c


   
 









c


Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load ofthe
structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface. The main
components of the foundation are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are long and slender
members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding
shallow soil of low bearing capacity. the main types of materials used for piles are Wood,
steel and concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the
ground and connected to pile caps. Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load
transmitting characteristic piles are classified accordingly.






The purpose of pile foundations is:
To transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
To resist vertical, lateral and uplift load
A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not have
adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that the shallow soil is
unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile
foundation may become considered. In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that
the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction
should be built on pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to
resist horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water.


  




  


 


 
   

   

1- End bearing piles (point bearing piles)

2- Friction piles (cohesion piles)
3- Combination of friction and cohesion piles
  !"#$c%&

These piles transfer their load into a firm stratum

located at a considerable depth below the base of the
structure and they derive most of their carrying
capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil
at the toe of the pile.

END BEARING PILE


#'(c%&

Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the

adhesion or friction of the soil in contact with the
shaft of the pile.

FRICTION PILE

()!"'((#'(c%&" (*&(c%&

An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such as a firm
clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop adequate frictional
resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged bearing areas.
This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum immediately above the
firm layer to give an enlarged base.

%"&&"'((c%+'*#&c''('('*&(%

1. Driven Pile

Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving the pile
into the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the ground. There may also
be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.
2. Bored Pile

Bored piles (Replacement piles^ are generally considered to be non-displacement piles a

void is formed by boring or excavation before piles is produced. There are three non-
displacement methods: bored cast- in - place piles, particularly pre-formed piles and
grout or concrete intruded piles.

, &$&'-"'(&" %)'&'"'&

Possible limit states for pile foundations are illustrated in J
, from left to right:
(top) ground and (middle) structural failure, in compression, tension, and under
transverse loading; and (bottom) failure by buckling, shear, and bending.

figure13.2
.!"&&( &$
Eurocode 7 discusses three methods of designing pile foundations, as summarized in the
table below. m
 
^The following sub-sections discuss in more detail
design by static load tests, calculation, dynamic impact tests, pile driving formulae, and
wave equation analysis.


. &$!/&'"'%(" '&'&

Pile load tests must be performed when there is no comparable experience of the
proposed pile type or installation method; the results of previous tests under comparable
soil and loading conditions are not available; theory and experience do not provide
sufficient confidence in the design for the anticipated loading; or pile behavior during
installation deviates strongly and unfavorably from that anticipated (and additional
ground investigations do not explain this deviation).
The load test procedure must allow the pile¶s deformation behavior, creep, rebound, and
± for trial piles ± the ultimate failure load to be determined. The test load applied to
working piles must not be smaller than thefoundation¶s design load; piles tested in
tension should be loaded to failure to avoid having to extrapolate the load-displacement
curve.
Eurocode 7 does not specify how many piles should be tested, leaving this decision to
engineering judgment. For trial piles, this must be based on ground conditions and their
variability across the site;

. &$-&$ /")%(" '&'&

Eurocode 7 allows the compressive resistance of a pile to be estimated using dynamic

load tests, provided the tests are calibrated against static load tests on similar piles, with
similar dimensions, installed in similar ground conditions. These requirements limit the
applicability of dynamic load tests for design purposes ± but they remain useful as an
indicator of pile consistency and a detector of weak piles.


. &$!/"%-%"'(

 0




The design of pile foundations is performed after application of the following principles:

- The explicit identification of limit states

- The calculation of unfavorable (destabilizing) actions and of the stabilizing actions and
resistances.

- The verification of stability or adequacy of design using the main principle:

Ȉ stabilizing actions >Ȉ destabilizing actions







-






 0


 

This involves the following:

- Establishing design values of actions or action effects×
   where
and  are
the design and characteristic values of action applied to the pile respectively and   is the
partial factor for an action. That is, the calculated axial force, lateral load or moment
considered as characteristic values of actions applied to the structure have to be
multiplied by a factor in order to be applied in design.
These actions can be either , i.e. the loads transmitted from a structure directly
to the pile head or through a raft, or they may be . The latter are caused by
ground movements, for example axial compression loads on the embedded surface of a
pile caused by negative skin friction (drag-down); or tension loads caused by swelling of
the surrounding soil.

