BEHAVIOUR OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

BEAMS STRENGTHENED WITH FIBRE

REINFORCED POLYMER LAMINATES

THESIS

Submitted by
D. S. VIJAYAN
D13CE002
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Under the Supervision of
Dr. J. REVATHY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
BHARATH UNIVERSITY,
173, AGARAM ROAD, SELAIYUR, CHENNAI – 600 073,
INDIA

FEBRUARY 2017
 DECLARATION

I, hereby declare that the dissertation titled “Behaviour of Prestressed Concrete

Beams Strengthened with Fibre Reinforced Polymer Laminates” submitted to
Bharath University, Chennai for the award of the degree, Doctor of Philosophy in
CIVIL ENGINEERING, is a record of original work done by me and certified
further that to the best of my knowledge, the work reported here in does not form a
part of any other thesis or dissertation on the basis of which a degree of award was
conferred on an earlier occasion of this or any other candidate.

Place: Chennai D. S. VIJAYAN

Date : 22.02.2017
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that dissertation titled “Behaviour of Prestressed Concrete Beams

Strengthened with Fibre Reinforced Polymer Laminates” submitted by
Mr. D. S. Vijayan (Reg. No: D13CE002), for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
Department of Civil Engineering, Bharath University, Chennai – 600 073, is
based on the results of studies carried out by him under my supervision. This
dissertation or any part of the work has not been submitted elsewhere for any other
degree.

Place: Chennai Dr. J. REVATHY

Date : 22.02.2017 (Research Supervisor)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincere thanks to our Honorable Chairman Dr. S. Jagathrakshakan, Honorable President,

Dr. J. Sundeep Aanand and Managing director Dr. E. Swetha Sundeep Aanand, Director
Prof. S. Theagarajan, Bharath University, for their kind words and enthusiastic motivation
which has inspired me a lot in completing my dissertation.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to our Vice-Chancellor Dr. V. Kanagasabai . Pro.
Chancellor Dr. M. Ponnavaikko, Pro Vice-Chancellor Dr. K. P. Thooyamani, Registrar,
Dr.S. Bhuminathan, Controller of Examinations, Dr. M. Prem Jayakumar, Dean -
Engineering, Dr. J. Hameed Hussain who are responsible for moulding my thoughts in
completing my research.

I am grateful to Dr. M. Sundararajan (Dean Research) for his valuable suggestions, kind co-
operation and encouragement during the course of my study.

I wish to express my profound gratitude to my esteemed Research Supervisor Dr. J. Revathy,

Professor of Civil Engineering, B. S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai for her valuable
guidance, encouragement and help throughout the progress of this research work.

I would like to express my immense gratitude to the members of the Doctoral committee
Dr. P. N. Raghunath, Professor of Structural Engineering, Annamalai University and
Dr. A. Leema Rose, Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Valliammai Engineering College
for their valuable support throughout the execution of this research program.

I express my special thanks to Dr. R. Venkatesh Babu, Dean Administration and Planning,
Bharath University for his motivation and continuous support throughout the research work.

I am very much thankful to Mr. A. Arulvanan, Annamalai University for his timely support and
help in carrying out my thesis work.

Further I am very much pleased to dedicate this entire work to my father Mr.S.Dhanasigh , who
has supported me in all stages and encouraged me to complete this task.

Lastly, I express my affectionate Thanks to my Family Members who had motivated me

throughout and rendering support in completion of this research.

D. S. VIJAYAN

i
 ABSTRACT

Strengthening of pre-stressed concrete structures using Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) shows

better promise for extending their service life. Knowledge about the actual performance of the

strengthened members is an essential prerequisite for an effective application of the technology.

The main objective of this research work is to evaluate the static response of pre-stressed

concrete beams strengthened with externally bonded Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

laminates at the soffit of beam. A total of fourteen beams of 3 m length and 150 mm x 250 mm

in cross-section were cast and tested in the laboratory. Two unbonded post-tensioned beams

served as reference beams and the remaining twelve beams were strengthened with GFRP

laminates on their soffit. 7 beams cast with M35 grade concrete were strengthened with three

different GFRP laminates having two different thicknesses 3 mm and 5 mm and tested under

monotonically increasing loading and manual readings were recorded. Remaining 7 beams

cast with M60 grade concrete were strengthened with three different GFRP laminates having

two different thicknesses 3 mm and 5 mm and tested under monotonically increasing loading

and manual readings were also recorded directly. The variables considered included grade of

concrete, type of GFRP laminate and thickness of GFRP laminate. The GFRP laminates also

varied in their configuration, viz., Chopped Strand Mat (CSM), Woven Roving (WR) and Uni-

Directional Cloth (UDC). Responses of all the beams were evaluated in terms of strength,

stiffness, ductility, composite action between concrete and external reinforcement and the

associated failure modes for beams tested under static loading.

ii
The study parameters considered for this research work included yield load, deflection at yield

load, ultimate load, deflection at ultimate load, deflection ductility, deflection ductility ratio,

energy ductility, energy ductility ratio, number of cracks and energy absorption.

The static test results show that the pre-stressed concrete beams strengthened with externally

bonded GFRP laminates exhibit increased strength, enhanced flexural stiffness, sufficient

ductility and composite action until failure.

Finite Element Method (FEM) based model has been proposed to predict the performance

characteristics of pre-stressed concrete beams with and without externally bonded GFRP

laminates. A reasonably close agreement has been obtained between the experimental and

predicted results.

Regression analysis has also been conducted and appropriate equations have been proposed for

predicting the necessary performance parameters in respect of pre-stressed concrete beams with

and without externally bonded GFRP laminates.

Keywords: deformation, ductility, fibre, GFRP laminates, regression, strength

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE
NO.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES xi
ABBREVIATIONS xii
NOTATIONS xiii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General 1
1.2 Prestressed Concrete 2
1.2.1 Principle of Pretsressed Concrete 3
1.2.2 Pretensioned Concrete 4
1.2.3 Bonded Post-Tensioned Concrete 4
1.2.4 Unbonded Post-Tensioned Pre-stressed Concrete 4
1.2.5 Advantages of Pre-stressed Concrete 5
1.2.6 Applications of Pre-stressed Concrete 6
1.3 Fibre Reinforced Polymer 7
1.3.1 Fibres and their Properties 7
1.3.2 Resins used in FRP 8
1.3.3 Properties of Typical FRP System 9
1.4 Applications of FRP for Structural Strengthening 9
1.4.1 Flexural Strengthening of Beams 11
1.4.2 Shear Strengthening of Beams 11
1.4.3 Flexural Strengthening of Slabs 12
1.4.4 Strengthening of Columns 12
1.5 Externally Bonded FRP For Structural Strengthening 13

iv
 TITLE PAGE
NO.
1.6 Failure Mechanisms 15
1.7 Advantages of FRP 16
1.8 Objectives of the Study 17
1.9 Research Significance 18

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Partially Pre-stressed Concrete Members (Bonded and Un- 19
Bonded)
2.3 Fully Pre-stressed Concrete Members 27
2.4 FRP Strengthened Concrete Members 30
2.5 FRP Strengthened Pre-stressed Concrete Members 38
2.6 Summary 40

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

3.1 Experimental Plan 41
3.2 Details of Test Specimens 42
3.3 Material Properties 43
3.3.1 Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer 43
3.4 Preparation of Test Beams 44
3.5 Test Procedure 48

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Static Response of Tested Beams 50
4.1.1 Effect of GFRP Plating on Strength 52
4.1.2 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflections 54
4.1.3 Effect of GFRP Plating on Failure Modes and Crack 56
Patterns
4.1.4 Effect of GFRP Plating on Ductility 62
4.1.5 Effect of GFRP Plating on Energy Absorption Values 67

v
 TITLE PAGE
NO.
CHAPTER 5 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

5.1 General 69

5.2 Analysis of Pre-Stressed Concrete Beams 69

5.3 Analysis of Uncracked Sections 69

5.4 Analysis of Cracked Sections 70

5.5 Procedure for Moment and Deflection Calculation of Un-
70
Strengthened Pre-Stressed Concrete Beam
5.6 Procedure for Moment and Deflection Calculation of
72
Strengthened Pre-Stressed Concrete Beam
5.7 Flowchart for the Section Analysis Procedure of 75
Unstrengthened and Strengthened PSC Beams
5.8 Comparison of Experimental and Analytical Values of 77
Moments And Deflections

CHAPTER 6 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

6.1 General 80
6.2 Element Types 81
6.2.1 Reinforced Concrete 81
6.2.2 Steel Reinforcement 82
6.2.3 FRP Composites 83
6.2.4 Real Constants 83
6.3 Material Properties 84
6.4 Concrete 85
6.5 Cracking of Concrete 87
6.6 Steel Reinforcement 88
6.7 FRP Composites 89
6.8 Finite Element Discretization 90
6.9 Non-linear Solution 91

vi
 TITLE PAGE
NO.
6.10 Meshing 92
6.11 Loads and Boundary Conditions 92
6.12 Analysis Assumptions 94
6.13 Results of Finite Element Analysis and Discussion 95
6.14 Comparison with Experimental Results 97

CHAPTER 7 REGRESSION MODELLING

7.1 General 98
7.1.1 Regression 98
7.1.2 Regression Co-efficient 99
7.1.3 Legendre's Principle of Least Squared Errors 99
7.1.4 Karl Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation 99
7.1.5 Sum of Squared Errors (SSE) 100
7.1.6 Mean Squared Error (MSE) 100
7.1.7 Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) 100
7.1.8 Root Mean Squared Percentage Error (RMSPE) 101
7.2 Multivariate Linear Regression 101
7.3 Regression Equation for Strength 102
7.4 Observations on the Regression Equations 105

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS

SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDY 111

REFERENCES 113
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS MADE ON THIS RESEARCH 114

ANNEXURE I Section analysis of Unstrengthened Prestressed concrete 121

beams.cpp (Compiler: C + +)
ANNEXURE II Section analysis of Pre-stressed concrete beams externally 129
bonded with FRP laminates.cpp (Compiler: C + +)

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
1.1 Properties of Fibres used in FRP 7
1.2 Types of Glass Fibres 8
1.3 Typical Properties of Finished FRP (Fibre Volume Faction 40% - 9
60%)
3.1 Details of Test Specimens 42
3.2 Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) 44
4.1 Strength and Deformation Properties Pertaining to various Load 50
Levels
4.2 Crack Width and Mode of Failure at Ultimate Stage 57
4.3 Ductility Indices of Tested Beams 63
4.4 Ductility Ratios of Tested Beams 65
4.5 Energy Absorption Values at Ultimate Stage 67
5.1 Comparison of experimental and analytical values of moments and 77
deflections with Other Researchers
6.1 Element Types for Working Model 81
6.2 Strength and Deformation Properties Pertaining to various Load 95
Levels
7.1 Data Used for the Regression Analysis 103
7.2 Regression Equations 104

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
1.1 Stress in Pre-stressed Concrete 3
1.2 Czech Republic Railway Intersection 6
1.3 Nampa-Pre-stressed-water tank 6
1.4 Milan Highspeed Rail System 6
1.5 Pre-stressed Concrete Pile 6
1.6 Aramid Fibre 7
1.7 Carbon Fibre 7
1.8 Glass Fibre 7
1.9 FRP Strengthening Systems 10
1.10 Flexural Strengthening of Beams 13
1.11 Flexural Strengthening of Columns 13
1.12 Flexural Strengthening of Slabs 14
1.13 Flexural Strengthening of Beam – Column joint 14
1.14 FRP Strengthening of Walls 14
1.15 FRP Tunnel lining 14
1.16 FRP Strengthening of Silos 14
1.17 FRP Strengthening of openings 14
1.18 FRP Strengthening of Tanks 15
1.19 FRP Strengthening of Pipes 15
3.1 Reinforcement Details of Beam Specimen 41
3.2 Chopped Strand Mat (CSM) 44
3.3 Woven Roving (WR) 44
3.4 Uni-Directional Cloth (UDC) 44
3.5 Steel Moulds for Casting of Beams 45
3.6 Steel Reinforcement Cages 45
3.7 Placement of Steel Reinforcement Cages and Tendons 45

ix
3.8 Placement of Concrete 45
3.9 Concrete Compaction Using Needle Vibrator 45
3.10 Finished Surface of Concrete 45
3.11 Placement of End Plate 46
3.12 Placement of Wedges 46
3.13 Pre-stressing Jack & Pump 46
3.14 Pre-stressing Jack & Pump 46
3.15 Pre-stressed Test Specimens 46
3.16 GFRP Laminates 47
3.17 Epoxy Resin Used 47
3.18 Application of Epoxy Adhesive on Beam Soffits 47
3.19 Placing of Laminate over the Beam Soffit 47
3.20 Application of Weight on Laminate 47
3.21 Specimens kept for 7-days Curing at Room Temperature 47
3.22 Details of Instrumentation 48
3.23 Test Set-up for Static Loading 49
4.1 Load-Deflection Response of Control and GFRP Strengthened T- 51
series PSC Beams
4.2 Load-Deflection Response of Control and GFRP Strengthened S- 51
series PSC Beams
4.3 Effect of GFRP Plating on Strength for T-series Beams 53
4.4 Effect of GFRP Plating on Strength for S-series Beams 54
4.5 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflections for T-series Beams 55
4.6 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflections for S-series Beams 55
4.7 Crack Width at Ultimate Stage 58
4.8 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TC1 Specimen 59
4.9 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of SC1 Specimen 59
4.10 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TU1 Specimen 60
4.11 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TU2 Specimen 60
4.12 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TW1 Specimen 61
4.13 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TW2 Specimen 61

x
4.14 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflection Ductility of Beams 64
4.15 Effect of GFRP Plating on Energy Ductility of Beams 64
4.16 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflection Ductility Ratio of Beams 66
4.17 Effect of GFRP Plating on Energy Ductility Ratio of Beams 66
4.18 Energy Absorption at Ultimate Load Level 68
5.1 Typical stress distribution of an un-strengthened pre-stressed 70
concrete beam section at failure
5.2 Typical Stress Distribution of a Strengthened Pre-stressed Concrete 72
Beam Section at Failure
5.3 Flowchart for Moment and Deflection Calculation of Un- 75
Strengthened Pre-stressed Concrete Beams
5.4 Flowchart for Moment and Deflection Calculation of Strengthened 76
Beams
5.5 Comparison of Experimental Results with Analytical Results for 78
Yield Load Moment
5.6 Comparison of Experimental Results with Analytical Results for 78
Ultimate Moment
5.7 Comparison of Experimental Results with Analytical Results for 79
Ultimate Deflection
6.1 Solid 65 Element (3-D Reinforced Concrete Solid) 82
6.2 Link 8 Element (Steel Reinforcement) 82
6.3 Solid 46 Element (FRP Composite) 83
6.4 Typical Uni-axial Compressive and Tensile Stress-Strain Curve for 86
Concrete
6.5 Simplified Compressive Uni-axial Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete 87
6.6 3-D Failure Surface For Concrete 88
6.7 Stress-Strain Curve for Steel Reinforcement 89
6.8 Schematic of FRP Composites 89
6.9 Modeling of Concrete, Steel and FRP Laminates 90
6.10 Newton-Raphson Iterative Solution (2 load increments) 91
6.11 Overall Mesh of Concrete, Steel and FRP Laminate 92

xi
6.12 Loading and Boundary conditions 93
6.13 Modeled Steel Reinforcement 93
6.14 Modeled Concrete, Pre-stress Wire and Steel 93
6.15 Modeled Concrete, Steel, Pre-stress Wire and FRP 93
6.16 Full Scale Mesh Modeled Concrete, Steel and FRP 93
6.17 Flexural Crack Pattern 94
6.18 Flexural Crack Pattern 94
6.19 Load –Deflection Response of T-Series Beams 96
6.20 Load –Deflection Response of S-Series Beams 96
7.1 Regression Predictions for Yield Load 105
7.2 Regression Predictions for Deflection at Yield Load 106
7.3 Regression Predictions for Ultimate Load 106
7.4 Regression Predictions for Deflection at Ultimate Load 107
7.5 Regression Predictions for Deflection Ductility 107
7.6 Regression Predictions for Deflection Ductility Ratio 108
7.7 Regression Predictions for Energy Ductility 108
7.8 Regression Predictions for Energy Ductility Ratio 109
7.9 Regression Predictions for Number of Cracks 109
7.10 Regression Predictions for Maximum Crack Width 110
7.11 Regression Predictions for Total Energy Absorption 110

xii
 ABBREVIATIONS

ACI American Concrete Institute

AFRP Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Polymers

ANN Artificial Neural Network

ANSYS Analysis System

CFRP Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers

CSM Chopped Strand Mat

FEM Finite Element Method

FRP Fiber-Reinforced Polymers

GFRP Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymers

GPa Giga Pascal

GRNN General Regression Neural Network

GUI Graphical User Interface

IS Indian Standard

kN Kilo Newton

MPa Mega Pascal

PSC Pre-Stressed Concrete

RC Reinforced Concrete

UDC Uni-Directional Cloth

WR Woven Roving

xiii
 NOTATIONS

Aps – Area of prestressing steel (mm2)

As – Area of steel in tension zone (mm2)

As’ – Area of steel in compression zone

b – Width of the member (mm)

d Distance between extreme compression fibre and centroid of non-prestressed

tensile steel (mm)

d’ – Effective cover (mm)

dp – Depth of prestressing tendon from the compression member (mm)

E – Youngs modulus of concrete;

fc’ – Compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2)

fps – Ultimate Stress in prestressing steel (N/mm2)

fs’ – Yield strength of steel in compression zone (N/mm2)

fse – Effective stress in prestressing steel (N/mm2)

fy – Yield strength of steel in tension zone (N/mm2)

I – Moment of inertia

L Length of the member (mm)

ρp – Percentage of reinforcement

– Factor associated with composite safety

xiv
 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

A structure plays an important role in the development of an individual or state or country.

