 K
20 20
513 K
10
523 K
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 –50 50 150 250 350
Reaction time (sec)
Reaction time (sec)
Fig. 6. Effect of molar ratio of vegetable oil to methanol on yield
Fig. 5. Changes in yield percentage of methyl esters as treated with
of methyl ester. Temperature: 513 K, sample: methylester from
subcritical and supercritical methanol at different temperatures as a
cottonseed oil. Source: Ref. [7].
function of reaction time. Molar ratio of vegetable oil to methyl
alcohol: 1:41. Sample: hazelnut kernel oil. Source: Ref. [7].
As seen in Fig. 6, the cottonseed oil can be
transesterified at 1:1, 1:3, 1:9, 1:20 and 1:40 vegetable
ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil and reaction tempera- oil-methanol molar ratios in subcritical and SCM
ture. Viscosities of the methyl esters from the vegetable conditions [7].
oils were slightly higher than that of no. 2 diesel fuel. In the supercritical alcohol transesterification
Fig. 5 shows a typical example of the relationship method, the yield of conversion raises 50–95% for
between the reaction time and the temperature [7]. the first 10 min. Fig. 7 shows the plots for changes
The variables affecting the ester yield during in fatty acids alkyl esters conversion from triglycer-
transesterification reaction are molar ratio of alcohol ides as treated in supercritical alcohols at 575 K
to vegetable oil, reaction temperature, reaction time, [64].
water content and catalyst. It was observed that Water content is an important factor in the
increasing the reaction temperature, especially to conventional catalytic transesterification of vegetable
supercritical temperatures, had a favorable influence oil. In the conventional transesterification of fats and
on ester conversion [7]. vegetable oils for BD production, free fatty acids and
In the transesterification process, the vegetable oil water always produce negative effects since the
should have an acid value less than one and all presence of free fatty acids and water causes soap
materials should be substantially anhydrous. If the acid formation, consumes catalyst and reduces catalyst
value is greater than one, more NaOH or KOH is effectiveness. In catalyzed methods, the presence of
injected to neutralize the free fatty acids. Water can water has negative effects on the yields of methyl
cause soap formation and frothing. The resulting soaps esters. However, the presence of water affected
can induce an increase in viscosity, formation of gels positively the formation of methyl esters in our SCM
and foams, and made the separation of glycerol difficult method. Fig. 7 shows the plots for yields of methyl
[11,63]. esters as a function of free fatty acid content in BD
The stoichiometric ratio for transesterification production [64].
reaction requires 3 mol of alcohol and 1 mol of Transesterification reaction of rapeseed oil in
triglyceride to yield 3 mol of fatty acid ester and SCM has been investigated without using any
1 mol of glycerol. Higher molar ratios result in greater catalyst. In addition, it was found that this new
ester production in a shorter time. The vegetable SCM process requires the shorter reaction time and
oils are transesterified 1:6–1:40 vegetable oil-alcohol simpler purification procedure because of the unused
molar ratios in catalytic and supercritical alcohol catalyst [2,7]. Transesterification can occur at
conditions [7]. different temperatures and the temperature influence
Fig. 6 shows the effect of the molar ratio of the reaction rate and yield of esters, depending on
vegetable oil to methanol on the yield of methyl ester. the oil used. It was observed that increasing reaction
A. Demirbas / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 31 (2005) 466–487 477
Fig. 7. Plots for changes in fatty acids alkyl esters conversion from
3.4. Reaction mechanism of transesterification
triglycerides as treated in supercritical alcohol at 575 K. Source: Ref.
[64]. Transesterification consists of a number of
consecutive, reversible reactions [65,66]. The trigly-
temperature, especially supercritical temperatures had ceride is converted stepwise to diglyceride, mono-
a favorable influence on ester conversion [7]. glyceride and finally glycerol (Eqs. 8–11). The
formation of alkyl esters from monoglycerides is
3.3. Recovery of glycerol believed as a step which determines the reaction
rate, since monoglycerides are the most stable
The standards make sure that the following intermediate compound [11].