- Establishing design values of ground properties or soil parameters that are obtained
from soil investigation reports, and which are usually used in calculations of ground
stabilizing actions thus design value of ground property is 
, whereis the
characteristic value of a material (ground) property (example cohesion of soil) and  is
the partial factor for the material property.

- Defining limit states that must not be exceeded, such as GEO and/or STR ultimate limit
states

- Setting up calculation models

where
is the design value of the sum of actions
and of the effects of them and 
is the design value of the resistance of ground and/or
structure.

- Showing that the limit states previously defined are not exceeded.

c
1

  

- GEO; for a pile foundation subject to compression, Eurocode 7 requires the design
compressive action 
acting on the pile to be less than or equal to the design bearing
resistance 
of the ground:


×where


^   ;  and   are the characteristic permanent and
variable values of P respectively,  is the characteristic self-weight of the pile,  and
 are the partial factors on unfavorable permanent and variable actions respectively.
It is important to note that in some cases where a consolidating layer exists in contact
with the pile, a down drag force is developed between the pile and the soil of the layer,
this force as is called applies compressive load on pile and drags it down; consequently it
must be added to 
.



; 
 and are the shaft and base resistance respectively of a pile
foundation for several kinds of soils as defined in section 3.4.1, 
and  are the partial
safety factors.

- STR; for a pile subject to compression, Eurocode 7 requires that 
acting on pile to be
less than the design resistance of the pile material in compression:


; 
is as defined above

; is the resistance of the material of the pile to compression given as the
product ofarea of the pile section and the strength of the pile material to compression.

c
1


 

For a pile foundation subject to tension, Eurocode 7 requires the design tensile action 

acting on the pile to be less than or equal to the design tensile resistance 
of the
ground:

”



  ×!"^ 
Where  and  are partial factors on !"permanent and variable actions and
×!"(= 1.0) is a partial factor on !"permanent actions.

The design value of is given by:



Where is a partial factor on shaft resistance in tension. Values of the partial factor 
are greater than  to reflect the potential consequences of failure.
m
#$%
%^

c
1





  

D
D
D
 D; represented by wind /wave pressure, mooring forces, seismic lateral actions.
D 
×
^in case of short piles, where ×
is the ground strength
parameter knowing that the horizontal strength of a short pile depend only on the strength
of the ground. And for a long pile whose horizontal strength is a function of pile
properties and ground strength, we have D 
×
××&×'×&^.Can be
calculated using section 3.4.2.

2'#( -$#%"!%'/'( &$

The design action and resistance forces are obtained from characteristic ones through
application of the partial factors, this process called introducing reliability into design is
similar to the traditional factor of safety design attitude.
This reliability is applied through three design approaches DA1, DA2, DA3, each of
which is represented by application of different partial factors. Given that A1 and A2 are
symbols for actions, M1 and M2 for material properties, R1, R2, R3, and R4 for
resistance factors.

&& is defined in two combinations, combination 1 where partial factors

are applied to actions and small factors to resistances, while ground strengths (when
used) are left un-factored.
This is achieved by employing factors from Sets A1, M1, and R1and combination2 where
partial factors are applied to resistances and to variable actions, while permanent actions
and ground strengths (when used) are left un-factored. This is achieved by employing
factors from Sets A2, M1, and R4.

&&% philosophy is to check reliability by applying partial factors to actions

or action effects and to resistance, while ground strengths (when used) are left un-
factored. Design Approach 2 employs factors from Sets A1, M1, and R2.

&&$ philosophy is to check reliability by applying partial factors to actions

and to material properties (when used), while resistances are left un-factored. This
philosophy remains unchanged when used in the design of pile foundations. Design
Approach 3 employs factors from Sets A1 or A2 (on structural and geotechnical actions
respectively), M2, and R3.
In general partial factors are applied to action forces through multiplication and through
division to resistance forces or parameters contributing into resistance of structure or
ground,these factors may be summarized as following (Tables 4.1 for resistance factors
and 4.2 for DA factors)
(1) Total resistance factors are applied in case the pile capacity is calculated directly from
pile load tests
(2) Model factors are applied when deriving characteristic values from ground
parameters.
34#"'((&#4"!%'/
Serviceability limit states are defined as: ³
&

(

)&!
"*!
+
Verification of serviceability involves checking that design effects of actions (e.g.
settlements) do not exceed their corresponding design limiting values (i.e. limiting
settlements).Verification of serviceability is expressed in Eurocode 7 by the
inequality:
”,
, where
is the design effects of actions and ,
is the limiting design
value of the relevant serviceability criterion.
Effects of actions may be settlement, deflection or rotation that must not exceed a
limiting value in order for the serviceability limit state to be met.
!   
0


Two components of pile bearing capacity:

c 
   
05 ^

 
   
05


  


c 
   
0

**
-*
*-
- 
Where D is pile diameter, the 3rd part of equation is neglected due to its small
contribution.

.&*&.&

-*/
*-^

-&
*-: bearing capacity factor by (!, ' and 0, .&: section area of
pile.

