Pharmacuetics

For the students of

Pharmacy Technicians

(Category-B)

Compiled By

Ali khan

Lecturer

The Professional College of Pharmacy Mardan

PhD Scholar

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Pharmacy

Pronunciation: Famasi

Derived from:

 In French (Farmacei) is a substance, such as food or in the form of medicine which has a
laxative effect.
 In Latin (Pharmacia).
 In Greek (Pharmakeia) a medicine which itself derives from “Pharmaka” means “drug”
or “Poision”

Definition: “The branch of health science dealing with the preparation, dispensing and proper
utilization of drugs”

“Pharmacy is an art and science of preparing, formulating, compounding, dispensing and review
of drugs and providing additional clinical services”

Pharmacy Technician: “A person, who supports the work of a pharmacist by performing

pharmacy related functions, including dispensing of prescribed drugs”

A person who performs the assigned duties under the supervision of a pharmacist.

History:

History of pharmacy is as old as 6th B.C Agr….. treatise from Sushrula ………….

In Baghdad first Pharmacy was established in 754 during Abbassied Caliphate, by 9 th century the
pharmacies were state regulated.

Contributions of Muslims Scientists in Pharmacy;

a) Muhammad Ibn Zakriya Razi (Rhazes) (865-915): He worked on chemical side of drugs
and also explained an idea for treatment in his book “A general book on therapy” now part of
course …….. in Europe.

b) Abu-Al-Qasim-Al-Zahravi (Abu l…. 963-1013): He was pioneered in the preparation of

medicine by sublimation and distillation. His book name is “Liber Servtoris” which particularly
provides and complains how to prepare the samples from which complex drugs were made later.

c) Sabir Ibn Sahi (869): Develops “Pharmacopodia” containing large amount of drugs and
remedies for various disease treatment.

d) Al-Beruni: (973-1050) (Iranian)

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A pharmacologist of muslim era, write book “Kitab-Al-Saydalah” (Book of drugs) and provide
valuable assists to pharmacy profession. In this book chemicaland physical properties of various
drugs, indications or pharmacological effects, mode or mechanism of action and more than 700
drugs preparation and formulation are available. A volume of simple drugs were developed as a
whole.

e) Ibn-e-Sina (father of medicine)(1025):

“The Cannon of medicine” includes more than 700 drugs discussing all of their pharmaceutical
properties in 5 books.

Pharmacy Subdivision

It includes the following;

1) Hospital pharmacy: It is the branch of pharmacy which deals with medicines and related
supplies stocked, medicine supply to different hospital units dispensing of medicine on

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 prescription to inpatient and outpatients under the supervision of qualified pharmacist.

Functions of hospital pharmacy:

1. Distribution, procurement and control of all pharmaceutical products use in the hospital
or medical unit.
2. Provision of comprehensive information about drugs and their use to patients and medical
staffs.
3. Monitoring of quality of drugs.
4. Assurance of quality of drugs.
5. Evaluation of quality of drugs.

History of hospital pharmacy: Hospital pharmacy was first employed in early hospitals as
gardens were cultivated as medical herbs.

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In 1952, first pharmacist was appointed by Pennsylisania hospital as a hospital pharmacist, from
that this profession received a professional recognition.

2) Clinical pharmacy:
American college of clinical pharmacy (ACCP): Branch deals with patient care
optimization of medication therapy and promotes health, wellness and disease prevention,
also concerned with rational medication use.
Europe society of clinical pharmacy (ESCP): Clinical pharmacy includes all patients
oriented services performed by pharmacists practicing in hospitals, clinics, nursing homes
and any other setting where medicines are prescribed and used.

Functions related to clinical pharmacy:

a) Maximizing the clinical effects of medicines by using the most effective treatment for
each type of patient.
b) Maximizing the risks of treatment or therapy induced adverse effects by monitoring the
therapy course and patient compliance with treatment.
c) Increasing the cost effectiveness by best alternatives with less price.
d) Patient education or compliance about therapy.
e) Teaching and training of medical and paramedical staffs.

Retail Pharmacy:

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It is a branch of pharmacy which deals with the medicine sold to patients, alsoknown as
community pharmacy.

Functions and Activities of Retail Pharmacy or Pharmacist:

 Managing Pharmacy budget or accounts.

 Ordering and selling medicines and other stocks.
 Processing prescriptions and dispensing medications.
 Brief counciling of medication to patient or attendant.
 Resolve queries of patients regarding medication.
 Meeting with educators of different pharmaceutical forms.

Industrial Pharmacy

It is branch of pharmacy which deals with science and technology of producing

pharmacueticals (medicinal substances and their dossages) efficiently and economically on
commercial scale in industry.

OR

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 It is pharmacy discipline which includes manufacturing,marketing and distribution of drug
products including quality assurance of these activities.

Role of industrial pharmacy:

 Discovery or research for new drug or product.

 Development of method of preparation of new drug.
 Testing of medicines.
 Assuring quality of medicines.
 Assuring safety of medicines.
 Distribution of medicines.

Forensic pharmacy: “A branch of pharmacy which deals with the application of sciences of
drugs to legal issues”.

“A branch of pharmacy which deals with legal issues of drugs or medicines”

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Role of forensic pharmacy or pharmacist:

 Forensic drug measurement.

 Post mortem redistribution of drugs into blood from solid organs such as the lungs, livers
and myocardium.
 Prescription forgery or alteration or change of prescription.
 Drug tempering or illegal modification or changes in drug formulation under specified
condition.
 Use of abused drugs as workplace, professional malpractice, quackery and healthcare
fraud.

Official books of pharmacy or Compendia

The compilation of qualitative, quantitative and legal standards of drugs in a book approved
by government agency of respective country.

Pharma_____related to drugs

Compendia/copeia______Compilation.

Essential in books:

 Drug compound: Active therapeutic agent which came from natural or synthetic source.

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 Drug dosage form: Designing or production of drugs in such a way that is easily
acceptable for maximum therapeutic effects with less side effects.
 Drug products: Dosage for that has been placed in container and properly labelled.

Internationally approved Compendias or Pharmacopeias

1. United states pharmacepia (USP): Its first compiled edition was approved on 15
december 1810. And then it was revised after 10 years with charges and addition during
the decade until 1940.
Later on time period was reduced to 5 years after 1940.
2. National Formualarys (N.F): First edition of NF was published in 1888. It listed the
preparations that were refused as a pharmacopeia.
In 1975 USP convention, purchased N.F.
The first combined compendium or pharmacopeia USPXXI (11) and the N.FXV (15)was
official or approved on July 1, 1980.
3. British Pharmacopeia: (B.P) (1864)
The B.P is the only comprehensive compilation of medicinal substances or drugs of
United Kingdom (U.K) which is annually published due to new addition and discoveries
made during a year.
It is essential reference for all pharmaceuticals research and development and
manufacturing and testing.
The B.P commission is responsible for preparing new editions of the B.P.
4. European Pharmacopeia: (Ph Euro)
It is published by European Pharmacopeia commission France. It is follow for veterinary
and human standard medicines equally.
5. International Pharmacopeia (I.P):
It is published by world health organization (WHO) in 1951and revised periodically.