important factors in the BD fuel production process Fatty acid ðR1 COOHÞ C Alcohol ðROHÞ
by transesterification are satisfied: (a) complete
transesterification reaction, (b) removal of catalyst, $ Ester ðR1 COORÞ C Water ðH2 OÞ (8)
(c) removal of alcohol, (d) removal of glycerol, and
(e) complete esterification of free fatty acids. The Triglyceride C ROH$ Diglyceride C RCOOR1 (9)
following transesterification procedure is for the
methyl ester production. The catalyst is dissolved Diglyceride C ROH$ Monoglyceride
into the alcohol by vigerous stirring in a small
reactor. The oil is transferred into the BD reactor C RCOOR2 (10)
and then the catalyst/methanol mixture is pumped
into the oil and final mixture stirred vigorously for Monoglyceride C ROH$ Glycerol
2 h. A successful reaction produces two liquid
C RCOOR3 (11)
phases: ester and crude glycerol. The entire mixture
then settles and glycerol is left on the bottom and Several aspects, including the type of catalyst
methyl esters (BD) is left on top. Crude glycerol, the (alkaline, acid or enzyme), alcohol/vegetable oil
heavier liquid will collect at the bottom after several molar ratio, temperature, water content and free
hours of settling. Phase separation can be observed fatty acid content have an influence on the course of
within 10 min and can be complete within 2 h after the transesterification. In the transesterification of
stirring has stopped. Complete settling can be taken vegetable oils and fats for biodiesel production, free
as long as 18 h. After settling is complete, water was fatty acids and water always produce negative
added at the rate of 5.0% by volume of the oil and effects, since the presence of free fatty acids and
then stirred for 5 min and the glycerol allowed water causes soap formation, consumes catalyst and
settling again. After settling is complete the glycerol reduces catalyst effectiveness, all of which result in a
is drained and the ester layer remains [8]. low conversion [67]. When the original ester is
The recovery of high quality glycerol as a BD by- reacted with an alcohol, the transesterification
product is primary options to be considered to lower process is called alcoholysis [68]. The transester-
the cost of BD. With neutralizing the free fatty ification is an equilibrium reaction and the trans-
acids, removing the glycerol, and creating an alcohol formation occurs essentially by mixing the reactants.
478 A. Demirbas / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 31 (2005) 466–487
In the transesterification of vegetable oils, a vegetable oils were carried out in several studies [50,
triglyceride reacts with an alcohol in the presence 69]. Solid superacid catalysts of sulfated tin and
of a strong acid or base, producing a mixture of fatty zirconium oxides and tungstated zirconia were used
acids alkyl esters and glycerol. The stoichiometric in the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol
reaction requires 1 mol of a triglyceride and 3 mol of at 475–575 K and the esterification of n-octanoic acid
the alcohol. However, an excess of the alcohol is with methanol at 450–475 K. Tungstated zirconia–
used to increase the yields of the alkyl esters and to alumina is a promising catalyst for the production of
allow its phase separation from the glycerol formed biodiesel fuels because of its activity for the trans-
[8]. esterification as well as the esterification [69].
rise to hydrolysis of some of the produced ester, with Supercritical methanol Alkaline catalyst Acid catalyst
consequent soap formation. Potassium carbonate, used 100
in a concentration of 2 or 3 mol% gives high yields of
fatty acid alkyl esters and reduces the soap formation. 80
Methyl ester, %
This can be explained by the formation of bicarbonate 60
instead of water (Fig. 8), which does not hydrolyse the
esters [8,68]. 40
20
3.4.3. Enzyme-catalyzed processes
0
Although the enzyme-catalyzed transesterification 0 1 2 3 4 5
processes are not yet commercially developed, new Water content, %
results have been reported in a recent article [68]. The
common aspects of these studies consist in optimizing Fig. 9. Plots for yields of methyl esters as a function of water content
in transesterification of triglycerides.
the reaction conditions (solvent, temperature, pH, type
of microorganism which generates the enzyme, etc) in positively the formation of methyl esters in our
order to establish suitable characteristics for an supercritical methanol method. Fig. 9 shows the plots
industrial application. However, the reaction yields as for yields of methyl esters as a function of water content
well as the reaction times are still unfavorable in transesterification of triglycerides. Fig. 10 shows the
compared to the base-catalyzed reaction systems [8]. plots for yields of methyl esters as a function of free
fatty acid content in BD production [67]. Comparisons
3.4.4. Non-catalytic supercritical alcohol between catalytic commercial methanol process and
transesterification supercritical methanol (SCM) method for BD from
BD, an alternative diesel fuel, is made from vegetable oils by transesterification are given in
renewable biological sources such as vegetable oils Table 10.