12  
. 1
. 
1 

.
2.3 
4^

.&*.&*/
*-



12  
. 1
. 
. . ,2.32.3 
4^

.&

-*/
*-^

For saturated clay

ù4^× from the
curve we get: 

*-44


-4
and

.&

  


.&
,&

Where:!

 45!6

 47!8

.&!&

&

&&

&(!

^ 


 
   
056&^

92!
Where:

p = pile perimeter

GL = incremental pile length over which p and f are

taken constant

f = unit friction resistance at any depth z

12  
. 1
. 
1 

.
2.3 

! š ;. " '. tan D

Where:

K = effective earth coefficient

= Ko = 1 ± sin ù (bored pile)

= Ko to 1.4Ko (low displacement driven pile)

= Ko to 1.8Ko (high displacement driven pile)

"/ = effective vertical stress at the depth under consideration

: = soil-pile friction angle

= (0.5 ± 0.8)ù


12  
. 1
. ,2.32.3 
Three of the presently accepted procedures are:

1. c method

2. 0 method

3. J method

%"/c)'*( 

 

6 & .G 2 . ! "

! "
c  " ö 2  
Where:

"/=
mean effective vertical stress for the
entire embedment length

 = mean undrained shear strength (ù = 0)

'
(!(!(

 
0 


 ,1.Ñ1 ö  , 2 .Ñ2 ö ... .1 ö .2 ö .3 ö ...

 š "

Ñ 2
%"/0)'*( 


6 &.G 2. !

!
0 .

For Ê74
%

$0

%"/J)'*( 


6 &.G2. !

! š . " '
Where:

"/= vertical effective stress

Jù

ù= drained friction angle of remolded clay

 = earth pressure coefficient at rest

= 1 ± ù (for normally consolidated clays)

= (1 ± ù). ;OCR (for over consolidated clays)

  



6 0 .45   & G 2 



Where:

= mean undrained shear strength

& = pile perimeter

G2= incremental pile length over which p is taken constant

-%')"'" "%%(+"!%!"#$"c"'/


 ö




= 2.5 - 4


ö
3 1.5


! 


< 
<  š D < 2 m and with expanded at pile point
2 .5

< 
<  š No expanded at pile point
2
3-DESIGN OF PILE GROUP

Introduction

º





























  


 
 









   





 

  


 

  




 


 






 







 





 

 


º






 
   



















 

 




















 
















 
























3.1- Bearing capacity of pile groups





 










 




 


 


 

 

!




"



 



 










 





 
 
 


 




 

 



  






 
  






,

   
0
 








Among the different in situ tests, cone penetration test (CPT) is considered
the most frequently used method for characterization of geomedia. The CPT
is basically advancing a cylindrical rod with a cone tip into the soil and
measuring the tip resistance and sleeve friction due to this intrusion. The
resistance parameters are used to classify soil strata and to estimate strength
and deformation characteristics of soils. Different devices added to cone
penetrometers made it possible to apply this test for a wide range of
geotechnical applications.

The CPT is a simple, quick, and economical test that provides reliable in situ
continuous soundings of subsurface soil. Due to the soft nature of soil
deposits in Louisiana, the CPT is considered a perfect tool for site
characterization.

Due to the similarity between the cone and the pile, the prediction of pile
capacity utilizing the cone data is considered among the earliest applications
of the CPT. Cone penetration tests can provide valuable and continuous
information regarding the with depth. Therefore, the in situ
characteristics of the soil are available to the design engineers at a particular
point. The pile design methods that utilize the CPT data proved to predict
the pile capacity within an acceptable accuracy.

Generally, pile design depends on soil conditions, pile characteristics, and

driving and installation conditions. Local experience usually played an
important role in design/analysis of piles.