Without high rise strong and aesthetic structures development of human race is unimaginable.

A structure comprises of three major elements namely beam, column and slab. All these

elements have importance of their own. Beams are one the most important structural member

for any structures; it may be bridge, Industrial building, roadways etc. Beams must be

designed in such a way that it can withstand any type of loads without producing any

deformation or cracking to the structures. But at times the beams may experience sudden

static loads for which they are not designed. Due to these sudden loads the beams tends to

crack. This is mainly due to the tension or compression in the beam. In the bridges, industrial

buildings etc the most common type of beams used are pre-stressed beams. The pre-stressed

beams are designed to withstand heavy loads. These beams have lesser beam depths, posses

improved resistance to shearing. These beams are mostly used where the span is more. In

order to protect the beam from the cracking produced due to the sudden application of the

fatigue load additional strengthened should be done. By strengthening the beams it is

observed that the crack produced in the beams are greatly reduced. The size and the width of

the crack are considerably reduced.

There are various kind of strengthening methods are available but every method cannot be

suited for all cases, with the proper study of the case we have to decide the proper method

which is suited for particular case. Externally bonded steel plates, steel or concrete jackets

and external post-tensioning are just some of the many traditional techniques available.

Composite materials made of fibers in a polymeric resin, also known as fiber-reinforced

1
polymers (FRP), have emerged as an alternative to traditional materials and techniques. FRP

system is defined as all the fibers and resins used to create the composite laminate, all

applicable resins used to bond it to the concrete substrate, and all applied coatings used to

protect the constituent materials. Coatings used exclusively for aesthetic reasons are not

considered part of an FRP system. Nowadays mostly used strengthening material is Fiber

Reinforced Polymer (FRP). Fiber Reinforced Polymer is made by combining fibers namely

glass fibers, carbon fibers, Aranid fibers, Basalt fibers etc with polymers like epoxy resins.

1.2. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Pre-stressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete natural weakness in tension. It can

be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary

reinforced concrete. Pre-stressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are

used to provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that balances the tensile

stress that the concrete compression member would otherwise experience due to a bending

load. Traditional concretes based on the use of steel reinforcement bars, rebar, inside poured

concrete. Pre-stressing can be accomplished in three ways: pre-tensioned concrete, and

bonded or un-bonded post-tensioned concrete. It is a structural material possessing great

strength. The unique characteristics of pre-stressed concrete allow predetermined,

engineering stresses to be placed in members to counteract stresses that occur when the unit

is subjected to service loads. This is accomplished by combining the best properties of two

quality materials: high strength concrete for compression and high tensile strength steel

strands for tension. Actually, pre-stressing is quite simple. High tensile strands are stretched

between abutments at each end of long casting beds. Concrete is then poured into the forms

encasing the strands. As the concrete sets, it bonds to the tensioned steel. When the concrete

reaches a specific strength, the strands are released from the abutments. This compresses the

2
concrete, arches the member, and creates a built in resistance to service loads. The main

advantages of pre-stressed concrete are:

 Pre-stressed concrete posses better resistance to shear forces due to effect of

compressive stresses presence or eccentric cable profile.

 Long span structures are possible so that saving in weight is significant and thus it

will be economic.

 Pre-stressed concrete structures deflect appreciably before ultimate failure thus giving

ample warning collapse.

 Fatigue strength is better due to small variations in prestressing steel, recommended

dynamically loaded structures.

 In pre-stressed members, dead loads may be counter balanced by eccentric

prestressing.

1.2.1 Principle of Pre-stressing

Pre-stressing is a method in which compression force is applied to the Reinforced Concrete

(RC) section. The effect of pre-stressing is to reduce the tensile stress in the section to the

point till the tensile stress is below the cracking stress. Thus the concrete does not work. It is

then possible to treat concrete as an elastic material. The concrete can be visualized to have

two compressive forces, one is internal pre-stressing and another one is external force (dead

load, live load e.t.c). Stress in concrete when pre-stressing force applied eccentrically with

respect to the centre of gravity of the section is shown in Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1 Stress in Pre-stressed Concrete

3
There are three main types of Pre-stressed concrete which are as follows,

1. Pre-Tension Concrete

2. Bonded post-tensioned concrete

3. Un-bonded post-tensioned concrete

1.2.2 Pretensioned Concrete

Pre-stressing steel is tension stressed prior to the placement of the concrete and unloaded

after concrete has hardened to required strength. Pretension is the easiest controlled of the

bonded stressing with the least chance of error in the bonding process. Tension caused by the

steel is spread throughout the entire length of the concrete since it is bonded within the

concrete along the length of the member.

1.2.3 Bonded Post-Tensioned Concrete

The unstressed pre-stressing steel is placed within the concrete and then tension stressed

after concrete has harden to required strength. The main advantages of Bonded post-

tensioned concrete are as follows

 Tendons are less likely to de-stress in accidents

 Tendons can be easily 'weaved' allowing more efficient designs

 Bond generated between the strand and concrete resulted in elevated ultimate strength

 No issues related to maintenance of anchor.

1.2.4 Unbonded Post-Tensioned Pre-stressed Concrete

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded post-tensioning by providing each

individual cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this,

each individual tendon is coated with grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a

4
plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion process. The transfer of tension to the concrete is

achieved by the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of the slab.

Generally there are three types of pre-stressed concrete members viz., pretensioned, post-

tensioned bonded and post-tensioned unbonded. Each type has its own advantages and

disadvantages and the type of prestressing used in a particular application depends on the

type of structure, method of construction and sequence of construction. The main

disadvantage over bonded post-tensioning is the fact that a cable can distress itself and burst

out of the slab if damaged (such as during repair on the slab). Post-tensioning with unbonded

tendons is used for many reasons in the structure. Due to their simplicity of stressing

operation, longer span, smaller deflection, reduced depth/thickness of beams/slab

respectively, reduction in construction time, subsequent to cracking; a few wide cracks tend

to develop in unbonded members. Non-pre-stressed reinforcement is usually introduced to

control cracking in an unbonded members leading to essentially known as partially pre-

stressed member. The advantages of this system over bonded post-tensioning are:

 The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated.

 The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work

 Economical

 Replaceable

 Simple stressing equipment

1.2.5 Advantages of Pre-stressed Concrete

There are many advantages of prestressing of concrete over the traditional reinforced

concrete. The fully pre-stressed concrete member is generally subjected to compression

during their service life. This would rectify numerous deficiencies of concrete. The main

advantages of pre-stressed concrete were listed below,

5
  Section remains un-cracked under service loads

 High span-to-depth ratios

 Suitable for precast construction.

1.2.6 Applications of Pre-stressed Concrete

Several applications of pre-stressed concrete in concrete structures are in

 Long-Span Bridges

 Slabs

 Storage Tank

 Thin Shell Structures

 Offshore Structures

 Repair and Rehabilitation of Buildings

Figs. 1.2 to 1.5 show typical applications of pre-stressed concrete

Fig. 1.2 Czech Republic Railway Intersection Fig. 1.3 Nampa-Pre-stressed-water tank

Fig. 1.4 Milan Highspeed Rail System Fig. 1.5 Pre-stressed Concrete Pile

6
1.3 FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER

1.3.1 Fibres and their Properties

In general, the properties of Fibre Reinforced Polymer are controlled by the type of fibres

used for strengthening. The following types of fibres are generally adopted for structural

applications:

i. Aramid Fibre

ii. Carbon Fibre

iii. Glass Fibre

Different fibre types have different properties. Application of carbon fibre brings about very

good improvement in strength but the failure is usually explosive in nature. Application of

glass fibre leads to reasonable improvement in strength and failure is more ductile. Aramid

fibres have good ductility characteristics. The properties of typical fibres are presented in

Table 1.1. Different fibres types shown in Figs. 1.6 to 1.8.

Table 1. Properties of Fibres used in FRP (Source ACI 440.2R)

Ultimate Elasticity
Tensile Strength
Sl. No. Type of Fibre Tensile Modulus
(GPa)
Strain (GPa)

1. Aramid 3440 - 4140 0.025 69 - 83

2. Carbon 2050 - 3790 0.012 220 - 240
3. Glass 1860 - 2680 0.045 69 - 72

Fig. 1.6 Aramid Fibre Fig. 1.7 Carbon Fibre Fig. 1.8 Glass Fibre

7
The glass fibres are categorized into three different classes. The classification of glass fibres

is presented in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Types of Glass Fibres (Source: www.textilelearner.blogspot.in)

Sl. No. Type of Glass Fibre Characteristic/ Purpose

This can withstand high pH values. Suitable for

AR-glass
1. use as internal fibre reinforcement in Fibre
(Alkali Resistant glass fibre.)
Reinforced Concrete.

Most generally used type of glass fibre. Made

2. E-glass
from calcium alumina borosilicate.

The strength of this type of fibre is higher than

S-glass
3. that other type. Suitable for structural
(Structural grade glass fibre.)
applications.

1.3.2 Resins used in FRP

The resins used for the manufacture of FRP systems are polymeric resins, including primers,

putty fillers, saturants and adhesives. The resin may be a combination of epoxies, vinyl esters

or polyesters (ACI 440.2R, 2002) and have been formulated for use under various

environmental conditions. The desirable properties of polymer resins used in FRP include:

 Compatibility with concrete and adhesion to the concrete substrate

 Compatibility with other materials in the composite and adhesion to the FRP

composite system

 Resistance to environmental effects, including but not limited to moisture, salt water,

temperature extremes and chemicals normally associated with exposed concrete

 Ability for filling

 Workability

8
  Pot life consistent with the application

 Compatibility with the fibres and adhesion to the reinforcing fiber

 Development of appropriate mechanical properties for the FRP composite.

1.3.3 Properties of Typical FRP System

The properties of FRP are controlled by the properties and the amount of fibres incorporated

in the FRP. The procedure for testing FRP sheets is provided in the standards published by

American Society for Testing Materials, vide ASTM D 638 for tensile strength, strain

capacity and elasticity modulus, ASTM D 732 for shear strength, ASTM D 790 for flexural

strength and ASTM D 579 for compressive strength. Typical properties of finished FRP

systems are presented in Table 1.3 (ACI 440.2R, 2002).

Table 1.3 Typical Properties of Finished FRP (Fibre Volume Faction 40% - 60%)
Fibre Elasticity Modulus
Fibre Tensile Strength (GPa)
Orientati Tensile Strain (GPa)
Type/
on at 0o
Resin 0o 90o 0o 90o
(degrees)

Aramid/ 0 700-1720 35-70 0.02-0.03 48-68 2-7

Epoxy
0/90 280-550 280-550 0.02- 0.03 28-34 28-35
+45/-45 140-210 140-210 0.02- 0.03 7-14 7-14
Carbon/ 0 1020-2080 35-70 0.01 100-140 2-7
Epoxy
0/90 700-1020 700-1020 0.015 55-76 55-75
+45/-45 180-280 180-280 0.015-0.025 14-28 14-28
E-Glass/ 0 520-1400 35-70 0.015-0.03 20-40 2-7
Epoxy
0/90 520-1020 520-1020 0.02-0.03 14-31 14-35
+45/-45 180-280 180-280 0.025-0.035 14-21 14-20

9
1.4 APPLICATIONS OF FRP FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING

FRP can be applied for a wide range of strengthening works such as strengthening beams in

shear and flexure, strengthening of slabs using FRP strips, strengthening of columns using

FRP tubes and adhesive bonded FRP wraps, strengthening of masonry walls against lateral

forces. Strengthening of beams in flexure is typically carried out by the application of FRP

plates bonded to the soffit of the beam or by U-shaped wrapping which covers two sides and

soffit portion of the beam. Improvement in shear strength of beams can be achieved by the

application of U-shaped strips bonded at regular intervals. Fig.9. show typical FRP

strengthening systems for beams, slabs, columns and openings respectively.

Fig. 1.9 FRP Strengthening Systems

In the last two decades, advanced composites (FRP) have gained considerable worldwide

interest and growing acceptance in the construction industry. The preservation of historical

structures is one of the most appealing applications of FRP composites in the construction

field. FRP materials show extraordinary promise in the development of inconspicuous repair

10
schemes, offering significant strengthening through the use of small amounts of material. The

following are the areas in which FRP materials have been attempted.

 Upgrading of structural members (for improvements in flexural, shear, axial,

torsional, seismic, ductility, impact or blast resistance) and

 Use of FRP for new or replacement structural systems (such as replacement of an

existing bridge deck using FRP).

Most applications of FRP composites were confined either to aerospace and automotive

industries or to marine structures. Renewal of civil engineering infrastructure has received

considerable attention over the past few years throughout the world. The civil engineers have

been encouraged to explore ways and means of strengthening and upgrading the existing civil

engineering infrastructure to cater for changes in use and general deterioration.

1.4.1 Flexural Strengthening of Beams

Flexural strengthening using FRP composites are generally by bonding an FRP plate to the

beam soffit. The FRP plate may be a pultruded plate or may be constructed on site by wet

lay-up process. The surface must be adequately prepared to remove weak surface layer of

concrete, expose the coarse aggregate to improve bond with FRP and provide an even

surface. A pultruded FRP plate can be bonded to the beam soffit with pre-stressing. Since

FRP’s have high tensile strength, pre-stressing leads to more efficient use of them. In

practical applications, necessary and convenient mechanical end anchorage should be

considered. RC beams with unanchored and unstressed FRP plates have been widely

investigated and used in practice.

1.4.2 Shear Strengthening of Beams

Flexural failure is generally preferred to shear failure as the strength – governing failure

mode as the former is ductile allowing stress distribution and provides ample warning. When

11
an RC beam is shear deficient or when its shear capacity is less than the flexural capacity

after flexural strengthening, shear strengthening must be considered. Various schemes have

been evolved to increase the shear capacity of RC beams. These include bonding FRP to the

sides of the beam, bonding FRP U-jackets and wrapping FRP around the whole section of the

beam. The fibres may be oriented in such directions as to control shear cracks best.