and animal fats by non-catalytic supercritical alcohol
transesterification methods [2]. A non-catalytic BD
4. Fuel properties of vegetable oils and biodiesels
production route with supercritical methanol has been
(BDs)
developed that allows a simple process and high yield
because of simultaneous transesterification of triglycer-
Vegetable oils can be used as fuel for combustion
ides and methyl esterification of fatty acids [7].
engines, but its viscosity is much higher than usual
The parameters affecting the methyl esters formation
diesel fuel and requires modifications of the engines.
are reaction temperature, pressure, molar ratio, water
The major problem associated with the use of pure
content and free fatty acid content. It is evident that at
vegetable oils as fuels, for diesel engines are caused by
subcritical state of alcohol, reaction rate is very low and
high fuel viscosity in compression ignition. Therefore,
gradually increases as either pressure or temperature
vegetable oils are converted into their methyl esters
rises. It was observed that increasing the reaction
(BDs) by transesterification.
temperature, especially to supercritical conditions, had
Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction or
a favorable influence on the yield of ester conversion
resistance of an oil to flow. As the temperature of oil is
[2,7]. The yield of alkyl ester increased with increasing
the molar ratio of oil to alcohol [6]. In the supercritical Supercritical methanol alkaline catalyst Acid catalyst
alcohol transesterification method, the yield of conver- 100
sion raises 50–95% for the first 10 min.
80
Methyl ester, %
Table 10 Table 12
Comparisons between catalytic methanol (MeOH) process and Viscosity, density and flash point measurements of 10 vegetable oils
supercritical methanol (SCM) method for biodiesel from vegetable
oils by transesterification Oil source Viscosity Density Flash point
(mm2/s (at (kg/m3) (K)
Catalytic MeOH SCM method 311 K))
process
Corn 34.9 909.5 550
Methylating agent Methanol Methanol Cottonseed 33.5 914.8 509
Catalyst Alkali None Crambe 53.6 904.4 447
Reaction 303–338 523–573 Linseed 27.2 923.6 514
temperature (K) Peanut 39.6 902.6 544
Reaction pressure 0.1 10–25 Rapeseed 37.0 911.5 519
(MPa) Safflower 31.3 914.4 533
Reaction time (min) 60–360 7–15 Sesame 35.5 913.3 533
Methyl ester yield 96 98 Soybean 32.6 913.8 527
(wt%) Sunflower 33.9 916.1 447
Removal for Methanol, catalyst, Methanol
purification glycerol, soaps The biodiesel (BD) was characterized by determining its density,
Free fatty acids Saponified products Methyl esters, water viscosity, high heating value, cetane number, cloud and pour points,
characteristics of distillation, and flash and combustion points
according to ISO norms. Source: Ref. [4].
increased, its viscosity decreases and it is therefore able
to flow more readily. Viscosity is measured on several those of vegetable oil methyl esters are between 860
different scales, including Redwood no. 1 at 100F, and 885 kg/m3 (Table 12). The density values of
Engler Degrees, Saybolt Seconds, etc. Viscosity is the vegetable oil methyl esters considerably decreases via
most important property of biodiesel since it affects the transesterification process. The viscosity values of
operation of fuel injection equipment, particularly at vegetable oils are between 27.2 and 53.6 mm2/s
low temperatures when the increase in viscosity affects whereas those of vegetable oil methyl esters are
the fluidity of the fuel. BD has viscosity close to diesel between 3.59 and 4.63 mm2/s. The viscosity values of
fuels. High viscosity leads to poorer atomization of the vegetable oil methyl esters highly decreases after
fuel spray and less accurate operation of the fuel transesterification process. Compared to no. 2 PD
injectors. A novel process of BD fuel production has fuel, all of the vegetable oil methyl esters were slightly
been developed by a non-catalytic supercritical metha- viscous. The flash point values of vegetable oil methyl
nol method. esters are highly lower than those of vegetable oils
Viscosity, density and flash point measurements of (Tables 11 and 12).
eight oil methyl esters are given in Table 11. Compared Density is another important property of BD. It is the
to no. 2 diesel fuel, all of the vegetable oils were much weight of a unit volume of fluid. Specific gravity is the
more viscous. Viscosity, density and flash point ratio of the density of a liquid to the density of water.
measurements of ten vegetable oils given by Goering Specific gravity of BD fuels ranges between 0.87 and
0.89 kg/m3 (Table 11). Fuel injection equipment
et al. [4] are shown in Table 11. The density values of
operates on a volume metering system, hence a higher
vegetable oils are between 902.6 and 923.6 kg/m3 while
density for BD results in the delivery of a slightly
Table 11 greater mass of fuel.