Pharmaceutics
Simply sciences of dosage form design.
OR
It is discipline of pharmacy that deals process of turning or forming new drug or old drug
in to a medication used to safely and effectively by patient.

Important properties in Pharmaceutics

1. Viscosity: Resistance of fluids to flow against the walls of container is called

viscosity. OR
Thickness of fluid is also called viscosity. It is physical property.
Factors affecting viscosity:
i. Intermolecular forces: When internal forces between molecules are strong
viscosity becomes increase.

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 ii. Concentration: The concentration of a molecule or substance is high in a
mixture, viscosity will be increase.
iii. Molecular size and shape: As molecular size increases intermolecular forces
increase so viscosity become increase.
Shape of molecules is defined as intermolecular forces are less and ultimately
decreases viscosity.
Applications of viscosity in pharmaceutics:
i. Viscosity affects the rate of absorption of lotions and creams by the skin.
ii. Less viscous ointments have greater release of active therapeutics agent or
drug.
iii. Viscosity of suspensions also matters with its absorption.
iv. Viscosity also effects in absorption and distribution of intravenous
admixtures.
v. Pouration or release from container of suspension and emulsions also affected
by viscosity.
vi. Mixing procedure of drug substances in different pharmaceutical preparation
is also effects by viscosity e.g suspension and emulsion.
vii. Stability of suspension also depends on viscosity.
viii. More viscous ophthalmic or eye drops preparations prolong effects of
preparations.
ix. Coating of tablets also affected by viscosity.
x. In quality control testing viscosity is important factor for measurement.
2. Surface tension
Definition: It is force present with a surface layer of a liquid that causes the layer to
become as an elastic sheet.
e.g, it is a force that supports insects walk on water. OR
The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force due to
cohesive nature of its molecules. The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are

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responsible for the phenomenon known as surface tension.

Applications of Surface tension in pharmacy:

 Surface tension is physical property and has a vital role in the pharmaceutics.
 The chemical activity, adsorption, distillation and bioavailability of a drug
depends on the surface molecules.
 Knowledge of surface tension of new product is very important for its
development and manufacturing.
 Surfactants have a big role in pharmaceutics which are substances which change
the surface tension of substances or systems.
e.g, Solubilization of drugs as steroids and water insoluble vitamins increases
drugs solubility.
 Surfactants uses in suppository formulation enhance or increase rectal absorption
of drugs.
 Suspensions have surfactants for removing suspended particles stable in the
formulation and dispersion of solid particles in liquid.
 By foaming ability of surfactants use in mouthwashes and for the removal debris.
 Emulsior are prepared by adding emulsifying agents which itself is a surfactant.
 Ointments have suspended drug particles in which surfactants are use.

Dosage form

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 Definition: It is defined as these are the carriers through which drug molecules are
delivered to the site of action with in the body. OR

It is an entity that is administered to patients so that they receive an effective dose of

drug.

Classification based on physical form of dosage form

Solid dosage
Semi Solid Classification based on route of administration
form
 Topical dosage form
Tablets Ointments
 Parenteral dosage
 Vaginal dosage form
capsules Creams  Nasal dosage form
 Oral dosage form
Powders Pastes  Rectal dosage form
 Respiratory dosage form
Granules Gels  Ophthalmic dosage form
 Otic dosage form

Sticks Need of Dosage form

1. Accurate dosage in a dosage form.

2. Stability of drug i.e coating tablets from gastric juices.
3. Masking unpleasant taste and ordure.
4. Liquid
Prolong Dosage
the effect Gaseous
of drug i.e control dosage
or sustained release dosage form.
Form Form
5. Facilitation of insertion in different cavities e.g rectal, vaginal for optimum drug action.
6. Local action on specific area.
Solutions
7. Inhalers
Injections provide dosage within tissue.

Solid Dosage formEmulsions

Aerosoles
a) Tablets:
Suspensions

Liniments

Lotions

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 Definition: It is a solid unit dosage form containing one or more active ingredient with or
without additives or exceptions.

i. Coated tablets: Tablets covered with one or more layers of mixture of various
substances such as sugar, coloring agents, flavouring agents are called coated tablets.
e.g Loprin, Erythrocin.
ii. Uncoated tablets: A simple plan tablets manufactured by single compression is
called uncoated tablets.
e.g, Panadol, Ponstan forte, e.t.c.
iii. Effervescent tablets: Those uncoated tablets containing carbonates or bicarbonates
which release carbondioxide(CO2) when mixed with solvent or water are called
effervescent tablets. E.g, CaC 1000 plus.
iv. Entire coated tablets: These coated tablets which are intended to dissolve or
disintegrate in the intestine are called entire coated tablets.
These are prepared to avoid gastric mucosa. E.g, Naproxen (Naprosyn) Alprazolam
(Alp).
v. Dispersible tablets: Those tablets which are uniformly disperse in water. E.g
dispirin,dyiclo.
vi. Extended release tablets: Those tablets formulation in which drug is released slowly
over time. E.g Control release tablets and sustained release tablets. Paroretin Cr,
Vasteral SR.

b) Capsules

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 Definition: Solid dosage forms in which drugs are enclosed or packed in a hard or soft
soluble containers or shells are called capsules.
Capsules are solid dosage forms.
Composition of capsules is gelatin and other substances. In other substances we have
surface active agents, opaque fillers, antimicrobial preservatives, sweetening agents,
flavouring agents and authorized colouring agents.

Types of Capsules
i. Hard capsules: Capsules having hard shells are hard capsules, having two cylindrical
sectors, one end of which rounded and other is open e.g, Omeprazole(Risk)
ii. Soft capsule: Capsules having soft shells are soft capsules. It consists of single part
and of different shapes. E.g, Evion (Vit E).
iii. Enteric coated: Enteric capsules are hard and soft capsules prepared in such manner
that shell resists action of the gastric fluid and attacked by intestinal fluid to release
the contents.
c) Powders:
Definition: Powders are mixture of dry, finely divided drugs or chemicals that may be
used internal (oral powder) or external use (topical powders).
Oral powders are finely divided powders that contain one or more active ingredients with
or without additives taken orally.
We have oral rehydration salts containing glucose, sodium chloride, potassium chloride
and sodium bicarbonate or sodium citrates, available in sachets. E.g O.R.S sachet.
Effervescent oral powders e.g, Risk Sachet.

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Dusting or topical powders are finely divided powders containing one or more active
ingredients with or without additives use on skin or for skin therapy. E.g, Cicatrin
powder.

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d) Granules: These are aggregations of five particles of powders in a mass of about
spherical shape.

Explanation:
 They are intended for oral use.
 Some are chewed, some are dispersed.
 Some are directly taken orally.
 It contains one or more active ingredients with or without additives.
 Available in both single and multiple dosage form.
For example, Monteka, Urodinol etc.

Need of granules:

 Having high porosity than powders. E.g Solubility factor

 Hygroscopic drugs are produced in granules because they form c…. in powder form.
 To avoid powder segregation granules are prepared.