1.4.3 Flexural Strengthening of Slabs

Strengthening of one-way slabs is carried out by bonding FRP strips/sheets to the soffit along

the longitudinal direction and for two - way slabs, strengthening is done by bonding FRP

strips in both directions. For slabs cantilevering from a wall or a large beam, a simple option

is to bend the FRP strips/sheets on the wall surface. For achieving sound anchorage, FRP

strips shall be inserted into holes pre-drilled in the wall. For continuous cantilever slabs, the

anchorage of FRP strips/sheets may be achieved by extending the FRP reinforcement into the

slab for a sufficient distance.

1.4.4 Strengthening of Columns

RC columns can be strengthened using FRP composites by wrapping, filament winding or

prefabricated shell jacketing. In-situ FRP wrapping is the most extensively used technique for

strengthening columns. Unidirectional fibre sheets or woven fabric sheets are impregnated

with polymer resins and wrapped around columns in wet lay-up process. The column can be

fully wrapped with FRP sheets, partially wrapped with FRP strips in a continuous spiral or

partially wrapped with discrete rings. The filament winding technique uses continuous fibre

strands instead of sheets/strips so that winding can be processed automatically using a

computer controlled winding machine.

12
1.5 EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING

Strengthening reinforced concrete members using fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) has

emerged as a potential method to address strength deficiency problems. This approach

has shown significant advantages compared to traditional methods, mainly due to the

outstanding mechanical properties of the composites.

FRP can be applied for strengthening a variety of structural members like beams,

columns, slabs and masonry walls. Beams and slabs may be strengthened in flexure by

bonding FRP strips at the soffit portion along the axis of bending. Shear strengthening of

beams may be achieved by bonding vertical or inclined strips of FRP on the side faces of

beams. Strengthening of beams in both flexure and shear may be achieved by wrapping

around the cross-section of beams in U-Shape. Figs. 1.10 to 1.19 show some of the

typical strengthening applications of externally bonded FRP.

Fig. 1.11 FRP Strengthening of Columns

Fig.1.10Flexural Strengthening of Beams
(Source : www.empa.ch)

13
Fig. 1.12 Flexural Strengthening of Slabs Fig. 1.13 FRP Strengthening of Beam-
(Source:www.vectorstructural.co.za) Column joints

Fig. 1.14 FRP Strengthening of Walls Fig. 1.15 FRP Tunnel lining
(source: www.civilweb.ir) (Source : pixhder.com)

Fig. 1.16 FRP Strengthening of Silos Fig. 1.17 FRP Strengthening of openings

14
 Fig. 1.18 FRP Strengthening of Tanks Fig. 1.19 FRP Strengthening of Pipes

The search and research over years for an innovative solution triggered the development of

FRP composites for the purpose. The beneficial attributes of FRP composites include high

strength-to-weight ratio, immunity to corrosion, durability in adverse environs, high fatigue

strength, greater case in site handling, reduction in labour costs, elimination of the need for

scaffolding, large deformation capacity, minimum changes in geometrical dimensions,

minimum interruption to existing services and availability of FRP in different sizes, geometry

and dimensions which make them a better option for civil engineering applications.

1.6 FAILURE MECHANISMS

Reinforced concrete beams strengthened with externally bonded FRP laminates may exhibit

one of the following modes of failure.

a. FRP rupture: The FRP plate stress exceeds its tensile strength in the maximum

moment zone.

b. Compression failure: The actual strain experienced by concrete in the maximum

moment zone exceeds the ultimate strain capacity of concrete (0.003) and the

reinforcing steel stress is below the yield stress. This condition leads to the crushing

of concrete due to excessive compressive strain.

15
 c. Tension failure: The reinforcing steel in the tension zone begins to yield, resulting in

large inelastic rotation of the beam. This results in eventual failure of concrete in

compression zone, since steel could undergo large post yield strain and concrete fails

just after reaching the ultimate strain.

d. Shear failure: Shear failure occurs when the shear resisting capacity of the beam near

the support section is below the actual shear stress induced on it. This might be the

result of providing inadequate shear stirrups.

e. Debonding failure: Debonding failure occurs in three distinct mechanisms. The first

debonding failure mechanism is realized when the interface shear stress between

concrete and adhesive exceeds the shear strength of the concrete-adhesive interface.

The second debonding failure mechanism is realized when the interface shear stress

between the FRP and the adhesive exceeds the shear strength of the FRP adhesive

interface. The third mechanism of debonding failure is initiated by the development of

a flexural crack in the zone of maximum bending moment. Debonding begins at one

of the flexural cracks and propagates towards the supports.

f. Local shear-tension failure: A crack initiates in the vicinity of one of the plate ends at

the level of the tension steel reinforcement and propagates horizontally either towards

midspan, or upward to the location of the concentrated load resulting in delamination

of the concrete cover (anchorage failure).

1.7 ADVANTAGES OF FRP

The benefits of composite materials have fueled growth of new applications in markets such

as transportation, construction, corrosion-resistance, marine, infrastructure, consumer

products, electrical, aircraft and aerospace and appliances and business equipment. The

benefits of using composite materials include:

16
High Strength – Composite materials can be designed to meet the specific strength

requirements of an application. A distinct advantage of composites over other materials is the

ability to use many combinations of resins and reinforcements, and therefore custom tailor

the mechanical and physical properties of a structure.

Light Weight – Composites are materials that can be designed for both light weight and high

strength. In fact, composites are used to produce the highest strength to weight ratio

structures known to man.

Corrosion Resistance – Composites products provide long-term resistance to severe

chemical and temperature environments. Composites are the material of choice for outdoor

exposure, chemical handling applications, and severe environment service.

Design Flexibility – Composites have an advantage over other materials because they can be

molded into complex shapes at relatively low cost. The flexibility of creating complex shapes

offers designers a freedom that hallmarks composites. Composites can be custom tailored to

have strength in a specific direction. If a composite has to resist bending in one direction,

most of the fibres can be oriented at 90 to the bending force. This creates a very stiff

structure in one direction. What actually happens is that more of the material can be used

where it counts. With metals, if greater strength is required in one direction, the material must

be made thicker overall, which adds weight. Also tailorability is the added advantage in FRP.

Durability – Composite structures have an exceedingly long life span. Coupled with low

maintenance requirements, the longevity of composites is a benefit in critical applications.

1.8 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To examine the effect of GFRP plating on the strength and deformation capacity of

pre-stressed concrete beams.

2. To study the effect of GFRP plating on ductility of pre-stressed concrete beams.

3. To examine the failure modes of test specimens.

17
 4. To compare the experimental results with analytical results.

5. To propose a finite element based model using ANSYS software and to compare the

experimental and analytical predictions.

6. To propose a regression equation for estimating the characteristics of pre-stressed

concrete beams strengthened with and without GFRP laminates.

7. To propose suitable recommendation and guidelines for pre-stressed concrete beams

strengthened with GFRP laminates.

1.9 RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE

This research work is significant on account of the investigation on flexural behaviour on pre-

stressed concrete beams strengthened with different GFRP configurations. This study is

indented to evaluate the effect of Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) laminates on the

performance of pre-stressed beams under static loading. GFRP laminates of different

configurations such as CSM, WR and UDC with different thicknesses 3mm and 5mm and 2

different grade of concrete M35 and M60 were the study parameters considered for assessing

the strength and ductility of pre-stressed concrete beams. The ultimate goal is to evaluate the

strength and ductility of pre-stressed concrete beams with different GFRP configurations

subjected to static loading. As part of this investigation, FEM based model, analytical model

and regression based models have also been developed for estimating the strength,

deformation and ductility characteristics of GFRP strengthened pre-stressed concrete beams.

18
 CHAPTER - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

In the earlier years reinforced concrete beams have been strengthened using cement based

composites and corrosion resistant stainless steel jackets. In recent years, FRP has been found

to be a promising technology for the same purpose. In this chapter a review of research

papers pertinent to strengthening and enhancing the ductility of pre-stressed concrete beams

under static has been made with a view to realize the importance of this technology.

2.2 Partially Pre-stressed Concrete Members (Bonded and Un-Bonded)

Chowdhury and Loo (2001) proposed a new formula to predict the average crack widths in

reinforced and partially pre-stressed concrete beams by incorporating four governing

parameters. The performance of the proposed formula is checked using the authors' test

results which includes crack spacing and crack width measurements from 18 reinforced and

12 partially pre-stressed concrete beams. Also included in the comparison are published data

on 76 beams from other laboratory investigations. The comparative study indicates that the

predictions are accurate. The performance of the proposed formula is also compared with

three major code formulas, viz those recommended in the ACI Building Code, the British

Standard and the Eurocode. It is concluded that better correlation with test data is achieved by

the proposed formula.

Au and Du (2004) examined various design methods for the determination of ultimate

tendon stress at flexural failure of pre-stressed concrete beams with unbonded tendons. Two

broad categories of deformation-based approaches have been identified, namely those based

on the span-depth ratio together with loading type, and those based on the neutral axis depth.

19
These methods are reviewed critically. A new design formula has been proposed in the light

of the available experimental data. The authors concluded that the proposed design formula

applicable not only to the conventional high-strength steel prestressing tendons, but also to

those made of other materials such as fibre-reinforced polymer.

Padmarajaiah and Ramaswamy (2004) predict the flexural strength of steel fiber

reinforced high-strength concrete in fully/partially pre-stressed beam specimens using eight

fully pre-stressed beams and seven partially pre-stressed beams made with high strength

fiber-reinforced concrete (plain concrete strength of 65 MPa). The primary finding emerging

from the experimental program was that the placement of fibers over a partial depth in the

tensile side of the pre-stressed flexural structural members provided equivalent flexural

capacity as in a beam having the same amount of fiber over the full cross-section. In large

scale precast concrete applications it is expected that this would be economical and lead to

considerable cost saving in the design without sacrificing on the desired structural

performance. The analytical model proposed in this study predicts the test results closely.

Ling-jia et al., (2005) evaluate the permanent prestress and structure loading capability of

existing pre-stressed concrete bridge, the longitudinal pretensioning force was enforced on

the simply-supported concrete beam to gain its natural frequency and deflection by post-

tensioning structure method. Based on the relation of its fundamental frequency increasing

with its pretension force's increasing, a regression analysis of the data was conducted to

develop an equation of its effective stiffness, the computation value and the measure value of

its deflection were compared. The analysis results show that the deflection errors of T and

rectangular beams are within 10%, the errors of hollow slab beam are within 15.71%,which

indicates that using the tested fundamental frequency and deflection can calculate simply-

supported beam's effective prestress.

20
Harajli (2006) evaluate the stress increase Δfps in unbonded tendons at ultimate flexural

strength of post-tensioned members has posed a great challenge over the years, and numerous

design equations for calculating the stress have been proposed. Despite the extensive

experimental and analytical research invested on this topic, most of the proposed expressions

and code design equations still differ substantially in the way the important parameters are

accounted for; they also encounter significant scatter in the prediction of test results. In this

paper, a comprehensive assessment of the main parameters that influence the stress in

unbonded tendons at ultimate is undertaken, and the reasons behind the scatter in the

predictions of test results are discussed. Using a physical model of Δfps, together with a large

database corresponding to simply supported and continuous members pre-stressed with

internal or external unbonded tendon systems, an accurate expression for evaluating the

equivalent plastic hinge length, which has a great influence on Δfps, is generated. Based on

this expression, three possible design alternatives were introduced for calculating the stress,

and the sensitivity of each to commonly used simplifying assumptions is illustrated. Also,

based on comparative assessment of design equations, it was reiterated that the ACI Building

Code Eq. (18-4) and (18-5) ignore most of the critical parameters, leading to inaccurate

predictions of Δfps. The fact that the inaccuracy of the ACI Code approach is shielded by

being over conservative does not prevent unsafe calculation of Δfps, particularly for

continuous members. While the AASHTO LRFD equation is more rational than the ACI

Code equation, the closed-form solution proposed in the Commentary of AASHTO LRFD

code for more accurate evaluation of Δfps is simply unconservative.

Ozkul et al., (2008) proposed a rational approach for the analysis of concrete beams pre-

stressed with unbonded tendons. The proposed methodology considers the beam and tendon

as a trussed beam system that allows for the rational use of equilibrium and compatibility

equations as well as the law of conservation of energy to predict the overall behavior at

21
various load levels. The methodology was validated using results from tests performed on a

total of 25 high-strength concrete (HSC) beams as well as test data available in the literature.

Various parameters, such as area of reinforcing steel, concrete strength, area of prestressing

steel, effective prestress, and span-depth ratio, were considered. Results from the

experimental study include deflection and strain in prestressing strands, reinforcing steel, and

concrete. Based on the analytical study, an equation for predicting the stress at ultimate was

derived. In comparison with experimental results, both the analysis model and the equation

predicted stresses accurately.

Pisani (2009) proposed a numerical model conceived to simulate the behavior up to collapse

of continuous concrete beams pre-stressed with bonded or external tendons. Its most valuable

feature is the ability to automatically determine the most suitable extent of each load

increment according to the actual stiffness of all the segments that form the discretized beam.

A crucial problem of nonlinear structural analysis is numerical evaluation of the rotation

capacity of plastic hinges, especially when dealing with concrete beams pre-stressed with

external tendons, which is a technology nowadays increasingly adopted in new continuous

bridges and in the rehabilitation or strengthening of old or damaged structures. This problem

is discussed in depth and a simple rule, which differs from those usually discussed in the

scientific literature, is adopted to subdivide the beam into discrete elements. The

effectiveness of the numerical model is tested by comparing its numerical output with the

outcomes of 14 experimental tests. This comparison looks promising since the mean value of

the error on load carrying capacity is only 0.1%, with a 2.4% standard deviation.

Meski and Harajli (2012) conducted an experimental study for evaluating the use of

external fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) laminates for strengthening unbonded posttensioned

concrete members. Twenty-four full-scale simply supported beam and slab specimens

reinforced with an internal unbonded tendon system and strengthened using external FRP

22
composites were tested. An additional 12 companion bonded pre-stressed concrete (PC) and

reinforced concrete (RC) specimens were also tested for comparison. The test parameters

included area of internal tension reinforcement, area of external FRP reinforcement, span-to-

depth ratio of the member (slab, beam), and profile of the unbonded tendons. It was found

that the use of FRP laminates increases the load capacity and postcracking stiffness of

unbonded members. The increase in load capacity was accompanied by a reduction in the

deformation capacity. Failure of the specimens occurred either by concrete crushing or by

FRP debonding or FRP fracture. No distinct difference beyond expectation was observed

between the flexural responses of FRP-strengthened unbonded PC and those of bonded PC or

RC systems. Provided a method is available for calculating the strains or stresses in the

unbonded tendons at ultimate flexural strength, the same standard guidelines for designing

the FRP system for flexural strengthening of RC and bonded PC members can be applied to

unbonded members.

Lou et al., (2012) numerically investigated the flexural behavior of continuous externally

pre-stressed concrete beams. Aspects of behavior studied include the increase in stress in

external tendons, moment redistribution in the postelastic range, and secondary moments as a

result of prestressing. A finite-element model for the full-range analysis of continuous

externally pre-stressed concrete beams is introduced. The model predictions agree well with

the experimental results. The analysis shows that the ultimate stress increase in external

tendons of continuous beams is dependent on both the number and rotation of plastic hinges

that can be developed at failure load. The degree of moment redistribution is significantly

influenced by the nonpre-stressed tension steel and the pattern of loading. An approach based

on the linear transformation concept is designed to examine the secondary moments over the

entire loading up to the ultimate. The results indicate that the secondary moments increase

linearly with the prestressing force and can be conveniently calculated by an elastic analysis.