Viscosity, density and flash point measurements of eight oil methyl Cetane number (CN) is a measure of ignition quality
esters
of diesel fuel. The higher the CN, the easier the fuel
Methyl ester Viscosity Density Flash point ignites when it is injected into the engine. The higher
(mm2/s (kg/m3 (K) the CN is the more fuel-efficient the fuel. BD has a
(at 313 K)) (at 288 K))
higher CN than petrol diesel because of its higher
Cottonseed oil 3.69 880 437 oxygen content. This means that engines run smoother
Hazelnut kernel oil 3.59 860 401
and create less noise when running on BD. The CN is
Mustard oil 4.10 881 446
Palm oil 3.70 870 443 based on two compounds, namely hexadecane with a
Rapeseed oil 4.63 885 428 CN of 100 and heptamethylnonane with a CN of 15.
Safflower oil 4.03 880 453 The CN scale also shows that straight-chain, saturated
Soybean oil 4.08 885 447 hydrocarbons have higher CN compared to branched-
Sunflower oil 4.22 880 443
chain or aromatic compounds of similar molecular
Source: Ref. [72]. weight and number of carbon atoms. The CN of
A. Demirbas / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 31 (2005) 466–487 481
fuel. It relates to the ignition delay time of a fuel upon Source Viscosity Density Cetane Reference
injection into the combustion chamber. The CN is a (g/mL at (cSt at 313. number no.
288.7 K) 2 K)
measure of ignition quality of diesel fuels and high CN
implies short ignition delay. The longer the fatty acid Sunflower 4.6 0.880 49 [73]
Soybean 4.1 0.884 46 [73]
carbon chains and the more saturated the molecules, the
Palm 5.7 0.880 62 [74]
higher the CN. The CN of BD from animal fats is higher Peanut 4.9 0.876 54 [75]
than those of vegetable oils. Comparisons of some fuel Babassu 3.6 – 63 [75]
properties of vegetable oils and their esters with diesel Tallow 4.1 0.877 58 [76]
fuel are given in Table 13. Table 14 shows some fuel
properties of six methyl ester BDs given in literature.
Relationships between density and viscosity of The BD was characterized by determining its
vegetable oils are depicted in Fig. 11. These figures density, viscosity, high heating value, cetane number,
were plotted using the values in Table 12 given by cloud and pour points, characteristics of distillation,
Goering et al. [4]. As seen Fig. 11, an increase in and flash and combustion points according to ISO
density from 902.6 to 923.6 kg/m3 for vegetable oils norms [8]. The higher heating values of the BD fuels,
decreases the viscosity from 53.6 to 27.2 mm2/s and the on a mass basis, are 9–13% lower than no. 2 diesel fuel.
decreases are considerably regular (coefficient of The cloud and pour points of no. 2 diesel fuel are
regression (r) is 0.7942). significantly lower than the BD fuels. The BD fuels
Relationships between density and viscosity of produced slightly lower power and torque and higher
vegetable oil methyl esters are depicted in Fig. 12. fuel consumption than no. 2 diesel fuel. The properties
The Fig. 12 was plotted using the measured values [72]. of BD are close to no. 2 diesel fuels. Some fuel
As seen Fig. 12, an increase in density from 860 to properties of methyl ester BDs are presented in
885 kg/m3 for vegetable oil methyl esters or BDs Table 13.