Types of granules:

There are four major types of granules.

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 1) Effervescent granules 2) Coated granules

3) Euteric coated granules 4) Modified release granules

1) Effervescent granules: These are uncoated granules generally containing carbonates or

bicarbonates, which react rapidly in presence of water.
E.g citro soda granules.
2) Coated granules: Granules covered with one or more layers of mixtures of various
substances. Coated granules generally presented as multi dose preparation.
E.g Gavisen granules.
3) Euteric coated granules: These are granules covered with one or more layer of coating
intended to resists gastric fluids and disintegrates in the intestinal granules.
E.g Lansoprozrte granules.
4) Modified release granules: Coated or uncoated granules for the rate or flow of active
ingredients release from granules.
For example, Feftivt granules

Solid Dossage form:

Sticks: Solid dosage form intended for local or topical application; from which drug is released
on body tempreture at the specified area.

Explaination:

 Stick get their desire effects due to waxes,polymers,resins and in some cases from drug
solid fused into a firm mess.
 It may be rod shape or conical.

Types:

1) Hard sticks
2) Soft sticks

Examples: Suppositories,uritheral sticks etc.

B) SEMI SOLID DOSAGE FORM

a) OINTMENTS:

Medicated oily and greasy semi-solid preparation, applied topically in order to hcal; soothe or
protect it.

Types of ointment

1) Unmedicated ointments:-

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 These ointments do not contain any drugs. They are useful as an emollients,
protectants. E.g Petroleum jelly
2) Medicated Ointments:-
These ointments contain drugs which show local or systemic effects.
 Dermatological ointments e.g Ketoconazole oint.
 Opthalmic ointments e.g Nibramyein oint.
 Rectal ointments e.g Benzocaine oint.
 Vaginal ointments e.g Candicidin oint.
 Nasal ointments e.g Ipratropium bronchodilator oint.
 Advantage of ointments dosage form:
i) It is stable then liquids dosage forms.
ii) It is applicable on specific effected area
iii) Prolong effects of drugs on specific effected
b) Creams:

A semisolid pharmaceutical dosage form in which drugs are dissolved or suspended

in a water base for topical use are called creams.

Types of Creams:

1) Oil in Water (o/w) creams:

Creams which are composed of small droplets of oil dispersed in
a continuous or water phase e.g Vanishing cream.
Mainly this type of cream is use to provide an oily film to protect the skin keep it smooth
but not greasy.

2) Water in oil (w/o) creams:

Creams which are composed of small droplets of water dispersed in

oily continuous phase.

Mostly drugs of lipophilic nature are incorporated in to w/o creams which are released
readily.

 Compostion of creams:
Four main ingredients are added with drug for preparation of drug i.e oil, water,
emulsifier and thickening agents.
 Uses of creams:
i) Cleaning cream is use to remove dead skin cells oil dirt and other types of
pollutants from skin.
ii) Vanishing creams are use as sunblock.

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 iii) Creams can be use for drug administering drugs via a vaginal route (e.g Triple
sulpa vaginal cream)
iv) Cream are use for emollient effects.(soothing).

Difference Between Creams And Ointments

Ointments
 Not easily absorbed
 More greasy in nature
 Have higher concentration of oil
 Stay for longer time on skin
 More thickness or viscous
 Healing power is slow
Creams
Quickly absorbed topically.
Less greasy in nature.
Have less concentration of oil.
Stay for short time on skin.
Less thickness or viscous in nature.
Healing power is long.

C) Gels:

A semisolid dosage form via which solid disperse phase in combination with fluid
continuous phase forms a network, resulting in formation of gels.

Types of Gels:

i) Single Phase gel: It consists of organic macromolecules distributed uniformly

throughout a liquid e.g Tragacanth gel.
ii) Two Phases gel: It consists of small discrete particles which are semisolid on
standing but liquid when shaken.
e.g Aluminum hydroxide (Milk of magnesie).

d) Pastes:

A semisolid dosage form containing high percentage pf insoluble solid particles

which are finely dispersed in a suitable vehicle.

Pastes adhere well to skin and are benefit full in chronic lesion treatment

 Types of Pastes:
i) Fatty Pastes: It consists fats as an vehicle e.g Zinc oxide paste.
ii) Aqueous Pastes: It contains water miscible bases.e.g. Sodium hydroxyethyl cellulose
iii) Hydro Colloid Pastes: It contains hydrocarbons bases.e.g. Toothpastes.

Liquid Dosage Forms

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 i) Solution:
Liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical substances dissolved
or dispersed in a suitable solvent are called solutions.
Types of Solutions:
a) Oral solutions:
Solutions intended for oral use are oral solutions.
= Syrups:
Solutions containing high concentration of sucrose or other sugar are called
syrups.
Other substances such as sorbitol or glycerin also present to inhibit crystallization
and to modify solubility, taste, mouth fed. Antimicrobial agents also present to inhibit
growth of bacteria, yeasts and molds.

Elixirs:

Oral solutions containing alcohol as a solvent are called elixirs.

b) Topical solutions:
Topical solutions usually aqueous but often containing other solvent such
as alcohol and polyols intended for topical use to the skin are called topical solutions.

The term lotions applied to solutions or suspensions applied topically.

C) Otic Solutions:

Solutions intended for installation in to ear are otic solutions.

e.g. hydrocortisone ear drops

Neomycin ear drops

Ophthalmic Solutions:
Sterile solutions intended for use in eye are ophthalmic solutions.
e) Spirits:
Alcoholic or hydroalcoholic solutions of volatile substances prepared usually
by simple solution or by admixture of the ingredients.

EMULSIONS

Two phase system in which one liquid in the form of droplets are disposed in to another
liquid are called Emulsions Emulsifying agents are used to reduce interfacial tension.
Types of Emulsions

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 a) Water in Oil (W/o):-
Emulsions in which water or aqueous solution are in dispose phase and oil is
continuous phase called water in Oli.
b) (O/W) Oil in Water:-
Emulsions in which oil droplets are dispose in water or aqueous solution continuous
phase is called oil in water emulsions.

ii) SUSPENSIONS:-

Suspension are liquid preparation that consists of solid particles dispersed throughout a liquid
phase in which solid particles are not soluble. Solid particles are suspended in liquid phase due to
presence of surfactants which make suspended the solid particles and present cacking and
solidification.

Types of Suspension

1) Oral Suspension
2) Topical suspension
3) Otic Suspension
4) Opthalmic Suspension
iii) LINIMENTS:-

Liquid dosage form containing active ingredient applied topically to unbroken skin with
friction to relive stiffress and sooth pain.

LOTIONS:-

Lotions are liquid or semi-solid preparation containing one or more active ingredients in suitable
vehicle. Lotion are applied on unbroken skin without friction.

GASEOUS DOSAGE FORMS

Introduction:-

Gaseous dosage forms are packed in a container which gets released upon applying pressure.
The gas inside container contain active therapeutic ingredient in the form of fine solid particles
or liquid droplets.