23
Du et al., (2012) proposed a numerical method for the full-range analysis of pre-stressed

concrete flexural members with unbonded tendons, taking into account the stress-path

dependence of materials. The numerical results compared favourably with experimental

results. Parametric studies are carried out to evaluate the influence of loading type, span–

depth ratio, combined reinforcement index (CRI), partial prestressing ratio, concrete

compressive strength, and ratio of compressive reinforcement, etc. on the ductility behaviour.

The results indicate that the curvature ductility factor of pre-stressed concrete members with

unbonded tendons decreases with the increase of CRI. The curvature ductility factors for

members with bonded and unbonded tendons for given values of CRI are also analyzed and

compared. It is generally observed that when the CRI is between 0.15 and 0.20, the ductility

factor of an unbonded member is close to that of the bonded one. Above this range of CRI the

ductility factor of an unbonded member is higher than that of a bonded one, while below this

range the ductility factor of an unbonded member is lower than that of a bonded one.

Wang et al., (2013) studied the flexural strength of pre-stressed concrete beams with tendon

wrapped by plastic sheets. The authors compared the flexural strength, crack distribution and

crack width of beams with these two kinds of unbonded tendons and bonded tendon. The

results reveal that the structural behavior of tendon wrapped by plastic sheets is between

bonded tendon and tendon laid in metal duct. A modified equation is proposed to estimate

flexural strength of tendon wrapped by plastic sheets. Reducing cost and shortening

construction time are the main advantages for this kind of the pre-stressed beams with tendon

wrapped by plastic sheets. After further investigation, it may be an alternative method for the

post-tension pre-stressed concrete structure in the future.

Lou et al., (2013) developed a numerical model to predict the full-range nonlinear response,

as well as time-dependent service-load behaviour, of continuous beams pre-stressed with

internal unbonded tendons. Both geometric and material nonlinearities are considered. The

24
strain increment in unbonded tendon, at any deformed state, is computed from the elongation

of the entire tendon between end anchorages. The unbonded prestressing contributes to the

concrete beam by equivalent loads, which would be updated continuously during the solution

process. The analysis reproduces the experimental results of continuous beam specimens with

favourable agreement. Some important aspects of behaviour of the continuous beams are

examined.

Chan and Au (2015) studied the behaviour of continuous pre-stressed concrete beams with

external tendons. The authors reported that external prestressing can be applied to both new

construction and retrofitting of existing reinforced and pre-stressed concrete structures.

Continuous beams are preferred to simply supported beams because of economy, fewer

movement joints and possible benefits from moment redistribution. However, this study

argued that continuous pre-stressed concrete beams with external unbonded tendons

demonstrate different full-range behaviour compared to reinforced concrete (RC) beams.

Applying the same design approach for RC to external prestressing may lead to design with a

lower safety margin. To better understand the behaviour of continuous pre-stressed concrete

beams with unbonded tendons, an experimental investigation is performed in which nine such

specimens are tested to failure. The full-range behaviour is investigated with reference to

moment-curvature relationship and moment redistribution. The amounts of moment

redistribution measured in the experiments are compared with those allowed by BS 8110,

EC2 and ACI 318. Design equations are also proposed to estimate the curvature ductility

index of unbonded pre-stressed concrete beams.

Du et al., (2016) developed a method to convert the cross sectional area of unbonded pre-

stressed tendons to the equivalent crosses sectional area of non-pre-stressed steel. Then the

moment of inertia of cracked section as well as Branson’s effective moment of inertia in a

unbonded partially pre-stressed concrete (UPPC) continuous beam can be easily determined.

25
The computed deflections are compared with some available experimental results, including

beams with external unbonded steel tendons and those with external unbonded aramid fibre

reinforced polymer tendons. The proposed method gives satisfactory predictions of deflection

till the yielding of non-pre-stressed steel. Another equation for moment of inertia of cracked

section, which was originally suggested by the precast/pre-stressed concrete institute (PCI)

Design Handbook for bonded partially pre-stressed concrete beams, is also evaluated in the

study. In most cases the PCI equation can also give satisfactory results but in some cases its

discrepancy of deflections is larger than that of the proposed method. Compared with the

method recommended in the current Chinese Code, the proposed method is applicable not

only to members with the conventional high-strength steel prestressing tendons, but also to

those with tendons made of other materials such as fibre-reinforced polymer.

Wang et al., (2016) proposed a numerical relationship between the creep coefficient and

creep deflection coefficient. Four simply supported pre-stressed beams (7.5 m in length) were

loaded for 700 days. According to the creep strains at different heights in the mid-span cross

section during the loading period, the plane-section assumption was verified for the pre-

stressed beams under long-term loading. Meanwhile, geometry models of the creep strain

were established for both fully pre-stressed and partially pre-stressed beams. By studying the

models, the numerical relationships between the creep coefficient and creep deflection

coefficient were derived; for the fully pre-stressed beams, the creep deflection coefficient is

larger than the creep coefficient, while the opposite is true for partially pre-stressed beams.

Moreover, an expression for the creep deflection coefficient was proposed; the coefficient is

determined by the creep coefficient, prestress degree, prestress effect, and geometric

properties of the cross section. New method thus proposed predicts accurately the creep

deflection of a pre-stressed concrete beam.

26
Park (2016) investigated the effect of high-strength strands on the flexural behavior based on

the concrete compressive strength and the tensile strength of the strands. The test results

indicated that the actual flexural behaviors showed good agreement with the predictions of

the current code, regardless of the tensile strength of the strands. The specimens exhibited

ductile behavior, and the crack patterns were similar in all the specimens. Certain specimens

under service load exhibited crack widths and stress in the tensile reinforcements that slightly

exceeded the limit in the current codes. Because the excess was not considerable, reasonable

crack control can be achieved by the proper arrangement of deformed rebars. However,

further study is required to create clear guidelines.

2.3 Fully Pre-stressed Concrete Members

Aravinthan et al.,(2005) studied the flexural behavior of beams with highly eccentric

tendons, an experimental investigation is conducted on single-span and two-span continuous

beams. The test variables include external tendon profile, loading pattern on each span,

casting method, and confinement reinforcements. It is found that continuous girders with

linearly transformed tendon profiles exhibit the same flexural behavior irrespective of tendon

layout. The presence of confinement reinforcement enhances the ductility behavior but does

not increase the ultimate flexural strength. The degree of moment redistribution is affected by

the tendon layout and the loading pattern on each span.

Ghallab and Beeby (2005) studied the effect of several factors on the increase in the

ultimate stress in external Parafil ropes as well as external steel tendons. These factors were

related to the external prestressing system, internal pre-stressed and ordinary bonded steel,

beam geometry and material properties. Also, the accuracy of equations proposed by the

Eurocode (EC2), ACI318 and BS8110 to calculate the ultimate stress in external steel and

FRP prestressing tendons was examined. The experimental and the analytical results showed

27
that the studied factors have the same effect on both steel (up to yield) and Parafil ropes

though this effect is greater in case of steel tendons. Also, factors such as tendon profile

(straight or deviated), high strength of the concrete, effective tendon depth and number of

deviators should be taken into consideration when calculating the ultimate stress in the

external tendons.

Chee and Tan (2006) experimentally investigated the flexural behaviour of pre-stressed

concrete beams. A total of nine simply supported prototype beams were tested to evaluate the

effect of span-to-depth ratio and second-order effects. It was found that span-to-depth ratio

has no significant effect on the flexural behaviour of the beams. For beams with span-to-

depth ratio of up to 22.5, a single deviator provided at midspan section is effective in

minimising second-order effects, that is, maintaining higher load-carrying capacity and

ensuring ductility at the ultimate limit state for the beams. However, second-order effects

prevailed in a longer beam with larger span-to-depth ratio of 30.0 despite the provision of a

single deviator at midspan. This type of long beams would require at least two deviators

placed at one-third span sections, hence reducing the deviator spacing in order to minimise

second-order effects so that the beams would achieve the desired flexural performance with

regard to beam strength and ductility. Theoretical predictions of the load–deformation

responses using the proposed analytical model were found to agree well with the test results

in this study and experimental data of other investigations.

Dall’Asta et al., (2007) proposed a Simplified Method for Failure Analysis of Concrete

Beams Pre-stressed with External Tendons. The authors reported that the flexural strength of

externally pre-stressed beams depends on the tendon stress at failure. If the tendon is free to

slip at the deviators its stress will depend on the global deformation of the whole structure.

Thus the tendon stress at failure, and consequently, the flexural strength cannot be evaluated

by a local analysis of the critical sections, but a nonlinear analysis of the whole beam-tendon

28
structural system is required. In the past, simplified formulas were proposed to calculate the

tendon stress increment at failure avoiding the need for a nonlinear analysis of the entire

structure. Some of these formulas have been adopted as code recommendations. Some

approaches however do not seem to be consistent with the actual behavior of externally pre-

stressed beams and in some cases excessively high increments of stress are recommended. On

the other hand, other approaches appear to be too conservative. In this work a new simplified

and rational method of analysis based on shape functions approximating deformations is

proposed to study the tendon stress increment and consequently the flexural strength of

externally pre-stressed concrete beams. The proposed simplified method reduces the analysis

of externally pre-stressed structures from a global structure problem to an easier section

problem.

Yang et al., (2011) studied the flexural behaviour of pre-stressed ultra high performance

concrete (UHPC) beams is investigated in this study. The paper proposes a method for

predicting the flexural strength of pre-stressed UHPC beams with a compressive strength

greater than 150 MPa, including an experimental program and associated numerical analyses.

Four large-scale pre-stressed beams were tested in the experimental program. Detailed

experimental test results for the flexural behaviour of pre-stressed UHPC beams are provided.

A method for incorporating steel fibre effects into the flexural analysis of pre-stressed UHPC

beams is proposed and applied to interpret the experimental test results. The study focuses

primarily on the flexural behaviour of UHPC beams. The analytical model for the flexural

behaviour of beams takes tensile softening into account. Tensile softening is simulated using

an inverse analysis based on the load-crack mouth opening displacement relationship. Test

data and numerical analysis results for flexural strength are compared, indicating a reasonable

agreement between beams. The present study allows realistic prediction of the flexural

strength of pre-stressed UHPC beam

29
2.4 FRP Strengthened Concrete Members

Toutanji and Ortiz (2001) presented experimental and analytical studies concerning the

influence of concrete surface treatment and type of FRP sheets on the bonding strength of

concrete-FRP sheet. The variables included fiber type-carbon and glass and surface

treatment – water jet and sanding. The test results showed that bond between FRP and

concrete improved significantly when water jet was used and the specimens failed at a higher

load and strain; specimens with GFRP sheet exhibited a lower average tensile stress than

those with CFRP sheet. The authors proposed an analytical model for predicting the bond

strength which compared well with the experimental results.

Bencardino et al., (2000) conducted an experimental investigation on reinforced concrete

beams strengthened in flexure and shear using externally epoxy bonded bidirectional carbon

fibre fabric to overcome the bond slip and plate separation at the ends. The authors concluded

that CF fabrics provide an effective and efficient alternative to laminate strengthening of

concrete structures.

Bencardino et al., (2001) investigated the strength and ductility of RC beams repaired with

CFRP laminates. They examined the effects of retrofitting on strength, deflection, curvature

and energy. The variables included longitudinal steel ratio, volume of internal links and

location & configuration of end anchorages. They reported that suitably designed and

positioned external anchorages enabled more ductile failures of the CFRP strengthened

beams. Also the ductility definitions based on deflection and energy may be considered as

reliable and reasonable representations of the physical aspects of ductility of the CFRP

strengthened beams.

Alagusundaramoorthy (2003) studied the flexural behaviour of RC beams strengthened

with CFRP sheets or fabric with and without anchorages. Two types of CFRP materials

30
(pultruded/fabric) were attempted. Two amounts (106.4 mm2 and 487.6 mm2) of pultruded

CFRP area were considered. The author reported that the increase was 49% and 40% for

strengthened beams with CFRP sheet and fabric respectively. A 58% increase was achieved

when anchorages were used.

Huang et al., (2005) presented an experimental study on strengthening of reinforced concrete

beams using pre-stressed glass fibre- reinforced polymer (PGFRP). The load-carrying

capacities (ultimate loads) and the deflections of strengthened RC beams using GFRP and

PGFRP sheets were tested and compared. They reported that the beams strengthened with

PGFRP sheets can withstand larger ultimate loads than beams with GFRP sheets. The

deflections of beams with PGFRP sheets were smaller than those with GFRP sheets under the

same external loads. The ductility of the over-strengthened beams was especially smaller.

Ming-Hung (2006) presented a study on concrete beams strengthened with externally

bonded glass fibre reinforced plastic plates. Finite element method was employed in

simulating the behavior of reinforced concrete beams. The numerical results of a four- point

bending test on beams strengthened externally by GFRP showed good concurrence with the

model values. The author concluded that the flexural strength, stiffness and yield moment

increased due to the additional GFRP strengthening.

Almusalam (2006) studied the load-deflection behavior of RC beams strengthened with

GFRP sheets subjected to different environmental conditions. A total of 84 beam specimens

were prepared for this study. They were controlled by laboratory environment, outside

environment, wet-dry alkaline water environment and second category coated with protection

paint against ultraviolet rays. Each category consisted of un-strengthened and strengthened

beams. The specimens of different wet-dry environments were exposed to a time cycle of two

weeks inside the solution and two weeks outside the solution. The tests were carried out after

31
6, 12 and 24 months of exposure to different environmental conditions. The author concluded

that none of the aforesaid environmental conditions have a noticeable influence on the

flexural strength of the beams.

Carlos and Maria (2006) conducted an experiment and found numerical results validated

against experimental data obtained from 19 beams strengthened with different types of FRP.

They derived the numerical simulation which indicated that the concrete tensile strength does

not constitute the unique failure criterion for predicting plate debonding failure of

strengthened RC beams.

Yost (2007) studied the structural performance of retrofitted concrete flexural members using

a near surface mounted CFRP method. The author reported an increase of 30% and 78% in

the yield load and ultimate strength compared to the values for the control beam. They also

found that the bond strengths between the CFRP reinforcement, the epoxy and the adjacent

concrete were adequate to develop the full tensile capacity of the CFRP reinforcement.

Esfahani et al., (2007) carried out an investigation on the flexural behaviour of reinforced

concrete beams strengthened by CFRP sheets. 12 concrete beam specimens with dimensions

of 150 x 250 x 2000 mm length were cast and tested. Beam sections with three different

reinforcing ratios (ρ) were used. Nine specimens were strengthened in flexure by CFRP

sheets. The other three specimens were considered as control specimens. The length, width

and number of layers of CFRP sheets varied in different specimens. The flexural strength and

stiffness of the strengthened beams increased compared to the control specimens. The authors

concluded that the design guidelines of ACI 440.2R-02 and ISIS Canada overestimate the

effect of CFRP sheets in increasing the flexural strength of beams with small ρ values

compared to the maximum value, ρmax, specified in these two guidelines.

32
Lim, Dong-Hwan (2008) experimentally investigated the flexural strengthening effectiveness

for the beams strengthened with NSM CFRP strips. To accomplish this objective, concrete T

beams were cast and tested. The authors reported that the flexural stiffness and strength of the

beams reinforced with NSM strips were significantly improved compared to the beams

without CFRP strip. The maximum increase of flexural strength was 247%. Failure of the

beam reinforced with NSM was initiated by a part of separation of NSM strips along the

longitudinal direction, and the second failure of strips was investigated. After the first rupture

of the NSM strips, the load dropped suddenly and the second rupture was succeeded. This

result shows that a perfect composite reaction with NSM strips and concrete is possible in the

beam reinforced with NSM CFRP strips the NSM strips and Near surface mounted (NSM) is

one of the most recent and promising strengthening techniques for reinforced concrete

structures.