increases the viscosity from 3.59 to 4.63 mm2/s. There Two important parameters for low temperature
is high regression between density and viscosity values applications of a fuel are Cloud Point (CP) and Pour
vegetable oil methyl esters. The relationships between Point (PP). The CP is the temperature at which wax first
viscosity and flash point for vegetable oil methyl esters becomes visible when the fuel is cooled. The PP is
are irregular. the temperature at which the amount of wax out of
Table 13 solution is sufficient to gel the fuel, thus it is the
Comparisons of some fuel properties of vegetable oils and their esters lowest temperature at which the fuel can flow. BD
with diesel fuel has higher CP and PP compared to conventional diesel
Fuel type Calorific Density Viscosity Cetane [77].
value (kg/m3) at 300 K numbera
(MJ/kg) (mm2 /s)
No. 2 diesel 43.4 815 4.3 47.0
fuel 55
Sunflower oil 39.5 918 58.5 37.1
Sunflower 40.6 878 10.3 45.5 50
methyl ester
Viscosity, cSt
Source: Ref. [8]. Fig. 11. Relationships between density and viscosity for vegetable
a
Cetane number (CN) is a measure of ignition quality of diesel fuel. oils.
482 A. Demirbas / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 31 (2005) 466–487
increased volumetric efficiency and reduced com- injector coking, viscosity, percent of BD, total glycerol,
pression temperatures [8]. and heat of combustion data with the others.
Methanol is not miscible with hydrocarbons and Peak torque is less for the BD fuels than diesel fuel
separation ensues readily in the presence of small but occurs at lower engine speed and generally the
quantities of water, particularly with reduction in torque curves are flatter. Test includes the power and
temperature. Since alcohols, especially methanol, can torque of the methyl esters and PD fuel and ethyl esters
be readily ignited by hot surfaces, pre-ignition can versus PD fuel. The BD fuels on the average decrease
occur. It must be emphasized here that pre-ignition and power by 5% compared to that of PD at rated load.
knocking in alcohol engine is a much more dangerous
condition than gasoline engines. Other properties, 6. BD economy
however, are favorable to the increase of power and
reduction of fuel consumption. The cost of BD fuels varies depending on the base
When diesel engines are converted to alcohols, some stock, geographic area, variability in crop production
properties of gasoline, diesel and alcohol should be from season to season, the price of the crude petroleum
concerned. Table 16 shows the characteristic properties and other factors. BD has over double the price of PD.
of the fuels. Because alcohols have limited solubility in The high price of BD is in large part due to the high
diesel fuel, stable emulsion must be formed that will price of the feedstock. However, BD can be made from
allow it to be injected before separation occurs. Hydro- other feedstocks, including beef tallow, pork lard, and
shear emulsification unit can be used to produce yellow grease
emulsions of diesel-alcohol. Fatty acid methyl ester could be produced from tall oil,
a by-product in the manufacture of pulp by the Kraft
5. Engine performance tests process. Tall oil consists of free C18 unsaturated fatty
acids, resin acids and relatively small amounts of
The methyl ester of vegetable oil was evaluated as a unsaponifiables [84,85]. The fatty acid fraction of tall oil
fuel in compression ignition engines (CIE) by contains mainly oleic acid, linoleic acid and its isomers.
researchers. They concluded that the performance of Tall oil fatty acids are easily converted into their methyl
the esters of vegetable oil did not differ greatly from PD esters by reaction with methanol, whereas the resin acids
fuel [61,83]. The brake power was nearly the same as are virtually unesterified due to hindered effect [86].
with PD fuel, while specific fuel consumption was BD has become more attractive recently because of
higher than PD fuel. Based on crankcase oil analysis, its environmental benefits. The cost of BD, however, is
engine wear rates were low but some oil dilution did the main obstacle to commercialization of the product.
occur. Carbon deposits inside the engine were normal With cooking oils used as raw material, the viability of
with the exception of intake valve deposits. a continuous transesterification process and recovery of
Fumigation is a process of introducing alcohol into high quality glycerol as a BD by-product are primary
the diesel engine (up to 50%) by means of a carburetor options to be considered to lower the cost of BD [10,11].
in the inlet manifold. At the same time, the diesel pump Vegetable oils are a renewable and potentially
operates at a reduced flow. In this process, BD fuel is inexhaustible source of energy with an energetic content
used for generating a pilot flame, and alcohol is used as close to PD fuel. The vegetable oil fuels were not
a fumigated fuel. acceptable because they were more expensive than
A visual inspection of the injector types would petroleum fuels. With recent increases in petroleum
indicate no difference between the BD fuels when prices and uncertainties concerning petroleum avail-
tested on no. 2 PD fuel. The overall injector coking is ability, there is renewed interest in vegetable oil fuels for
considerably low. Linear regression is used to compare diesel engines.