The containers have valve systems with continuous or limited delivery. Gaseous dosage forms
are used for topical locally in mouth or nose and systematically for lungs.

a) Inhalers:-

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 An Inhaler (Puffer or Pump) is a medical device used for delivering medication in to the
body via the lungs. It is mainly used in the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease.

Different Types of Inhalers:-

i) Meter-dose Inhaler (MDI):-

A device that delivers a measured amount of medication as a mist the patient can
inhale A.MDI consists of a pressurized container of medication with a mouth phase.
ii) MDI with Spacery:-
Spacery after MDI use for providing long space and time for child.
iii) Breath activated inhalers:-
Powder device inhalers which are activate by breath.
b) Aerosols:-
Container having a substance enclosed under pressure and released as a fire. Spacry by
means of propellant gas.
OR
A system that depends on the power of a compressed gas or liquefied gas to expel the
contents from the container.
OR
Pharmaceutical aerosol is defined as aerosol product containing active ingredients
dissolved, suspended or emulsified in a propellant intended for oral, topical, nasal, Otic
administration.
Component of Aerosols:-
1) Propellant: Develop pressure and provide driving force to expel the product from
container.
2) Container
3) Valve and activator
4) Product concentrate.
Compounding

It is creation/preparation of a pharmaceutical product to fit the unique need of a patient.

OR

The process of combining/mixing or altering ingredients to create a medication for fulfilling the
need of an individual patient is called compounding.

It is also known as extrampuraneous dispensing.

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Need of compounding

I. Change the form of medication from solid to liquid e.g. through fading tube.
II. To make out the specific ingredients causing allergic reaction to specific patients (casein,
dye).
III. To obtain specific dose of active ingredients according to patient need.
IV. For changing taste texture of some product.
V. For adding flavoring agent to some products.
VI. For topical preparation of drugs not stable for prolong time in a dosage form.

DISPENSING

The process of preparing and giving medicine to a named person or responsible person for
administration of medicine to patient based on prescription is called dispensing.

OR

All the activities that occur between the time the prescription is presented and the time the
medicine or other prescribed items are issued to the patients.

PRINCIPLE OF COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING

Weight and Measures: In the practice of compounding weight and measures are the essential
components with great importance. Therefore, pharmacist and pharmacy technicians should have
a thorough knowledge about weights and measures used in calculations. “weight is a measure of
the gravitational force acting on body and is directly proportional to its mass”.

“Measure is the measurement of volume of any substance”.

There are two types of Measure and mass

I. The Imperial system

II. The metric system

I. The Imperial system: It is an old system of weights and measures based on unrelated
units like grains, drachms, ounces and gallons.
Imperial system is divided into two parts.

a) AVOIRDUPOIS SYSTEM: In this system “pond” is the standard unit for weight e.g.
1lb = 160z, 1lb= 453.592 gm, 1lb = 7000 grains
b) Apothecaries system: in this system “grain” is the standard unit for weight e.g. 15.4
grains = 1 gm, 460 grains = 10 gm.

Measurement of Capacity in Imperial system

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In both avoirdupois and Apothecaries system the standard unit of capacity is “Gallon”.

e.g. gallon = 160 fluid ounces

1 gallon = 3.78 liter

II. The metric system: This system was introduced in 1795. It is most widely used method
for weight and measures.

Measurement of weight in Metric system:

In metric system “kilograms” is the standard unit for measurement of weight.

1kg = 100 gms

1gm = 100mg

1mg = 1000 µg

1 kg = 2.21b

Measurement of capacity in Metric system:

The standard unit for capacity measurement is “liter”.

e.g. 1L = 1000 milliliter (ml)

500 ml = 1 pints

50 l = liter

 Measurement of temperature in metric system is Celsius (C)

 Measurement of length in metric system is meter (m)

1 meter = 100 centimeter

1 km = n1000 meters

PRESCRIPTION

An order written by a physician’s dentist or any other medical practitioner to the pharmacist or
pharmacy technician to compound and disperse medication for individual patient.

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PARTS OF PRESCRIPTION:

a) DATE
b) NAME, AGE, SEX, and Address of the patient.
c) Superscription
d) Inscription
e) Subscription
f) Sign or signature
g) Renewal Instruction
h) Signature, Address, and Registration number of prescribers

a) DATE: it helps pharmacist or pharmacy technician for finding date of prescription and
helpful for avoiding repeated dose of different drugs. Also avoid misuse of narcotics.
b) Name, Age, Sex, Address of patient: These factors serve identity of prescription. It also
uses in dose makeup for different age of people also for different patients like males and
females.
c) Superscription: it is represented by R symbol, which is Latin word means “you take”. In
ancient time symbol for god of healing.
d) Inscription: it is main part of prescription order containing names and qualities of the
prescribed ingredients.
e) Subscription: it comprises direction to the pharmacist and pharmacy technicians for
prescription preparing and number of doses to be dispensed.
f) Sign: Direction to the patients regarding use of medication. Quantity be taken, frequency
and timing of administration, route of Administration, Special instruction such as
dilution.
g) Renewal instruction: Times for redispensing must be mention and it is important
especially narcotic containing drugs.
h) Address, Reg.NO of prescriber and Signature: The prescription must contain signature of
prescriber along with its registration number and address. It is very important particularly
in the prescription containing the narcotic and habit-forming drugs to present its misuse.

HANDALING OF PRESCRIPTION

The following procedure should be adopted by the pharmacist while handling the
prescription for compounding and dispensing:

I. Receiving
II. Reading and Checking
III. Collecting and waiting the materials
IV. Compounding, labeling, and packing.

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 I. Receiving: Prescription should be received from patient or attendant by qualified
person himself. Expression of qualified person matters a lot; facial expression should
be good because bad expression confuses and surprised the attendant.
II. Reading and checking: After receiving the prescription thoroughly read and check
behind the counter if any doubt about dose mention or direction of use then consult
with prescriber.
III. Collecting and weighting the material: All materials require for compounding are
collected and place at left side of balance and after weighing place it on right side of
balance. The label with every ingredient should be checked 3 time. At first when
taken from shelf then check when weighing the ingredient and when ingredient
container place back to shelf.
IV. Compounding, labeling, and packing: compound should be carried out in a neat place.
All the equipment etc. required should be thoroughly cleaned and dried. Only single
prescription should be compounded at one time.
 The compound medicament should be filled in suitable containers depending
on its quantity and use.
 The filled containers are suitable labelled.
 Container is polished to remove the fingerprints.
 Delivering the prescription to patient all the directions for use and route of
administration should be explain and storage.

LABELLING

In dispensing procedure proper labelling is an important aspect which comply with regulatory
authority of country. It conveys all necessary information regarding dosage of administration and
storage of product.

Information mention on label:

Name address and phone number of pharmacy is preprinted on label and regulation of stat
requires following:

a) Prescription number. b) Date of initial dispensing. c) Patients names.

d) Direction for use. e) Name and strength of drug products. f) prescriber name.

g) Name of dispensing pharmacist. h) Beyond use date. i) Caution if any.

j) Number of refill prescription.