Byong (2008) highlighted the effect of using epoxy mortar patch end anchorages on the

flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with carbon fibre-reinforced

polymer (CFRP) sheets. The test results showed that the premature debonding failure in RC

beams strengthened with CFRP sheets can be delayed or prevented by using epoxy mortar

patch end anchorages, thereby enhancing the flexural performance. The author proved that

the mortar patch anchorage used in the experimental study was very effective in delaying or

preventing the premature debonding failure, that is the dominant failure mode for beams

conventionally strengthened with CFRP.

Tan et al., (2009) carried out analytical and experimental investigations on GFRP-

strengthened RC beams under the combined effect of sustained loading and tropical

weathering. The author concluded that FRP strengthened RC beams under sustained

loads exhibited larger deflections and crack widths, when subjected to tropical

weathering at the same time. Also the author concluded that the GFRP strengthened RC

33
beam showed decrease in deflections and crack width when compared to the control beam.

Both the strength and ductility of beams under sustained loads decreased with longer

weathering periods.

Reza and Syed (2010) presented experimental and analytical studies concerning the flexural

strengthening of HSC beams by external bonding of FRP sheets. 6 concrete beam specimens

with dimensions of 150 x 250 x 3000mm were cast and tested under two - point loading. The

principal variables included in their study were different layouts of CFRP sheets and tensile

steel reinforcement ratio. They concluded that as the amount of tensile steel reinforcement

was increased, the additional strength provided by the carbon FRP external reinforcement got

reduced. Also their finite element model results showed good agreement with the

experimental results.

Yasmeen et al., (2010) investigated the behaviour of structurally damaged full-scale

reinforced concrete beams retrofitted with CFRP laminates in shear or in flexure

experimentally. The main variables considered by them were the internal reinforcement ratio,

position of retrofitting and the length of CFRP. The experimental results indicated that beams

retrofitted in shear and flexure by using CFRP laminates were structurally efficient and were

restored to stiffness and strength values nearly equal to or greater than these of the control

beams. The authors found that the efficiency of the strengthening technique by CFRP in

flexure varied depending on the length. The main failure mode in the experimental work was

plate debonding in the retrofitted beams.

Jadhav and Shiyekar (2011) carried out experimental studies to investigate the effect of

length, width and number of layers of glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) strips applied to

the tension side of the RC beam. The authors concluded that the beam strengthened with

different width and number of layers of glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) strips

34
exhibited relatively good ductile behaviour. However it showed same load at yielding of

steel. This was because the glass fibre reinforced polymer had higher initial stiffness. Hence,

it contributed to strengthening more effectively. The load carrying capacity of the

strengthened beams increased by 7% to 35%, when compared to the control beam.

Ysmeen et al., (2011) presented the results of an experimental study on the behaviour of

structurally damaged full-scale reinforced concrete beams retrofitted with CFRP laminates

in shear or in flexure. The main variables considered were the internal reinforcement ratio,

position of retrofitting and the length of CFRP. The stiffness of the CFRP-retrofitted beams

increased compared to that of the control beams. Employing externally bonded CFRP plates

resulted in an increase in maximum load. The increase in maximum load of the retrofitted

specimens reached values of about 23% for retrofitting in shear and between 7% and 33% for

retrofitting in flexure. Moreover, retrofitting shifts the mode of failure to be brittle. The

results showed that the main failure mode was plate debonding which reduced the

efficiency of retrofitting.

Rakesh Reddy and Ramakrishna (2014) Examined the behaviour of continuous RC beams

under static loading. The beams are strengthened with externally bonded glass fibre

reinforced polymer (GFRP) sheets. Different scheme of strengthening have been employed.

The program consists of fourteen continuous (two-span) beams with overall dimensions equal

to (150×200×2300) mm. The beams are grouped into two series labeled S1 and S2 and each

series have different percentage of steel reinforcement. One beam from each series (S1 and

S2) was not strengthened and was considered as a control beam, whereas all other beams

from both the series were strengthened in various patterns with externally bonded GFRP

sheets. The present study examines the responses of RC continuous beams, in terms of failure

modes, enhancement of load capacity and load deflection analysis. The results indicate that

the flexural strength of RC beams can be significantly increased by gluing GFRP sheets to

35
the tension face. In addition, the epoxy bonded sheets improved the cracking behaviour of the

beams by delaying the formation of visible cracks and reducing crack widths at higher load

levels. The experimental results were validated by using finite element method.

Hosen et al., (2016) presented NSM technique incorporating NSM composites, namely steel

and carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) bars, as reinforcement. Experimental and

analytical studies carried out to explore the performance of reinforced concrete (RC)

members strengthened with the NSM composites. Analytical models were developed in

predicting the maximum crack spacing and width, concrete cover separation failure loads,

and deflection. A four-point bending test was applied on beams strengthened with different

types and ratios of NSM reinforcement. The failure characteristics, yield, and ultimate

capacities, deflection, strain, and cracking behaviour of the beams were evaluated based on

the experimental output. The test results indicate an increase in the cracking load of 69% and

an increase in the ultimate load of 92% compared with the control beam. The predicted result

from the analytical model shows good agreement with the experimental result, which ensures

the competent implementation of the present NSM-steel and CFRP technique.

Almusallam et al., (2014) investigated the effect of longitudinal steel ratio on the flexural

performance of RC beams externally strengthened with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)

composites experimentally and numerically. The experimental programme consisted of

testing 11 beams under four-point bending until failure. Each beam was duplicated to verify

the repeatability of the results. Three beams were tested as control specimens; the remaining

eight beams were externally strengthened in flexure with FRP composites. The primary

experimentally studied parameters were longitudinal steel ratio and axial FRP stiffness. Three

different steel ratios were examined. For the lowest steel ratio, four different FRP systems

with six axial stiffness values were investigated. However, for the other two steel ratios, only

one FRP system was studied.

36
Spadea and Giuseppe (2015) reported the state-of-the-art concerning the structural behavior

of concrete beams externally reinforced with Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) systems. The

relevant aspects that mostly characterize the overall performance of strengthened beams, such

as strength increase, ductility and the ability to dissipate the internal strain energy were

illustrated by means of a critical analysis of the results obtained from a multiphase extensive

on-going experimental investigation. The authors reported a stable and controlled progressive

failure of reinforced concrete (RC) beams strengthened with FRP through a holistic approach.

Huang and Liang (2016) investigated the use of natural flax fabric reinforced polymer

(FFRP) composite plates as external strengthening material of reinforced concrete (RC)

beams. The flexural behaviour of 2 m-long RC beams with and without FFRP plates were

evaluated under four-point bending. The test variables included FFRP thickness (4 and 6

layer), internal steel reinforcement ratio (0.223% and 0.503%) and pre-cracking of RC beams

(i.e. by applying 80% yielding load of the control RC beam before bonding FFRP plates to

RC beams). The authors reported that FFRP plates enhance the ultimate load, deflection and

ductility of the beams significantly. The increase in load and ductility was more effective for

RC beams with a lower steel ratio. The strengthened beams showed a similar failure mode,

i.e. steel yielding and then rupture of the FFRP plate. Pre-cracking of RC beams has no

obvious effect on the ultimate load and energy absorption capacity of the FFRP strengthened

beams, indicating that FFRP retrofit damaged RC beams (e.g. after earthquake-attack). In

addition, the experimental results were compared with predictions based on the equations

given in ACI 440.2R-08 for RC beams strengthened with synthetic FRP composites. The

authors concluded that FFRP strengthening increases the ultimate load capacity ranging from

15.5% to 112.2%. Beams with more FFRP layers have higher ultimate load. The increase in

load carrying capacity for RC beams with a low steel reinforcement ratio due to FFRP

strengthening was larger than that of beams with a high reinforcement ratio.

37
2.5 FRP Strengthened Pre-stressed Concrete Members

Lees (2001) studied the application of FRP in reinforced and pre-stressed Concrete. The

author focused on recent developments in the use of fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) in

reinforced and pre-stressed concrete applications. The influence of the FRP material

properties on the design of concrete structures was considered and applications were

discussed in conjunction with the structural function of the FRP reinforcement. The author

reported with examples of the practical implementation of the FRP technology and addresses

important durability issues.

Dave and Trambadia (2009) studied the comparative behavior of pre-stressed concrete

(PSC) beams subjected to two point loadings in terms of failure load, deflection and failure

modes was evaluated. Effect of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) strengthening on

PSC beams before and after first cracking was measured. Experiment includes testing of

twelve simply supported PSC beams having cross-section 150 mm x 200 mm with effective

span of 3.0 meter. Four unwrapped PSC beams, four PSC beams wrapped by GFRP after

initial loading up to first crack and four un cracked PSC beams strengthened using GFRP are

tested up to failure. Four different wrapping patterns are executed on beams. For (2L/7) &

(2L/ 6) span loadings, wrapping of full length at bottom and up to 1/3 of depth is provided,
rd

forming a U-shape around the beam cross-section. For (2L/4) span loading, wrapping of full

length at bottom and up to 1/3 of vertical depth is provided and extra wrapping near the
rd

supports was provided. For (2L/3) span loading, U shape wrapping is provided near the

supports, for full depth. The authors concluded that in (2L/7) & (2L/6) span loadings,

compared to unwrapped PSC beams, the FRP wrapping along longitudinal direction, reduces

deflections and increases the load carrying capacity for wrapped PSC beams. In (2L/4) span

loading, combination of vertical and horizontal GFRP sheets, together with a proper epoxy

adhesion, lead to increase the ultimate load carrying capacity for wrapped PSC beams. In

38
(2L/3) span loading, presence of vertical GFRP sheets near support reduces the shear effects

considerably and increase load carrying capacity.

Balsamo et al., (2013) conducted an experimental investigation on pre-stressed-concrete

beams strengthened in flexure with traditional (i.e., pultruded carbon laminate bonded with

epoxy resin) and different innovative composite externally bonded systems (i.e., steel fabrics

glued with different types of adhesive) in order to compare their structural performance

between them and with respect to unstrengthened specimens. At this aim, a total of fifteen

specimens characterized by an overall length of 2400 mm and cross-sectional dimensions of

120 by 140 mm were subjected to four-point-bending tests. Test results highlighted the high

potential of the innovative composite systems for flexural strengthening applications and

similar effectiveness compared with the pultruded carbon laminates. The recorded response

of the specimens is presented and discussed and the measured strength and deflection of the

specimens are estimated. Comparison between theoretical prediction and experimental results

shows a good agreement.

Dawood and Al-Katib (2013) conducted an experimental investigation on flexural strength

of pretensioned pre-stressed concrete beams with openings and strengthened with (CFRP)

sheets, tested as simply supported span subjected under two-point loading. The experimental

work includes testing of nine pre-stressed concrete beams specimens with dimensions

(effective length 1800mm × depth 300mm × width 130mm), two of which were without

openings as a control beams (one without and the other with strengthening by CFRP), three

were with openings, and the remaining four with openings and strengthened with CFRP

sheets. The opening was made at square shape (100×100) mm in flexure zone at mid span of

beam. Several design parameters were varied such as: opening width, opening depth and

strengthening of openings of beams by CFRP sheets at compression and tension zone.

Experimental results showed that the presence of square opening (with ratio h/H= 0.333) and

39
rectangular opening (with ratio h/H from 0.333-0.5) at mid span of beams decreased the

ultimate load about (5.5)% and (5.5-33.1)% respectively when compared with beam without

openings (control beam). The externally strengthened pre-stressed concrete beams with

bonded CFRP sheets showed a significant increase at the ultimate load, this increase was

about (10.9-28.8)% for flexure beams when compared with the unstrengthened beams.

Moreover, the load-deflection curves for flexure beams strengthened with CFRP sheets were

stiffer than the unstrengthened beams. Therefore, this results gave a good indication about

using CFRP sheets in improvement of deflection.

2.6 Summary

In this chapter the research papers relating to the deployment of various types of FRP for

strengthening PSC beams under static loading, analytical and regression modeling have been

reviewed. It has been found that FRP significantly improves the static responses of the PSC

beams. This has been taken as the key factor for this research work. The experimentation and

modeling have been designed addressing this critical issue.

40
 CHAPTER - 3

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

3.1 EXPERIMENTAL PLAN

A total of 14 RC beams were cast for the present research work. The beams were 150 mm x

250 mm in cross-section and 3000 mm long. The beams were tested in four- point bending

over a simple span of 2800 mm. Longitudinal steel ratio adopted for the beam specimen was

0.603%. 2 numbers of 12mm diameter bars were used for tension reinforcement, 2 high

tensile 7mm diameter pre-stressing wires with eccentricity 50mm and 2 numbers of 10 mm

diameter bars were used as hanger bars. 2-legged 8 mm diameter stirrups were provided at

150 mm c/c, in order to avoid any shear failure and ensure flexural action of beams up to

failure. The detailing of reinforcement is shown through Fig. 3.1.

2Nos.10mm Dia
250mm

8mm Dia bars

@ 150mm c/c

2Nos.7mm Dia
2Nos.12mm Dia

3000mm
150mm

Fig. 3.1 Reinforcement Details of Beam Specimen

Two unbonded post-tensioned beams served as reference beams and the remaining twelve

beams were strengthened with GFRP laminates on their soffit. 7 beams cast with M35

grade concrete were strengthened with three different GFRP laminates having two different

thicknesses 3 mm and 5 mm and tested under monotonically increasing loading and manual

readings were recorded. Remaining 7 beams cast with M60 grade concrete were

strengthened with three different GFRP laminates having two different thicknesses 3 mm

and 5 mm and tested under monotonically increasing loading and manual readings were

also recorded directly. The variables considered included grade of concrete, type of GFRP
41
laminate and thickness of GFRP laminate. The GFRP laminates also varied in their

configuration, viz., Chopped Strand Mat (CSM), Woven Roving (WR) and Uni-Directional

Cloth (UDC). Responses of all the beams were evaluated in terms of strength, stiffness,

ductility, composite action between concrete and external reinforcement and the associated

failure modes for beams tested under static loading. The specimens were tested under two-

point loading system. Sufficient data was obtained on the strength, deformation and failure

characteristics of pre-stressed beams with and without GFRP laminates for beams tested

under static loading.

3.2 DETAILS OF TEST SPECIMENS

The details of all the test specimens prepared for experimental work are presented in Table

3.1. The unbonded post-tensioned beams were laminated with 3 different GFRP

configurations (Chopped Strand Mat (CSM), Woven Roving (WR) and Uni-Directional

Cloth (UDC) of varying thickness 3 mm and 5 mm thickness.

Table 3.1 Details of Test Specimens

Beam % Steel Grade of GFRP
Designation Reinforcement Concrete Type Thickness
T 0.603 35 - 0
TC1 0.603 35 CSM 3
TC2 0.603 35 CSM 5
TU1 0.603 35 UDC 3
TU2 0.603 35 UDC 5
TW1 0.603 35 WR 3
TW2 0.603 35 WR 5
S 0.603 60 - 0
SC1 0.603 60 CSM 3
SC2 0.603 60 CSM 5
SU1 0.603 60 UDC 3
SU2 0.603 60 UDC 5
SW1 0.603 60 WR 3
TW2 0.603 60 WR 5
Note: CSM-Chopped Strand Mat; WR – Woven Roving; UDC - Uni-Directional Cloth

42
3.3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The concrete used for T-series beam specimens had a compressive strength of 42 MPa. The

designed mix proportion was 1: 1.30: 2.35 : 0.42. The concrete consisted of 474 kg/m3 of

ordinary Portland cement, 616 kg/m3 of fine aggregate, 1114 kg/m3 of coarse aggregate and

199 kg/m3 of water. The concrete used for S-series beam specimens had a compressive

strength of 69MPa. The designed mix proportion was 1: 1.35 : 2.19 : 0.29. The concrete

consisted of 498 kg/m3 of ordinary Portland cement, 672 kg/m3 of fine aggregate, 1091 kg/m3

of coarse aggregate and 144 kg/m3 of water. For both T and S-series beam specimens HYSD

bars of characteristic strength 436 MPa were used for the longitudinal reinforcement. Pre-

stressing wires of 7mm diameter having ultimate stress 1532 MPa, breaking load 59.1KN and

4 percentage elongation were used. The specimens were provided with 8mm diameter

(characteristic strength 287MPa) stirrups at 150 mm spacing. Three types of GFRP laminates

were used for the study, namely, Chopped Strand Mat (CSM) Woven Roving (WR) and

Unidirectional Cloth (UDC) of 3mm and 5mm thickness

3.3.1 Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer

Glass fibre reinforced polymer laminates having the following configurations were

used for the investigation.

i. Chopped Strand Mat (CSM)

ii. Woven Roving (WR)

iii. Uni-Directional Cloth (UDC)

The glass fibre reinforced polymer laminates were applied on the soffit of the

beam specimens using epoxy adhesive. Figs. 3.2 to 3.4 show the fibre configurations

used. The properties of GFRP are shown in Table 3.2.