Table 16
Comparison of characteristic properties of fuels
Most of the BD that is currently made uses Viscosity is the most important property of
soybean oil, methanol, and an alkaline catalyst. The biodiesel (BD) since it affects the operation of fuel
high value of soybean oil as a food product makes injection equipment, particularly at low temperatures
production of a cost-effective fuel very challenging. when the increase in viscosity affects the fluidity of
However there are large amounts of low-cost oils the fuel. BD has viscosity close to diesel fuels. High
and fats such as restaurant waste and animal fats that viscosity leads to poorer atomization of the fuel
could be converted to BD. The problem with spray and less accurate operation of the fuel
processing these low cost oils and fats is that they injectors.
often contain large amounts of free fatty acids (FFA) The parameters affecting on the methyl esters
that cannot be converted to BD using an alkaline formation are reaction temperature, pressure, molar
catalyst [2,87]. ratio, water content and free fatty acid content. It is
A review of 12 economic feasibility studies shows evident that at subcritical state of alcohol, reaction
that the projected costs for BD from oilseed or rate is so low and gradually increased as either
animal fats have a range US$0.30-0.69/l, including pressure or temperature rises. It was observed that
meal and glycerin credits and the assumption of increasing the reaction temperature, especially to
reduced capital investment costs by having the supercritical conditions, had a favorable influence on
crushing and/or esterification facility added onto an
the yield of ester conversion. The yield of alkyl ester
existing grain or tallow facility. Rough projections of
increased with increasing the molar ratio of oil to
the cost of BD from vegetable oil and waste grease
alcohol. In the supercritical alcohol transesterification
are, respectively, US$0.54-0.62/l and US$0.34-0.42/l.
method, the yield of conversion raises 50–95% for
With pre-tax diesel priced at US$0.18/l in the US
the first 10 min. The BDs have high boiling points,
and US$0.20-0.24/l in some European countries, BD
flash points, and extremely low vapor pressure, as
is thus currently not economically feasible, and more
research and technological development will be well as an inability to smoke under the smoke point
needed [2,88]. test.
BD is considered to be an attractive transportation
fuel for use in environmentally sensitive applications
7. Conclusion due to its biodegradable nature, and essentially no
sulfur and aromatic contents, offers promise to reduce
With exception of hydropower and nuclear energy, particulate and toxic emissions. BDs have several
the major part of all energy consumed worldwide outstanding advantages among other new-renewable
comes from petroleum, charcoal and natural gas. and clean engine fuel alternatives. Fuel characterization
However, these sources are limited, and will be data show some similarities and differences between
exhausted on the near future. Thus, looking for BD and PD [2]:
alternative sources of energy is of vital importance.
Vegetable oils are a renewable and potentially † Sulfur content for BD is 20–50% that of D2 fuel
inexhaustible source of energy with an energetic † Specific weight is higher for BD, heat of combustion is
content close to diesel fuel. The vegetable oil fuels lower, viscosities are 1.3–2.1 times that of No. 2 PD
were not acceptable because they were more expensive fuel
than petroleum fuels. With recent increases in † Pour points for BD fuels vary from 274 to 298 K higher
petroleum prices and uncertainties concerning pet- for BD fuels depending on the feedstock
roleum availability, there is renewed interest in † The BDs all have higher levels of injector coking than
vegetable oil fuels for diesel engines. no. 2 PD.
The purpose of the transesterification of vegetable
oils to their methyl esters (biodiesels) process is to A novel process of BD fuel production has been
lower the viscosity of the oil. The main factors developed by a non-catalytic supercritical methanol
affecting transesterification are molar ratio of method. Supercritical methanol has a high potential for
glycerides to alcohol, catalyst, reaction temperature both transesterification of triglycerides and methyl
and pressure, reaction time and the contents of free esterification of free fatty acids to methyl esters for
fatty acids and water in oils. The commonly diesel fuel substitute. In the supercritical methanol
accepted molar ratios of alcohol to glycerides are transesterification method, the yield of conversion
6:1–30:1. raises 96% for 10 min.
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