26
 Some guidelines for labeling:

 Use words instead of numbers e.g Take one tablet everyday instead of take 1tab
everyday.
 Specify route of administration.
 Do not use abbreviations.
 Specify all active ingrediants on label.

Container and closures

Introduction:

Packaging is the process by which the pharmaceutical are suitably packed so that they should
retain their therapeutic effectiveness from the time of their packaging till they are consumed.

Container: it is a device in which drug is enclosed and is in direct contact with drug.

Closure: it is a device which seals the container to exclude oxygen,carbon

dioxide,moistures,microorganisms,and prevent the loss of volatiles substances,also prevents loss
of medicaments during transport and handeling.

Qualities of good containers:

1) It preserves physical properties of dosage forms.

2) Prevent D.F from breaking or demage.
3) Prevent D.F from atmospheric factors e.g O2,CO2.
4) Prevent loss of products from leakage or permeation.
5) It should not alter the identity of products.
6) It should not import its color,odour to the preparation.
7) The closure must be easy to remove and replace.

Types of containers:

a) Well-closed container: this container protect loss of contents during

transportation,handling,storage,or sale.
b) Single-dose container: container usually contain single medicament for single
use,generally parenterals.e.g Ampouls and vials.
c) Multi dose container: The containers allow the withdrawl of dose at various intervals
without changing the strength quality or purity of remaining portion, these containers
hold more than one dose and are used for injectable.e:g vials
d) Light resistant containers: These container protect the medicament from light harmful
effect and these drugs are light sensitive.
e) Air tight containers: Also called hermetic container, these container have air tight
closure which protect medicaments from dust,moisture and air.

27
 f) Aerosole containers: These container have adequate mechanical strength in order to bear
the pressure of…………………………..

Materials used for container and closure

1) Glass: Varius type of glass are use

a) Type1 which is borosilicate glass
b) Type2 which is treated soda lime glass
c) Type3 which is regular soda lime glass
d) Type Np for general purpose soda lime glass
e) Coloured glass
2) Metals:

Tin,iron ,aluminium,and lead are used for the preparation of containers.

3) Plastics:
a) Thermoplastics: plastics capable of being shaped initial heating and solidified by
cooling.e.g polystyrene,polyethylene,and polyvinyle chloride(pvc).
b) Thermoset plastics: plastics make shape during heating in remain permanent in plastic
solid state. E.g phenolic,urea,and melamine are representative of thermosets.
4) Rubber:
1) natural rubber,
2) neoprene rubber,
3) butyle rubber.

Closure types

a) Screw on

b) Crimp

c) Press on

d) Roll on

e) Friction

PH

Introduction

The “P” comes from power and “H” is the symbol of hydrogen so togethering the word ph
means hydrogen ion exponent.

In terms of hydrogen ion activity ph is define as negative log of hydrogen ion activity.i.e ph=-
log [H+].

28
A measure of acidity or alkalinity of water soluble substances.

Explaination:

The ph value of solution or media indicates the acidity and basisity or alkalinity when
concenteration of hydrogen ion is high. It comes into acidic value and when hydrogen ion
concenteration is low it comes into basic value. When hydrogen “H” concenteration is high then
“OH” concenteration must be low, and if there is low concenteration of “H” ion then high
concentration of “OH” ion will be present it indicates water have a natural ph.

Ph scale ranges from 0-14.0 value shows most acidic and 14 value shows most basic.

Measurement of pH:

Ph of a solution can be measured by three ways as

a) PH indicators
b) PH strips
c) PH meter

PH indicators: A chemical compound that is added in a small amount in a solution for the
determination of solution pH

Some important indicators are used for measurement of pH of a solutions.

S Indicators pH ranges Colour in acidic Colour in basic

no pH pH
1 Phenolpthaline 9.3-10.5 Colourless Pink
2 Methyl orang 3.1-4.6 Red Yellow
3 Bromopehnole blue 3.0-4.6 Yellow Blue
4 Methyl red 4.4-6.2 Red Yellow
5 Phenol red 6.8-8.4 Yellow Red
6 Litmus 4.5-8.3 Red Blue

Applications of ph in pharmacy

1) Determination of ph of drug/substance is very necessary during pharmaceutical

preparations acidic drugs are absorb in stomach and basic drugs are absorb in intestine.
2) Solubility depends on ph of the drug solution weak acid solubility increases when ph is
increases and weak basis solubility when ph is decreases from 14 to 7.
3) Solubility of drug matter with ph,the ph of solution can effect the degredation rate of thr
drug.
4) Modified release tablets are formulated according to ph , where its dissolution starts at
different ph of gastro intestinal ph.

29
 5) In parental formulations ph matters a lot,where ph should be 7.3-7.45.
6) Topical formulations also depends its absorbtion property on ph as skin almost of 5.5 ph
so topical formulations must be equal or less then 5.5 ph absorb thoroughly.

Ionization

Definition: a process by which an atom or molecule obtain negative or positive charge by

gaining or losing electron to form ions.

Explaination:

Cation: An atom or molecule loses electron and become positively charge called cation.

Anion: An atom or molecule gian electron and become negatively charged called anion.

 Ionic compounds are soluble in water which is polar solvents while non ionic or
unionized compounds are soluble in non polar solvents.
 In body we have two environments one is blood plasma which is eqous and so ionic
compounds are move soluble and another one is cell membrane which is mainly
composed of non polar lipids so non polar are non ionic compounds are more soluble.
e:g
1) Asprin is aweak acid having carboxylic group which ionize in water to give equilibrium
solution having equal ionized and unionized molecules.
2) Adrenaline has amine group so it is weak base which ionize in water give equilibrium
solution. The PH of aqueous solutions in which drug is dissolves shows us that the drug
is ionize and unionized form.

Buffers

Definition: compound or mixtures of a compounds , by the presence of these compounds in

solution resist change in ph on addition of small quantity of acids and alkali.

Explaination: some solution are prepared and store of a definite ph. The preservation of such
solution is difficult then its preparation,when solution come in contact with air absorbs CO2 and
becomes acidic and when solution comes in contact with glass bottles in which it is stores have
alkaline impurities may alter its ph.

Application of buffers in pharmacy:

 Buffers are widely used in field of pharmacy in most the pharmaceutical formulation in
order to adjust the ph of the product to that required for maximum stability.
 In case of parentral preparations, ph should be mentained and deviations of ph creates
sereous problems, most ideal ph of parentral preparations……….

30
  In ophthalmic preparations ph matters alots, ph of lacrimal fluids i.e eye fluids in range of
7-8, but these fluids itself buffering capacity in range of 3.5-10.5 can tolerate but increase
in range cause lacrimation and other serius complications.buffers used in ophthalmic
preparations are borate, carbamates and phosphates.
 Topical products such as ointments and creams also bufferd to ensure stability of the
formulations. Most commonly use buffers are citric acid its salts and phosphoric acid
and its salts.

Isotonic solutions

Iso means same

Tonic means concenteration

Definition: when two solutions have same osmotic pressure and salt concenteration are said to
be isotonic solutions.

Explaination: isotonic status of two solutions allows movement of water across semipermeable
membrane without change in concentration of solute on both sides.