43
Fig. 3.2 Chopped Strand Mat Fig.3.3 Woven Roving (WR) Fig. 3.4 Uni-Directional Cloth
(CSM) (UDC)

Table 3.2 Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

Tensile Ultimate Elasticity

Sl. Thickness
Type of GFRP Strength Elongation Modulus
No. (mm)
(MPa) (%) (MPa)
1. Chopped Strand Mat 3 126.20 1.69 7467.46
2. Chopped Strand Mat 5 156.00 1.37 11386.86
3. Woven Rovings 3 147.40 2.15 6855.81
4. Woven Rovings 5 178.09 1.98 8994.44
5. Uni-Directional Cloth 3 446.90 3.02 13965.63
6. Uni-Directional Cloth 5 451.50 2.60 17365.38

3.4 PREPARATION OF TEST BEAMS

The concrete ingredients were proportioned as per the mix design with the designed water-

cement ratio. The beam specimens were cast using steel moulds. Steel reinforcement cages

were prepared for each specimen. The HTS wire of length 3.5m were placed inside the duct and

this assembly was placed at an eccentricity of 50mm below the centre line of the cross-section.

Each beam was provided with two nos. of HTS wire. Required quantity of concrete was mixed

in a motorized mixture machine. The interior portion of the moulds was applied with a

coating of oil to prevent concrete from adhering to the mould. The concrete was placed in

layers up to the top of rectangular beams and adequate compaction was carried out using

needle vibrator to avoid honey combing. The preparations of test specimens are shown in

Figs. 4.5 to 4.10. The beam specimens were demoulded after 24 hours of casting and cured

for a period of 28-days. After the curing period the test specimens were prestressed.

44
 Fig. 3.5 Steel Moulds for Casting of Beams Fig. 3.6 Steel Reinforcement Cages

Fig. 3.7 Placement of Steel Reinforcement Fig. 3.8 Placement of Concrete

Cages and Tendons

Fig. 3.9 Concrete Compaction Using Needle Fig. 3.10 Finished Surface of Concrete
Vibrator

The test specimens were provided with 10mm thick bearing plates at both ends, wedges are

locked with high tensile steel wire at one end and the other end kept unlocked for pre-

stressing. Pre-stressing technique was carried out by inserting 10T hydraulic jack at the

unlocked end. Pressure using hand pump was applied gradually until it reaches the

predetermined value. Application of pos-tensioning to the test specimens is shown through

Figs. 3.11 to 3.15.

45
 Fig. 3.11 Placement of End Plate Fig. 3.12 Placement of Wedges

Fig. 3.13 Pre-stressing Jack & Pump Fig. 3.14 Pre-stressing Jack & Pump

Fig. 3.15 Pre-stressed Test Specimens

The concrete substrates and GFRP laminates were prepared well. Prior to bonding of the

laminates, the soffit of beams was sandblasted to remove the surface laitance and to expose

the coarse aggregates. The surface was then blown free of dust using compressed air. The

laminates were cleaned with acetone to produce a surface more receptive to bonding. After

surface preparation, the adhesive components were mixed thoroughly and applied to the

46
surfaces using a trowel. The adhesive applied was profiled so that excess would be extruded

from the centre onwards, thereby dispelling air. The thickness of the adhesive was

maintained at 2.0 mm using physical spacers on the concrete surface prior to bonding. The

GFRP laminate was placed over the beam which was arranged with its soffit facing upwards

and then held in position by dead weights kept over the laminate. Complete curing took a

period of 7-days at room temperature. The strengthened beams were tested after an interval

of 14-days. The coin tap test was conducted to identify and mark areas of debond, if any.

The process of specimen preparation and FRP lamination is presented in Figs.3.16 to 3.14.

Fig.3.16 GFRP Laminates Fig.3.17 Epoxy Resin Used

Fig.3.18 Application of Epoxy Adhesive Fig.3.19 Placing of Laminate over the

on Beam Soffits Beam Soffit

Fig.3.20 Application of Weight on Fig. 3.21 Specimens kept for 7-days Curing
Laminate at Room Temperature

47
3.5 TEST PROCEDURE

The pre-stressed beams strengthened with and without FRP were tested under four point-

bending in a loading frame of 100T capacity. The beams were supported on hinge at one end

and roller at the other end. The details of test set-up are shown in Fig. 3.22. Two - point loads

were applied through a spreader beam. The load was applied using a hydraulic jack and

proving ring arrangement.

Fig. 3.22 Details of Instrumentation

The deflections at mid-span and load points were measured using Linear Variable

Displacement Transducer (LVDT). The deflections corresponding to load are recorded through

20-channel data acquisition system. Similarly load and strain are collected through a 20-channel

data acquisition system. The performance parameters such as ultimate load, deflection, crack

pattern, failure mode were observed during the test. The loading was continued until failure and

all the measurements were taken at all stages of loading. The details of static test set-up and

the associated instrumentation are shown in Fig. 3.23.

48
Fig.3.22 Test Set-up for Static Loading

49
 CHAPTER - 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 STATIC RESPONSE OF TESTED BEAMS

The static test results of experimental investigation carried out on fourteen beams which

included two control beams and twelve GFRP strengthened beams are presented and

discussed in this chapter The study parameters considered for this research work included

yield load, deflection at yield load, ultimate load, deflection at ultimate load, deflection

ductility, deflection ductility ratio, energy ductility, energy ductility ratio and number of

cracks.

The test results on the strength and deformation properties of the control beam and GFRP

strengthened pre-stressed concrete beams at different load levels are presented in Table

4.1. The load-deflection responses of tested beams (T-series and S-series) are shown in

Figs. 4.1 and 4.2.

Table 4.1 Strength and Deformation Properties Pertaining to various Load Levels
Deflection Deflection
Beam Yield load Ultimate
at Yield Load at Ultimate Load
Designation (kN) Load (kN)
(mm) (mm)
T 18.62 3.08 50.52 39.25
TC1 20.00 3.00 59.56 42.00
TC2 22.24 3.10 63.00 44.86
TW1 25.60 3.24 70.20 55.20
TW2 23.24 3.93 79.44 64.50
TU1 33.74 4.09 85.26 68.00
TU2 36.12 4.53 97.58 75.50
S 20.43 10.70 70.50 62.34
SC1 30.70 11.70 78.00 68.45
SC2 35.86 11.70 82.30 71.30
SW1 35.14 12.00 83.50 73.86
SW2 42.70 12.37 87.60 77.65
SU1 45.00 13.03 93.50 83.98
SU2 48.86 13.57 108.70 89.58

50
 120

100

80
Load (kN)

60

40 T
TC1
TC2
20 TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 4.1 Load-Deflection Response of Control and GFRP Strengthened
T-series PSC Beams

120

100

80
Load (kN)

60
S
SC1
40 SC2
SW1
20 SW2
SU1
SU2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 4.2 Load-Deflection Response of Control and GFRP Strengthened
S-series PSC Beams

51
The load-deflection response of all specimens shown in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 exhibit three

regions of behaviour. At low load levels, stiffness of beam is relatively high indicating that

the concrete behaves in a linear elastic manner. As the load increases, the extreme fibre

stresses in bending increase until the tensile strength of concrete is reached. This causes

flexural cracking initially in the constant moment region. Flexural cracking causes a marked

reduction in stiffness as shown by a sudden change of gradient in the response.

4.1.1 Effect of GFRP Plating on Strength

The loads carried by all the test beams at yield stage and ultimate stage were obtained

experimentally. The yield loads were obtained (by inspection) corresponding to the stage

of loading beyond which the load- deflection response was not linear. The ultimate loads

were obtained corresponding to the stage of loading beyond which the beam would not

sustain additional deformation at the same load intensit y.

Fig. 4.3 shows the effect of GFRP laminates on various load levels for T-series beams. The

beams strengthened with 3mm thick CSMGFRP, WRGFRP and UDCGFRP exhibit an

increase of 7.41%, 37.49% and 81.20% respectively in yield load when compared to control

beam and those with 5mm thick CSMGFRP, WRGFRP and UDCGFRP laminates showed

an increase up to 19.44%, 24.81% and 93.98% respectively in yield load when compared

to control beam.

The beams strengthened with 5mm thick CSMGFRP, WRGFRP and UDCGFRP exhibit an

increase of 17.89%, 38.95% and 68.76% respectively in ultimate load when compared to

control beam and those with 5mm thick CSMGFRP, WRGFRP and UDCGFRP laminates

showed an increase upto 24.70%, 57.24% and 93.15% respectively in ultimate load when

compared to control beam.

52
Fig. 4.4 shows the effect of GFRP laminates on various load levels for S-series beams. The

beams strengthened with 3mm thick CSMGFRP, WRGFRP and UDCGFRP exhibit an

increase of 50.27%, 72.00% and 120.26% respectively in yield load when compared to

control beam and those with 5mm thick CSMGFRP, WRGFRP and UDCGFRP laminates

showed an increase up to 75.53%, 109.01% and 139.16% respectively in yield load when

compared to control beam.

The beams strengthened with 5mm thick CSMGFRP, WRGFRP and UDCGFRP exhibit an

increase of 10.64%, 18.44% and 32.62% respectively in ultimate load when compared to

control beam and those with 5mm thick CSMGFRP, WRGFRP and UDCGFRP laminates

showed an increase up to 16.74%, 24.26% and 54.18% respectively in ultimate load

when compared to control beam.

Percentage Increase in Strength

100 93.98
81.20 93.15
80

60 68.76
57.24
37.49
40 19.44 38.95
24.81
0 17.897.41 24.70
20
0
0
T
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2
Specimen Designation

% Increase in Ultimate Load % Increase in Yield Load

Fig. 4.3 Effect of GFRP Plating on Strength for T-series Beams

53
 Percentage Increase in Strength
150
139.16
109.01 120.26
100 75.53
72.00
50.27

50
0
10.64 54.18
0 16.74 18.44 24.26 32.62
0
S
SC1
SC2
SW1
SW2
SU1
Specimen Designation SU2

% Increase in Ultimate Load % Increase in Yield Load

Fig. 4.4 Effect of GFRP Plating on Strength for S-series Beams

4.1.2 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflections

Deflection of a beam primarily depends on the loading, span, moment of inertia of the section

and elasticity modulus of concrete. Bonding of GFRP laminates to the soffit of a beam results

in an increase in cross-sectional area and stiffness. This increase in stiffness influences the

deflection behaviour of the plated beams during pre-cracking, cracking and post-cracking

stages. Figs. 4.5 and 4.6 shows the effect of GFRP laminates on deflection at various load

levels for T-series and S-series beams.

54
 Percentage Decrease in Deflection 100
80 69.43 77.07 80.89

60 48.54
38.85
40 21.53 46.43 49.68 57.79
35.06
0
20
0 3.25 10.71
0
T
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
Specimen Designation TU2

% Decrease in Yield Load % Decrease in Ultimate Load

Fig. 4.5 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflections for T-series Beams

Percentage Decrease in Deflection

60.00
50.00 51.88
57.49
52.18
42.25
40.00 35.84
41.55
30.00 23.00
16.59
20.00 6.16 14.98 20.30
0.00
10.00 0.00 4.36
0.00
S
SC1
SC2
SW1
SW2
SU1
Specimen Designation SU2

% Decrease in Yield Load % Decrease in Ultimate Load

Fig. 4.6 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflections for S-series Beams

For T-series beams, the decrease in deflection at yield load was found to be 3.25% with

3mmCSMGFRP, 35.06% with 3mm WRGFRP, 49.68% with 3mm UDCGFRP, 10.71% with

5mm CSMGFRP, 46.43% with 5mm WRGFRP and 57.79% with 5mm UDCGFRP when

compared to the control beam.

55
The decrease in deflection at ultimate load was found to be 21.53% with 3mmCSMGFRP,

48.54% with 3mm WRGFRP, 77.07% with 3mm UDCGFRP, 38.85% with 5mm CSMGFRP,

69.43% with 5mm WRGFRP and 80.89% with 5mm UDCGFRP when compared to the

control beam.

For S-series beams, the decrease in deflection at yield load was found to be 4.36% with

3mmCSMGFRP, 20.30% with 3mm WRGFRP, 52.18% with 3mm UDCGFRP, 14.98% with

5mm CSMGFRP, 41.55% with 5mm WRGFRP and 57.49% with 5mm UDCGFRP when

compared to the control beam.

The decrease in deflection at ultimate load was found to be 6.16% with 3mmCSMGFRP,

23.00% with 3mm WRGFRP, 42.25% with 3mm UDCGFRP, 16.59% with 5mm CSMGFRP,

35.84% with 5mm WRGFRP and 51.88% with 5mm UDCGFRP when compared to the

control beam.

4.1.3 Effect of GFRP Plating on Failure Modes and Crack Patterns

Flexural cracks are initiated in the constant moment region as the tensile strength of concrete

is reached. The cracks propagate upwards as loading progresses but remain very narrow

throughout the loading history and significantly smaller than those in the control beams. This

demonstrates the restraining effect caused by the plate on crack openings. Further flexural

cracks initiate at locations along the shear spans of the beam as the load level increases.

Inclined cracks propagate towards the loading points. These cracks widen as the applied load

increases but remain narrow at the base of the beam, demonstrating the confining effect of the

external strengthening.

Average crack widths were measured in the middle-third region using a crack detection

microscope of 0.02mm precision. It can be inferred from the test results recorded in Table

56
4.2 and Fig. 4.7 that change in configuration and thickness of GFRP laminate has appreciable

effect on the crack widths.

Table 4.2 Crack Width and Mode of Failure at Ultimate Stage

Number Crack Width at

Specimen
Sl. No. of Ultimate Stage
Designation Mode of Failure
Cracks (mm)

1. T 9 1.58 Flexure

2. TC1 14 1.19 Flexure

3. TC2 17 0.89 Flexure

4. TW1 25 0.81 Flexure

5. TW2 28 0.76 Flexure

6. TU1 31 0.72 Flexure

7. TU2 34 0.7 Flexure

8. S 11 1.71 Flexure

9. SC1 16 1.48 Flexure

10. SC2 20 1.26 Flexure

11. SW1 27 1.08 Flexure

12. SW2 30 0.97 Flexure

13. SU1 31 0.82 Flexure

14. SU2 36 0.76 Flexure

57
 Crack Width (mm) at Ultimate Stage 2 1.71
1.58 1.48
1.5 1.26
1.19 1.08
0.97
1 0.89
0.81 0.82
0.76 0.76
0.5 0.72
0.7

0
Control S-Series
C1 C2
W1 T-Series
W2
U1
U2
Specimen Designation
T-Series S-Series

Fig. 4.7 Crack Width at Ultimate Stage

It is evident from Table 4.2 and Fig. 4.7 that the FRP strengthened PSC beams exhibit more

number of cracks with lesser crack widths at all load levels when compared with the control

beams. In all the beams, flexural cracks were observed. Theses observed cracks were mostly

in constant moment region. Average crack widths were measured in the middle third region

using crack detection microscope.