We have hypertonic and hypotonic solutions also present which have differents solute
concentration hypertonic solution have greater solute concentration then that of another solution,
hypotonic solution have less solute concentration then that of another solution.

Osmosis refers to movement of water molecule across semipermeable memberane and dependent
on concentration gradient.

Applications of isotonic solutions:

 Subcutanius is not essential to be isotonic.

 Intramuscular must be hypertonic.
 Nasal drops must be prepare isotonic solutions.
 Ophthalmic solution must be isotonic solutions.
 As ph adjustment pharmaceutical prepations or solutions which are for use on delicate
membrane of the body must be isotonic cuasing no swelling and contraction of the tissues
and produce no discomport when installed in the eye,nasal tract, blood or other body
tissues.
 Isotonic sodium chloride is common pharmaceutical example of such preparations 0.9%
w/v solution of sodium chloride is essential same concenteration and osmotic pressure as
the RBC contents.

Percentage calculations:

31
 1) Weight in volume (w/v) solution

In this the solute is weighed and solvent is measured.

The general formula for 1% w/v solution is

Solid 1 part by weight

Solvent to produce 100 part by volume.

2) Weight in weight solutions (w/w):

In this solute and solvent both are taken by weight.

3) Volume by volume solutions:

In this solute and solvent are taken by volume.

Chapter no 05

1) Adsorbtion: the process of adhesion of thin layer of molecules (gases,liquid,solid) on the

surface of solid or liquid phase with which they are in contact.
Or
A process of in which atoms, ions, or molecules from a substances or adsorb its adeher to
asurface of adsorbent.
Explaination: adsorbtion may be at liquid surfaces or solid surfaces.
 Adsorbtion at liquid surfaces:
Solutes or molecules adsorbed at the surface or interfece of liquids that reduce the
surface or interfacial tensionare termed as surfactants.
 Adsorbtion of solid surface:
When gas or liquid comes in contact with solid surface and accurate at interface it
become solid surfaces adsorbtion.
Adsorbtion are of two types:
1) Physical adsorbtion:

……..

2) Chemical adsorbtion:

It is irreversible adsorbtion associated with hydrogen bonding.

Pharmaceutical applications of adsorbtion:

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 1) Surfactants on adsorbtion phenomena are used as solubelizing agent for poorly
soluble drugs such as oil soluble vitamins,fats volatile oils, hormones.
2) Surfactants in form of emulsifying agent used to reduce interfacial tension
between two liquids.
3) Purification from colours of organic medicinal usually through shaking with
activated charcoal, where filter after shaking.
4) Activated charcoal are used to remove toxic materials from gastrointestinal tract.
5) Activated charcoal are used to remove pyrogen from injectable fluids.
6) Silica gel in various dosage form contains to absorbed gases and moistures.
7) Kaoline is used for dressing boils,suppurating wumds and ulcer, also used in
dusting powder.
8) Adsorbents are also used in heamodialysis to remove dialysis product from
dialyzing solutions.

CRYSTALLIZATION

Definition:

A process of separating solid crystals from solutions is called Crystallization

OR

A process of separation of atoms or molecules in to highly structured form is called

crystallization.

OR

The phenomena in which solid compound participates from a saturated solution through cooling
or evaporation in the form of crystals.

Introduction:

There are two major steps in crystallization. First one is nucleation in which particles get
together and form nuclei and crystal growth where more particles deposit on revel and form a
defined shape crystal.

There are two types of crystallization process

a) Cooling Crystallization:-
Cooling crystallization applied
b) Evaporating Crystallization:-
Solution heated until the solvent evaporates and solutes form crystals.

Pharmaceutical Applications of Crystallization:-

33
 i) Formation of solids for active pharmaceutical ingredient development
ii) Enhancement of dissolution rates of drugs insoluble in water by crystallization e.g
sulphethiozole prednisolone and chlorompheniol.
iii) Crystallization improves bio availibity of various drugs.
iv) It also improve physical stability of drugs
v) It also improve chemical stability of drugs
vi) It also improve absorption quality from gastriointesrinal tract.
vii) Crystallization is use for purification of drugs from solution.
Centrifugation:

Definition: the process which involve centrifugal force for the sedimentation of heterogenius
mixtures with a centrifuge.

Explaination: sedimentation is tendency of particles to settle down of fluids and centrifugal

force is force that acts outerd on a body moving around a centre.

Centrifugation depends on particles size, density defference between particles size and fluids
and fluids viscosity.

Centrifugation process also depends on number of revolution per menute. Small scale
centrifugation 6000/min centrifugal machine is used and in large scale production high RPM
centrifuge machine are use.

Application of centrifugation

i. Production of insulin where solids are separate from liquid through centrifugation.
ii. Centrifugation is use for evaluation of suspension and emulsion
iii. Separation of most of proteniacious drug and macromolecules.
iv. Aspirin is separated from its mother liquor by centrifugation.
v. Removal of finely suspended solid particles which is clarification from aqueous or
oily materials.
vi. Separation of drugs from solution for pharmacokinetic studies.
vii. Centrifugation is also use in vaccine preparation.
viii. Centrifugation is also use for separation of blood cells from blood plasma.

CALCINATION OR ROASTING

DEFINITION: calcinations is the removal of volatile contents from inorganic substances on

strong heating and fixed product/residue are obtained by heating substances especially minerals
rocks .assas like sulphides, arsenic fumes are formed during calcinations of rocks or ores.

Inn process of calcinations rocks are added in to one end of furnace and then shift to fire box and
then remove after 3 hours of strong heating. E.g. Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) after
calcinations gives magnesium oxide (MgO0 by removing carbon dioxide gas.

34
 HEAT

MgCO3 MgO + CO2

APPLICATION: The process is use for manufacturing of inorganic substance from natural
sources

DECENTATION:

The process of separation or pouring out of upper clear layer of liquid into another container to
separate two immiscible liquids or liquid and solid mixture.

Explanation:

Decantation is derived from decanting which a laboratory process is used to separate mixtures.
Decanting is allowing a mixture of solid and liquid or two immiscible to settle down and
separated by gravity. The solid component of insoluble mixture settle down to gravitational
force, and clear liquid portion is separate which is then pour out to another container.

Decantation process is use for separation of water in suspension after cake formation and it is
also use in research analysis of various immiscible mixtures.

DESICCATION

Definition: the process of extreme dryness for removing of adhered moisture from liquid or solid
substance.

EXPLANATION: the word desiccation is from desiccare where “DE-thoroughly and siccare to
dry. A desiccant is hygroscopic substance which induces or sustains moisture Free State in its
local atmosphere of sealed containers. In laboratory scale desiccators is use for desiccation
process, which consist of a tightly closed glass vessel containing a drying agent at its bottom,
which absorbs moisture from substance being desiccated commonly use desiccants in vessel are
concentrated sulphuric acid and silica gel.

APPLICATIONS:

I. Stability of drugs,which are unstable in the prescence of moisture.

II. It is helpful in preservation of vegetable and animal drugs which get destroyed in the
prescence of moisture.
III. Reducing partied size in powder manufacturing.

DELIQUESCENCE

DEFINITION:

A physical process in which a substance absorb moisture from surrounding atmosphere

until a substance get dissolve and form solution is called deliquesces.

35
Explanation:

If hydrated substances have lower atmosphere pressure then naturally water molecules will
transfer to less hydrated or substances with lower water pressure from atmosphere and to
produce equilibrium e.g. NaOH (sodium hydroxide) sodium Nitrate and Calcium chloride etc.
Prevention of deliquescence is required to preventing destabilization of various pharmaceutical
products, various preventive measures are required.

 By closing container of pharmaceutical products immediately after using it.

 By placing dehydrated agents e.g. silica gels to prevent absorption of water molecules.

Efflorescence

DEFINITION: The loss of water from the hydrated substance into atmosphere so that an
equilibrium is formed between the hydrated substance and atmosphere surrounding.

EXAMPLE

1. Boraze
2. Sodium thiosulphate
3. Magnesium Sulphate

EXPLANATION: The vapors pressure of hydrated substance is greater than surrounding

atmosphere so there is natural or spontaneous loss of water of crystallization occurs till
equilibrium is obtained. So in obtaining equilibrium more loss of water molecules occurs. We
can prevent efflorescence by closing container immediately after using. Another option is filling
the container fully so that no space is left.

IGNITION: The process in which synthetic compounds

APPLICATION

I. Ignition is used for standardization and purification of chemical compounds e.g. Zinc
obtained on ignition leaves only zinc oxide.
II. Ignition is also for determination of sulphated ash in which ignited substance is sulphuric
acid.

LYOPHILIZATION/FREEZE DRYING

Definition:

36
Freeze drying is process of drying in which water is sublimed from the product after it is frozen.

Application of LYOPHILIZATION

I. It is applied to prepare many biological substances e.g. blood plasma, vitamins,

hormones, enzymes, vaccines, and antibodies.
II. It is used for preservation of various biological substances.
III. Pharmaceutical product which are unstable in aqueous form are stored in dry state after
lyophilization

DISTILLATION

DEFINITION: The process of separating various components of liquid admixtures due to thie
difference in boiling point is called distillation.

EXPLANATION:

For distillation of admixtures apparatus is use having still, condenser and receiver. Liquid
admixtures are placed in still where it is boiled and as liquid mixture boils , then according to
boiling point various components vaporize and transfer to condenser where it is cooled and
convert to liquid form and pass to receiver for storage and on different boiling points various
components of mixtures are seprated time by time.

TYPES of DISTILLATION

I. Simple distillation
II. Steam distillation
III. Fractional distillation
IV. Distallation under reduced pressure

i. Simple distillation: A process used for the separation of many organic compound
where simple distillation apparatus is used.
ii. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION: A process of distillation use to separate more
volatile liquid having different vapor pressure and a different boiling point is called
fractional distillation.
iii. Steam distillation: the distillation of two immiscible liquids in which immiscible
liquid is water and steam is passed through the mixture of these liquid is called steam
distillation.
iv. Distillation under reduced pressure: the process of separating two immiscible
liquids having different boiling points and different vapor pressure internally of the
system is called distillation under reduced pressure.

FUSION

37
Definition:

Fusion is the process by which the solids get converted into liquid without adding any solvent.

OR

It is the process of heating the solids until they melt.

APPLICATION OF FUSION

1) The process is use to purify certain compounds which are solids at room temperature of
their impurities e.g. waxy solids or fats like bee wax and wool fat, hard paraffin are
heated to melt, filtered while they are hot to remove impurities.
2) Fusion is also used to prepare some inorganic medicinal substances e.g. tonghend silver
nitrate, zinc chloride, potassium hydroxide sticks etc.

TRITURATION

The pharmaceutical process of reducing the particle size of powders with a mortar and pestle to
produce fine powders.

OR

“The simple dilution of a potent drug powder with a diluted powder such as lactose which is
an inert substance.

Method of trituration

The minimum weighed quantity of a drug powder usually taken to be 50mg or 100 mg is
mixed with an inert substance to produce a 1:10 or 1:1oo dilution in practice.

Application of trituration

1) The pharmacist some time prepares trituration of poisonous substances e.g. atropine
in a convenient concentration using lactose as diluents, for use at the prescription
counter.
2) It increases the therapeutic potential and curative values than crude form.
3) The drug solubility increase due to fining of particle size of drugs e.g. drugs insoluble
in alcohols. Or water becomes soluble through trituration.

SUBLIMATION

Definition:

The process in which solid changes from solid state directly into vapors state without passing to
liquid state is called sublimation.

38
EXPLANATION:

On laboratory scale we have china dish a perforated filter paper, funnel, and a cotton plug. The
solid which should be sublime is placed in china dish, china dish is covered with perforated filter
paper. A glass funnel is placed in the inverted position over the filter paper. The open end of the
funnel is plugged with cotton to prevent the escape of sublimed product. The china dish is heated
and vapor pass through the perforation of the filter paper and are collected on the inner surface of
the glass funnel which is kept cool from outside by wrapping a wet filter paper or cotton wool.
The vapors on cooling are condensed in the solid which is collected.

Application of sublimation

1) The physical process is used in the purification of various pharmaceutical substances e.g.
iodine, ammonium chloride, mercuric chloride, camphor, naphthalene, benzoic acid.
2) Purification of volatile substances contaminated with non volatile impurities.

ELUTRIATION

Definition:

A process in which particle of a fluid move in a direction opposite to that of the sedimentation or
downward movement.

OR

A process of separating particles based on their size, shape, and denoty using a stream of gas or
liquid flowing in a direction usually opposite to the direction of sedimentation.

APPLICATION OF ELUTRIATION

Heavy and light kaolin can be separated by this process, because the particles of heavy kaolin
move downward and those of the light

EXCICATION

The process of removing water of crystallization from the hydrated crystalline substances by
heating and making them less hydrous or anhydrous.

Explanation:

In a laboratory weighed amount of the substance is taken in china dish which is then heated on
water bath, sand bath or oven with continuous stirring until a constant weight is obtained or
calculated loss of weight takes place e.g. exsiccated ferrous sulphate , exsiccated magnesium
sulphate, exsiccated sodium carbonate . Temperature require to remove water of crystallization is
very important on different temperature different molecules of water loss occurs.

39
Exsiccated substances are very hygroscopic they must be stored in well closed containers.

APPLICATION OF EXCICATION

1) A free powder is obtained of the substance by excitation process.

2) Process is also used for reduction of weight of certain drugs
3) This process is use to produce anhydrous substances for formulation of certain
medicaments.

LAVIGATION

The process of formulation of paste of substance by reducing particle size in to fine size and by
adding larger amount of water is called levigation.

Following steps are used in the process

a) Triturate the powder by using mortar and pestle.

b) Now add the water or levigating agent
c) Mix the compound thoroughly
d) Till the time where particle size become uniform and appears like paste.