The reduction in crack width for T-series beams, at ultimate load level was found to be

24.68% with 3mmCSMGFRP, 48.73% with 3mm WRGFRP, 54.43% with 3mm UDCGFRP,

43.67% with 5mm CSMGFRP, 51.91% with 5mm WRGFRP and 55.70% with 5mm

UDCGFRP when compared to the control beam.

The reduction in crack width for S-series beams, at ultimate load level was found to be

13.45% with 3mmCSMGFRP, 36.84% with 3mm WRGFRP, 52.05% with 3mm UDCGFRP,

26.32% with 5mm CSMGFRP, 43.27% with 5mm WRGFRP and 55.56% with 5mm

UDCGFRP when compared to the control beam.

58
The crack pattern and mode of failure of the test specimens is shown in Figs. 4.8 to 4.13.

Fig.4.8 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TC1 Specimen

Fig.4.9 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of SC1 Specimen

59
Fig.4.10 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TU1 Specimen

Fig.4.11 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TU2 Specimen

60
Fig.4.12 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TW1 Specimen

Fig.4.13 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of TW2 Specimen

61
4.1.4 Effect of GFRP Plating on Ductility

Ductility of reinforced concrete beams is essentially a measure of their energy absorption

capacity. Ductility of a beam is its ability to sustain inelastic deformation without any loss in

its load carrying capacity, prior to failure. Ductility can be expressed in terms of deformation

or energy. The deformation can be deflection, strain or curvature. The load-deflection

curves in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 reveal that strengthening by bonding GFRP laminates positively

influence the overall structural ductility of the strengthened beams. To quantify ductility, its

indices are calculated in terms of deflection and energy and are presented in Table 4.3.

The ductility ratios of the control beam and GFRP strengthened PSC beams are presented in

Table 4.4. It can be readily seen from these results that strengthening with GFRP laminates

has appreciable effect on the structural ductility. The GFRP strengthened PSC beams exhibit

an increase in deflection ductility of 30.84% and an increase in energy ductility of 59.64%

with 5mm UDCGFRP with respect to the control beam.

A careful examination of the ductility ratios presented in Table 4.3 indicates that the ductility

definitions based on deflection and energy reflects the actual physical behaviour of the

beams. Hence they can be presumed to give a reasonable and valid representation of the

ductility of PSC beams strengthened with GFRP laminates.

Deflection Ductility = Deflection at Ultimate Stage / Deflection at Yield stage.

Energy Ductility = Energy absorbed at Ultimate stage / Energy absorbed at Yield stage

The deflection ductility and energy ductility of the control beam and GFRP strengthened PSC

beams are shown in Figs. 4.14 to 4.15. The deflection ductility ratio and energy ductility ratio

of the control beam and GFRP strengthened PSC beams are shown in Figs. 4.16 to 4.17.

62
Table 4.3 Ductility Indices of Tested Beams

Ductility
Sl.No Beam Designation
Deflection Energy

1 T 12.74 34.42

2 TC1 14.00 39.61

3 TC2 14.47 49.12

4 TW1 17.04 44.96

5 TW2 16.41 48.07

6 TU1 16.62 45.06

7 TU2 16.67 54.95

8 S 5.83 6.10

9 SC1 5.85 10.79

10 SC2 6.09 17.30

11 SW1 6.16 18.27

12 SW2 6.28 22.19

13 SU1 6.45 23.20

14 SU2 6.60 26.58

63
 20
17.04
Deflection Ductility

14 14.47 16.41 16.62

15 12.74 16.67

10 5.83 5.85 6.09 6.16 6.28 6.45 6.6

5

0
Control S-Series
C1 C2
W1 T-Series
W2
U1
U2
Specimen Designation
T-Series S-Series

Fig. 4.14 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflection Ductility of Beams

60
50 49.12 54.95
Energy Ductility

44.96 48.07
39.61 45.06
40 34.42

30
17.3 18.27 22.19 23.2 26.58
20 6.1 10.79

10
0
Control S-Series
C1 C2
W1 T-Series
W2
U1
U2
Specimen Designation
T-Series S-Series

Fig. 4.15 Effect of GFRP Plating on Energy Ductility of Beams

64
Table 4 .4 Ductility Ratios of Tested Beams

Sl.No Beam Designation Ductility Ratios

Deflection Energy

1 T 1.00 1.00

2 TC1 1.10 1.15

3 TC2 1.14 1.43

4 TW1 1.34 1.31

5 TW2 1.29 1.40

6 TU1 1.31 1.31

7 TU2 1.23 1.60

1.00
8 S 1.00
1.00
9 SC1 0.88
1.04
10 SC2 0.80
1.06
11 SW1 0.91
1.08
12 SW2 0.82
1.11
13 SU1 0.94
1.13
14 SU2 0.85

65
Deflection Ductility Ratio 1.4 1.34
1.00 1.1 1.00 1.14 1.04 1.29 1.31
1.2 1 1.06 1.08 1.11 1.13
1.23
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Control S-Series
C1 C2
W1 T-Series
W2
U1
U2
Specimen Designation
T-Series S-Series

Fig. 4.16 Effect of GFRP Plating on Deflection Ductility Ratio of Beams

5
4.36
Energy Ductility Ratio

4 3.64 3.8
2.84 3
3
1.77
2 1 1.63
1 1.15 1.43
1.4 1.6
1 1.31

0
Control S-Series
C1 C2 W1 T-Series
W2 U1
U2
Specimen Designation
T-Series S-Series

Fig. 4.17 Effect of GFRP Plating on Energy Ductility Ratio of Beams

66
4.1.5 Effect of GFRP Plating on Energy Absorption Values

Energy absorption values at ultimate stage are presented in Table 4.5 and Fig.4.18. T-series

Beams exhibit an increase of 167.70% and S-series Beams exhibit an increase of 59.49% in

total energy absorption when compared to the reference beam T and S.

Table 4.5 Energy Absorption Values at Ultimate Stage

Total Energy Absorption

Sl.No Beam Designation
(Joule)
1 T 1125.09

2 TC1 1391.25

3 TC2 1725.28

4 TW1 2057.67

5 TW2 2109.47

6 TU1 2839.81

7 TU2 3011.87

8 S 1873.40

9 SC1 1920.67

10 SC2 1997.90

11 SW1 1881.75

12 SW2 1872.52

13 SU1 2142.89

14 SU2 2987.92

67
Total Energy Absorption (Joule)
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Control S-Series
C1 C2
W1 T-Series
W2
U1
U2
Specimen Designation

T-Series S-Series

Fig.4.18 Energy Absorption at Ultimate Load Level

68
 CHAPTER – 5

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

5.1 GENERAL

The analysis of pre-stressed concrete beams strengthened with externally bonded FRP

laminates to predict the ultimate moment and their corresponding deflection by section

analysis is given in this chapter. A program has been developed in C-language and Visual

Basic, and is presented in annexure-I.

5.2 ANALYSIS OF PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS

The Analysis can be carried out at three stages: 1) during initial prestressing; 2) when service

loads are present; and 3) at failure, in terms of cross-sectional behaviour, several critical

levels should be identified:

a) Uncracked section

b) Cracking moment capacity

c) Cracked section

d) Moment capacity when non-prestressed steel yields

e) Moment capacity when pre-stressed steel yields

f) Ultimate moment capacity

5.3 ANALYSIS OF UNCRACKED SECTIONS

The analysis of uncracked strengthened sections is similar to the analysis of unstrengthened

sections. The contribution of composite is similar to the contribution of non-prestressed

reinforcement. It is assumed that composite will be used to increase tensile force

contribution.

69
5.4 ANALYSIS OF CRACKED SECTIONS

The stress and strain in non-prestressed tension steel and strain at the location where

composite will be attached are computed. These strains should be calculated for loads present

when the rehabilitation will be carried out.

5.5 PROCEDURE FOR MOMENT AND DEFLECTION CALCULATION OF UN-

STRENGTHENED PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE BEAM

A section analysis procedure developed by Naaman et al (1986) has been adopted for

predicting the moment and deflection of un-strengthened and strengthened beams.

The detailed description of section analysis for unstrengthened and strengthened beams is as

follows:

Fig 5.1 Typical stress distribution of an un-strengthened pre-stressed concrete

beam section at failure

STEP:1 Check for span to depth ratio

≤ 35

Where,

L – Length of the member (mm)

70
d - Distance between extreme compression fibre and centroid of non-prestressed tensile steel

(mm)

STEP:2 Calculation of prestress

=[ + 70 + 100 ] ≤ + 420

= 100

where,

fps – Ultimate Stress in prestressing steel (N/mm2)

fse – effective stress in prestressing steel (N/mm2)

fc’ – compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2)

ρp – percentage of reinforcement

Aps – Area of prestressing steel (mm2)

b – Width of the member (mm)

dp – depth of prestressing tendon from the compression member (mm)

STEP: 3 Calculation of depth of stress block

+
=
0.85

where,

a – depth of stress block (mm)

As – Area of steel in tension zone (mm2)

fy – yield strength of steel in tension zone (N/mm2)

71
STEP: 4 Moment capacity
= 0.85 − 2 + − + −
where,

As’ – Area of steel in compression zone

fs’ – yield strength of steel in compression zone (N/mm2)

d’ – Effective cover (mm)

STEP: 5 Ultimate deflection

23
=
648

where,

E – youngs modulus of concrete;

I – Moment of inertia

5.6 PROCEDURE FOR MOMENT AND DEFLECTION CALCULATION OF

STRENGTHENED PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE BEAM

Fig 5.2 Typical Stress Distribution of a Strengthened Pre-stressed Concrete Beam

Section at Failure
Typical stress distribution of a strengthened pre-stressed concrete beam section at failure is

shown in Fig. 5.2. For strengthened beam, it is most probable that the failure in the tension

zone will be initiated by failure of composite because prestress reinforcement and non

prestress reinforcement can withstand much larger strains before failure. The depth of neutral

72
axis is computed using force equilibrium whereas the moment capacity is computed using

moment equilibrium .for computing the force equilibrium ,the strain &stress in concrete and

reinforcement have to be computed have to be computed using the strains at failure.

The possible failure mechanisms are:

 Failure of composite followed by crushing of concrete.

 Crushing of concrete followed by failure of concrete.

STEP: 1 The maximum permissible strain in the composite based on the thickness of the

composite is computed.

= ≤ 0.9

STEP: 2 Assuming failure occurs simultaneously in concrete and composite, then estimate

strains, stress and forces.

Force contribution of concrete is given by

= 0.85 + 0.85 ( − )ℎ

Contribution of compression steel is given by

0.003 ( − )
= ≤

Contribution of non pre-stressed tension steel is

=
(iv) Contribution of composites is given by

=
For uniform and third point loading,

Ωu = 3

For centre point loading ,

73
 Ωu = 1.5

The total force of the prestresing reinforcement can be calculated.

=
From force equilibrium

= ( + )= = + +

The above equation is valid for simultaneous failure of composite and crushing of concrete.

STEP: 3 Compute the depth of neutral axis for the condition C > T.

=( )
+

−
= = ≤

−
= = ≤

= ∗

= 1.71

If (Cc +Cs’) >(Ts +Tf + Tps), the total tension force is smaller than total compression force, a

larger strain should be assumed. Iterate until equilibrium (C = T) is satisfied.

STEP: 4 The depth of neutral axis for the condition C<T needs to be assumed.

Equations for Cc,Ts and Tps are same as in step 3.

.
> is assumed.
.

74
 −
= ∗ 0.003 [ ]

STEP: 5 Moment capacity can be computed using moment equilibrium.

= − + ( − )+ ( − )+ −
2

+ ( − )

where,

– factor associated with composite safety

5.7 FLOWCHART FOR THE SECTION ANALYSIS PROCEDURE OF

UNSTRENGTHENED AND STRENGTHENED PSC BEAMS
The section analysis procedure of unstrengthened pre-stressed concrete beams is presented as

a flowchart in Fig. 5.3.

Fig 5.3 Flowchart for Moment and Deflection Calculation of Un-Strengthened

Pre-stressed Concrete Beams

75
The section analysis procedure of strengthened pre-stressed concrete beams is presented as a

flowchart as shown in Fig 5.4.

Fig 5.4 Flowchart for Moment and Deflection Calculation of Strengthened Beams

76
5.8 COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL VALUES OF
MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS

Table 5.1 Comparison of experimental and analytical values of moments and deflections
with Other Researchers

Experimental Analytical
Author Specimen
Yield Ultimate Ultimate Yield Ultimate Ultimate
Name details
Moment Moment Deflection Moment Moment Deflection
(KNm) (KNm) (mm) (KNm) (KNm) (mm)

H 27.02 34.13 53.15 26.73 31.47 51.66

Cha et
al HC2 31.54 54.27 48.75 29.07 54.19 46.92
(1999) HC3 37.19 64.93 51.5 36.72 63.46 48.83
UB1-H 4.5 21.15 64 4.02 20.47 62.74
UB1-H-F1 6 33.45 31 4.85 33.08 28.49
Meski et UB1-H-F2 7.5 43.45 33 7.08 42.63 31.63
al
UB2-H 5.0 31.8 43 4.28 29.83 41.78
(2013)
UB2-H-F1 6.5 40.4 26 5.69 39.17 25.17
UB2-H-F2 7.5 52.4 31 5.9 51.78 29.35
TC1 8.69 23.58 39.25 8.48 22.64 37.07
TC2 9.33 27.79 42.00 10.25 30.94 60.22
TW1 10.38 29.40 44.86 10.39 33.15 74.08
TW2 11.95 32.76 55.20 10.80 34.42 62.51
TU1 10.85 37.07 64.50 11.21 40.52 79.35
TU2 15.75 39.79 68.00 16.35 50.01 69.05
Vijayan S 16.86 45.54 75.50 16.01 50.74 82.24
(2016)
SC1 9.53 32.90 62.34 8.48 22.64 37.07
SC2 14.33 36.40 68.45 10.25 30.94 60.22
SW1 16.73 38.41 71.30 10.39 33.15 74.08
SW2 16.40 38.97 73.86 10.80 34.42 62.51
SU1 19.93 40.88 77.65 11.21 40.52 79.35
SU2 21.00 43.63 83.98 16.35 50.01 69.05

77
 Yield Load Moment (kNm)
40

30

20

10

0
H
HC2
HC3
UB1-H
UB1-H-F1
UB1-H-F2
UB2-H
UB2-H-F1
UB2-H-F2
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2
S
SC1
SC2
SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2
Beam Designation
Experimental Analytical

Fig. 5.5 Comparison of Experimental Results with Analytical Results for

Yield Load Moment
Ultimate Moment (kNm)

100

50

0
H
HC2
HC3
UB1-H
UB1-H-F1
UB1-H-F2
UB2-H
UB2-H-F1
UB2-H-F2
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2
S
SC1
SC2
SW1
SW2

SU1

SU2

Beam Designation

Experimental Analytical

Fig. 5.6 Comparison of Experimental Results with Analytical Results for

Ultimate Moment

78
 Ultimate Deflection (mm)
100
80
60
40
20
0
H
HC2
HC3
UB1-H
UB1-H-F1
UB1-H-F2
UB2-H
UB2-H-F1
UB2-H-F2
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2
S
SC1
SC2
SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2
Beam Designation

Experimental Analytical

Fig. 5.7 Comparison of Experimental Results with Analytical Results for

Ultimate Deflection

It can be inferred from the Table 4.1 and Figs. 5.5 to 5.7 that the experimental values of

moment and deflection show good agreement with those of analytical results. Predicting the

moment and deflection for both strengthened and FRP strengthened beams using various

experimental results are presented in Annexure I and II.