Application of levigation

i. Process is use to prepare creams and loting.

ii. Process is used for obtaining fine and uniform particle size.
iii. Use this process in pharmaceutical balms.
iv. The process is also used for the incorporation of solid in the ophthalmic and
dermatologxal suspension and ointments.

ASCEPTIC DISPENSING

DEFINITION:

Pharmaceutical preparations which is carried out by trained pharmacist or pharmacy technicians

under controlled environment before being dispensed in a form ready for use without further
manipulation.

OR

Aseptic dispensing is the preparation and supply of sterile medical product requires some
dilution or other manipulation before administration.

40
EXPLANATION:

Aseptic dispensing is done for preparation and supply of sterile medical products which requires
manipulation before administration. These preparations have risk of microbial contamination,
which decreases stability or become fully unstable. Aseptic dispensing reduces risk of microbial
contamination controlled environment also reduce risk of particulate contamination during
dispensing of preparations. Aseptic dispensing assures correct dilution of dispense preparation.
Aseptic dispensing also assures stability and compatibility of preparation.

Types of preparation in aseptic dispensing

a. Parental nutrition solution

b. Pre-filled syringes
c. Intravenous infusion
d. Epidermal infusion
e. Other sterile preparation (e.g. eye drops)

AREA OF ASEPTIC DISPENSING

Area or premises for preparing aseptic product is specially constructed enclosed area which
contains one or more clean zone .aseptic dispensing area have strictly controlled airborne
particles concentration , which can be achieved by HEAPA (High efficiency particulate air)
filters.

Aseptic dispensing area must have control temperature and humidity.

Essential measures that are to be taken in aseptic dispensing.

1) Before dispensing all jewelry should be remove and hands must be washed and then
dried through hand drier.
2) Sterile and clean glove should always be worn during aseptic dispensing preparations.
3) All the critical sites of various sterile equipment like syringes, needle, rubber tap of
ampoule or vial etc use in aseptic dispensing is provided and can’t be handled or
touched during dispensing because of risk of contamination.
4) Opening of ampoule in aseptic dispensing should be done in a safe way and
withdrawal of contents should be in aseptic manner.

TOTAL PARENTAL NUTRITION

Definition

A method of patient feeding by infusing mixture of all necessary nutrients in to the circulatory
system , without passing from gastro intestinal tract.

It is also called intravenous nutrition or parental nutrition.

41
Categories or Types of parental nutrition:

1. Central or total parental nutrition (TPN)

2. Peripheral parental nutrition (PPN)

TPN is given via central vein i.e super-vena-cava .it is require in a long term feeding having
large volume formulation.

PPN is given via peripheral vein. PPN is required in short term feeding.

TPN INDICATION

a) Severe gastroenteritis where G.I.T unable to accept oral feeding TPN is given.
b) Malnourished patients, those who are not able to ingest large volume of oral feedings.
And are propare for surgery, radiation therapy or chemotherapy.
c) The diseases where complete bowl rest require e.g. ulcerative colitis.

Formulation of TPN

TPN solutions are complex formulation that contained generally dentrose , proteins , electrolytes
vitamins and water. All patients require the component in different amount according to their
primary diagnosis chronic disease fluid and electrolyte balance and its goal for TPN.

Components of TPN

a) Nitrogen
b) Amino Acids
c) Energy macro nutrients like dextrose.
d) Lipids
e) Electrolyte (renal function, hepatic function)
f) Trace elements (Zinc,Copper,selenium,chromium,iron)
g) Vitamins
h) Fluids

Guidelines for compounding of TPN should be strictly follow as aseptic dispensing area should
be maintain.

 Visuals checks of sterile preparations against black and white backgrounds.

 Accuracy of all products use in compounding of paracentral nutrition product is ensure
by validating the volume and quantity used in admixture .
 After compounding of TPN as soon after preparation should administer to patient for
parentral nutrition because aminoacids, lipids d multivitamins are become instable.

LABELLING

42
Following information will be required on label

 Patient name
 Ward
 Product constituents
 Batch (dispensing number)
 Expiry date/time
 Storage conditions

INCOMPATIBILITY

DEFINITION: when two or more ingredients of prescription are mixed together and
unwanted changes occurs in the physical, chemical, or therapeutic properties of
medicaments, it is called incompatibility.

CLASIFICATION OF INCOMPATIBILTY
1) Physical incompatibility
2) Chemical incompatibility
3) Therapeutic incompatibility

1. Physical incompatibility: Mixing of two or more substances leads to physical change i.e
taste, odor, color, viscosity, and morphology of products is called physical
incompatibility or pharmaceutical incompatibility.

Manifestation of physical incompatibility

a) INSOLUBILITY: Insolubility of agents in vehicle, following are factors affecting

solubility. Like change in PH, Milling, Surfactant, Chemical reaction complex formation,
and co-solvent. Resultantly precipitate formation occurs.
b) Immiscibility: Two phase system dosage forms show separation of phases clearly
emulsionscreams lotion and some type of aintments. Factors responsible for immiscibility
are temperature, where room temperature prevents immiscibility. Another surfactant
addition also creates immiscibility problems, its unsuitable concentration, and time of
addition of surfactant.
c) Liquification: some solid substances after mixing converts into liquid state.

2) Chemical incompatibility : Reaction of 2 or more substances which leads to

change in chemical properties of dosage forms

43
TYPES OF CHEMICAL INSTABILITY

a) OXIDATION: Loss of electron or addition of oxygen is called oxidation.

Factors involve in oxidation reaction:

Presence of oxygen,light,tempreture,PH,types of solvents used are factors causing oxidation of

pharmaceutical dosage forms.

i. Addition of antioxidants and inorganic sulphur prevents oxidation and protection of light
of various products prevents oxidation.
ii. Hydrolysis: Insertion of water molecule to break down a compound.
iii. Decarboxylation: When by interacting two substances releases carbon dioxide.
3) Therapuetic Incompatibilities:

Definition: Alteration of therapeutic effect by taking one drug and administration of

another drug at same time also called drug interaction.

Mainly divided into two types:

a) Pharmakokinetics Incompatibilities
b) Pharmacodynamic Incompatibilities

Pharmacokinetic Incompatibilities: Incompatibilities due to the effect of one drug on another

drug on the basis of absorption,distribution,metabolism and excreation.

Absorption from gastrointestinal tract is altered due to interaction of the drugs by changing PH
of gastric mucosa or foramation of chelates.

Distribution of drug is effected when one drug is more likely to attach plasma protiens then
other.

Metabolism is disturb when one drug increase CYP450 enzyme production and thus increase
metabolism of the other drugs.

Renal excreation is also effected by some drugs, it may be increase or decrease due to which
excreation of drugs are effected.

Pharmacodynamic Incompatibilities: Pharmacodynamic Incompatibility means alteration of

the drugs action without change in its serum concentration due to pharmacokinetic factors.

It includes synergetic effect and antagonistic effect.

Synergetic effect occurs when 2 or more drugs with or without same effect and its combined
effect has greater outcome than that of single drug.

44
Antagonistic effect is opposite to that of synergistic effect where the outcomes of drug become
less than single active component.

45