79
 CHAPTER – 6

NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

6.1 GENERAL

Closed-form solutions for the analysis of plate bonded structural members are normally based

on linear elastic models. These are not capable of dealing with problems where gross

material and geometric non-linearities exist. It is desirable to predict effects such as strain

and stress variations within an RC beam with externally bonded plate reinforcement while

undergoing non-linear changes. One of the main approximations associated with non-linear

behaviour of concrete is the modeling of concrete cracking. Under the application of load,

concrete cracks in the tension zone and as a result the stress path becomes discontinuous and

the load transfer changes at the cracked section. Adoption of appropriate material criteria and

concrete elements that would model discrete cracking of concrete is an essential requirement.

In finite element analysis, various procedures have been adopted for predicting cracking in

concrete. Smeared and discrete crack formulations are quite common. In smeared crack

approach, cracks are simulated as local discontinuities which are smeared within the finite

element; in discrete crack approach, cracks are introduced in the finite element model using

interface elements between the concrete ones. The problem with smeared crack approach is

that it tends to spread crack formation over the entire structure, which makes it difficult to

predict localized failures. Inspite of this shortcoming, the method is widely used for precisely

predicting the load-deflection and load-strain behaviour of concrete. The problem with

discrete crack approach is that the position and direction of crack growth is predefined.

However the method is being used for predicting the non-linear effects in concrete. The most

commonly used finite element codes such as ANSYS, ABAQUS, LUSAS, DIANA and

ADINA have more versatile material models capable of modeling concrete.

80
The ANSYS finite element program (ANSYS 2010) was used in this study to simulate the

behavior of the experimental beams. To create the finite element model in ANSYS, there are

multiple tasks that have to be completed for the model to run properly. Models can be created

using command prompt line input or the Graphical User Interface (GUI). For this model, the

GUI was utilized to create the model. This section describes the different tasks and entries

used to create the finite element model.

6.2 ELEMENT TYPES

6.2.1 Reinforced Concrete

An eight-node solid element, Solid 65 was used to model the concrete. The solid element has

eight nodes with three degrees of freedom at each node – translations in the nodal x, y, and z

directions. The element is capable of plastic deformation, cracking in three orthogonal

directions, and crushing. Element types for working model are presented in Table 6.1.The

geometry and node locations for this element type are shown in Fig. 6.1.

Table 6.1 Element Types for Working Model

Material Type Element (ANSYS)

Concrete Solid 65

Steel Reinforcement Link 8

Pre-stress wire Link 8

FRP Composite Solid 46

81
 Fig. 6.1 Solid 65 Element (3-D Reinforced Concrete Solid)

6.2.2 Steel Reinforcement

A Link 8 element was used to model the steel reinforcement as well as pre-stress wire. Two

nodes are required for this element. Each node has three degrees of freedom, – translations in

the nodal x, y, and z directions. The element is also capable of plastic deformation. The

geometry and node locations for this element type are shown in Fig.6.2.

Fig. 6.2 Link 8 Element (Steel Reinforcement)

82
6.2.3 FRP Composites

A layered solid element, Solid-46, was used to model the FRP composite. The element allows

for up to 100 different material layers with different orientations and orthotropic material

properties in each layer. The element has three degrees of freedom at each node and

translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. The geometry, node locations, and the

coordinate system are shown in Fig. 6.3.

Fig. 6.3 Solid 46 Element (FRP Composite)

5.2.4 Real Constants

The individual elements containing different real constants for the model are given as input.

Real Constant Set 1 is used for the Solid 65 element. It requires real constants for rebar

assuming a smeared model. Values can be entered for Material Number, Volume Ratio, and

Orientation Angles. The material number refers to the type of material for the reinforcement.

The volume ratio refers to the ratio of steel to concrete in the element. The orientation angles

refer to the orientation of the reinforcement in the smeared model. ANSYS (SAS 2003)

allows the user to enter three rebar materials in the concrete. Each material corresponds to x,

y, and z directions in the element

83
The reinforcement has uni-axial stiffness and the directional orientation is defined by the

user. In the present study the beam was modeled using discrete reinforcement. Therefore, a

value of zero was entered for all real constants which turned the smeared reinforcement

capability of the Solid 65 element off. Real Constant Sets 2 and 3 are defined for Link 8

element and Solid 46 element. Values for cross-sectional area and initial strain were entered.

A value of zero was entered for the initial strain because there is no initial stress in the

reinforcement.

6.3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Material properties defined to the material models are given by material model number.

Material Model Number 1 refers to the Solid 65 element. The Solid 65 element requires

linear isotropic and multi-linear isotropic material properties to properly model concrete. EX

is the modulus of elasticity of the concrete (Ec), and PRXY is the Poisson’s ratio (µ). The

material model in ANSYS requires that different constants be defined. Those 9 constants are:

1. Shear transfer coefficients for an open crack;

2. Shear transfer coefficients for a closed crack;

3. Uniaxial tensile cracking stress;

4. Uniaxial crushing stress (positive);

5. Biaxial crushing stress (positive);

6. Ambient hydrostatic stress state for use with constants 7 and 8;

7. Biaxial crushing stress (positive) under the ambient hydrostatic stress state

(constant 6);

8. Uniaxial crushing stress (positive) under the ambient hydrostatic stress state

(constant 6);

9. Stiffness multiplier for cracked tensile condition.

84
Typical shear transfer coefficients range from 0.0 to 1.0, with 0.0 representing a smooth crack

(complete loss of shear transfer) and 1.0 representing a rough crack (no loss of shear

transfer).

Convergence problems occurred when the shear transfer coefficient for the open crack

dropped below 0.2. No deviation of the response occurs with the change of the coefficient.

Therefore, the coefficient for the open crack was set to 0.3. The uni-axial cracking stress was

based upon the modulus of rupture. The uni-axial crushing stress in this model was based on

the uni-axial unconfined compressive strength f 'c and is denoted as ft. It was entered as -1 to

turn off the crushing capability of the concrete element. Convergence problems have been

repeated when the crushing capability was turned on. The biaxial crushing stress refers to the

ultimate biaxial compressive strength.

Material Model Number 2 refers to the Solid 46 element. The Solid 46 element is being used

for the FRP laminates. Therefore, this element is modeled as a linear isotropic element with a

modulus of elasticity and poisson’s ratio.

Material Model Number 3 refers to the Link 8 element. The Link 8 element is being used for

all the steel reinforcement and pre-stress wire in the beam and it is assumed to be bilinear

isotropic. Bilinear isotropic material is also based on the Von Mises failure criteria. The

bilinear model requires the yield stress (fy ).

6.4 CONCRETE

Concrete is a quasi-brittle material and has different behavior in compression and tension.

Fig. 5.4 shows a typical stress-strain curve for concrete. In compression, the stress-strain

curve for concrete is linearly elastic up to about 30 percent of the maximum compressive

strength. Above this point, the stress increases gradually up to the maximum compressive

strength. After it reaches the maximum compressive strength σcu, the curve descends into a

softening region and eventually crushing failure occurs at an ultimate strain εcu. In tension,

85
the stress-strain curve for concrete is approximately linearly elastic up to the maximum

tensile strength. After this point, the concrete cracks and the strength decreases gradually to

zero.

Fig. 6.4 Typical Uni-axial Compressive and Tensile Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete

The ANSYS program requires the uniaxial stress-strain relationship for concrete in

compression. Numerical expressions (Desayi and Krishnan 1964), Equations 6.1 and 6.2,

were used along with Equation 5.3 (Gere and Timoshenko 1997) to construct the uniaxial

compressive stress-strain curve for concrete in this study.

(6.1)

(6.2)

86
 (6.3)

where
f = stress at any strain ε
ε = strain at stress f
εo= strain at the ultimate compressive strength f c’
Fig 5.5 shows the simplified compressive uniaxial stress-strain relationship that was used in
this study.The simplified stress-strain curve for each beam model was constructed from six
points connected by straight lines. The curve starts at zero stress and zero strain. Point 1, at
0.30 f’c, was calculated for the stress-strain relationship of the concrete in the linear range
(Eq.5.1).Points 2, 3, and 4 were obtained from Eq.6.3, in which ε0 was calculated from
Eq.5.5.Point 5 was at ε0 and f’c’. In this study, perfectly plastic behavior was assumed after
Point No. 5

Fig. 6.5 Simplified Compressive Uni-axial Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete

6.5 CRACKING OF CONCRETE

The tension failure of concrete is characterized by a gradual growth of cracks, which join
together and finally disconnect larger parts of the structure. It is a usual assumption that
forming cracks is a brittle process and the strength in the tension-loading direction abruptly
goes to zero after big cracks or it can be simulated with gradually decreasing strength. The

87
cracked concrete material is generally modeled by a linear-elastic fracturerelationship. Two
fracture criteria are commonly used, the maximum principal stress andthe maximum principal
strain criterions. When a principal stress or strain exceeds itslimiting value, a crack is
assumed to occur in a plane normal to the direction of theprincipal stress or strain. Then this
crack direction is fixed in the next loading sequences. In this study the smeared-crack model
was used. A three-dimensional failure surface for concrete is shown in Fig.6.6.

Fig. 6.6 3-D Failure Surface For Concrete

6.6 STEEL REINFORCEMENT

For steel reinforcement, stress-strain curve for the finite element model was based on the
actual stress-stain curve obtained from tensile tests. Fig.6.7 shows the stress-strain
relationship used in this study.
The required material properties for the steel reinforcement are as follows:
 Elastic modulus (Es) Mpa
 Yield stress(fy) Mpa
 Poisson’s ratio ( )

88
 Fig. 6.7 Stress-Strain Curve for Steel Reinforcement
6.7 FRP COMPOSITES
FRP composites are materials that consist of two constituents (Fig.6.8). The constituents are
combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other. One constituent is the
reinforcement, which is embedded in the second constituent, a continuous polymer called the
matrix. The required material properties for the GFRP laminates are as follows:
 Elastic modulus
 Shear modulus
 Major Poisson’s ratio

Fig. 6.8 Schematic of FRP Composites

89
The unidirectional lamina has three mutually orthogonal planes of material properties (i.e.,

xy, xz, and yz planes). The xyz coordinate axes are referred to as the principal material

coordinates where the x direction is the same as the fiber direction, and the y and z directions

are perpendicular to the x direction. It is a so-called orthotropic material.

The modeling of concrete, steel and FRP laminates is shown in Fig.6.9.

Fig.6.9 Modeling of Concrete, Steel and FRP Laminates

6.8 FINITE ELEMENT DISCRETIZATION

The finite element analysis requires meshing of the model. For which, the model is divided

into a number of small elements, and after loading, stress and strain are calculated at

integration points of these small elements. An important step in finite element modeling is the

selection of the mesh density. A convergence of results is obtained when an adequate number

of elements are used in a model. This is practically achieved when an increase in the mesh

density has a negligible effect on the results.

90
6.9 NON-LINEAR SOLUTION
In nonlinear analysis, the total load applied to a finite element model is divided into a series
of load increments called load steps. At the completion of each incremental solution, the
stiffness matrix of the model is adjusted to reflect nonlinear changes in structural stiffness
before proceeding to the next load increment. The ANSYS program (ANSYS 2010) uses
Newton-Raphson equilibrium iterations for updating the model stiffness. Newton-Raphson
equilibrium iterations provide convergence at the end of each load increment within tolerance
limits. Fig.6.10 shows the use of the Newton-Raphson approach in a single degree of freedom
nonlinear analysis.
In this study, for the reinforced concrete solid elements, convergence criteria were based on
force and displacement, and the convergence tolerance limits were initially selected by the
ANSYS program. It was found that convergence of solutions for the models was difficult to
achieve due to the nonlinear behavior of reinforced concrete. Therefore, the convergence
tolerance limits were increased to a maximum of 5 times the default tolerance limits in order
to obtain convergence of the solutions.
Load

Converged Solutions

Displacement

Fig. 6.10 Newton-Raphson Iterative Solution (2 load increments)

91
6.10 MESHING

To obtain good results from the Solid 65 element, the use of a rectangular mesh is

recommended. Therefore, the mesh was set up such that square or rectangular elements were

created. The volume sweep command was used to mesh the steel plate and support. This

properly sets the width and length of elements in the plates to be consistent with the elements

and nodes in the concrete portions of the model. The overall mesh of the concrete, steel , and

FRP laminate is shown in Fig.6.11.

Fig. 6.11 Overall Mesh of Concrete, Steel and FRP Laminate

6.11 LOADS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Displacement boundary conditions are needed to constrain the model to get a unique solution.

To ensure that, the model acts the same way as the experimental beam, boundary conditions

need to be applied at points of symmetry, and where the supports and loadings exist. Loading

and boundary conditions is shown in Fig.5.12.

92
 Fig. 6.12 Loading and Boundary conditions

The various stages in modeling pre-stressed concrete beams strengthened with GFRP
laminates are shown in Figs. 5.13 to 5.18 .

Fig.6.13. Modeled Steel Reinforcement Fig.6.14. Modeled Concrete, Pre-stress

Wire and Steel

Fig.6.15. Modeled Concrete, Steel, Fig.6.16.Full Scale Mesh Modeled

Pre-stress Wire and FRP Concrete, Steel and FRP

93
 Fig.6.17. Flexural Crack Pattern Fig.6.18. Flexural Crack Pattern

6.12 ANALYSIS ASSUMPTIONS

1. The bond between each element/material type is assumed perfect. Unless the failure
mode of a structure involves a bond failure, the perfect bond assumption used in the
structural modelling will not cause a significant error in the predicted load-deflection
response specially while considering serviceability study.

2. A constant poisons ratio of 0.2 is assumed for concrete throughout the loading history.

3. For the shear transfer coefficient, β for closed and open cracks in the SOLID65
element, values can range from 0.0 to 1. A value of 0.0 refers to a smooth crack, while
1.0 refers to a rough crack. These factors are used to determine how much shear force
can be transferred across open or closed cracks. For closed cracks, β is always
assumed to equal 1.0. however, for an open crack, βvaries from 0.05 to 0.5 and in this
study; a βvalue of 0.2 from open cracks is used this value is selected based on results.

4. The concrete is assumed to be isotropic prior to cracking and orthotropic after

cracking. The steel is assumed to be isotropic.

5. The element matrices are reformed every iteration.

6. Time-dependent nonlinearities such as creep, shrinkage, and temperature change are

not included in this study. However for PSC beamswith FRP laminates; these values
are generally lower than normal concrete

94
6.13 RESULTS OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

The 14 beam specimens that were tested under four-point bending were analyzed using the

ANSYS finite element code. The results pertaining to the objectives of the study are

presented and discussed in this section.

The finite element analysis results of the reference specimens and strengthened beams at

different load levels are presented in Table 5.2.

Table 6.2 Strength and Deformation Properties Pertaining to various Load Levels

Yield Deflection Deflection

Specimen Ultimate Load
Sl. No. Load At Yield At Ultimate Load
Designation (kN)
(kN) Load(mm) (mm)
18.62 5.03 50.52 39.1
1. T
20.00 5.12 59.56 43.64
2. TC1
22.24 6.64 63.00 48.29
3. TC2
25.60 7.42 70.20 59.09
4. TW1
23.24 8.19 79.44 66.33
5. TW2
33.74 8.78 85.26 71.77
6. TU1
36.12 8.96 97.58 79.58
7. TU2
20.43 12.22 70.50 64.91
8. S
30.70 13.68 78.00 72.53
9. SC1
35.86 13.81 82.30 71.69
10. SC2
35.14 15.68 83.50 73.15
11. SW1
42.70 16.76 87.60 78.91
12. SW2
45.00 17.12 93.50 82.78
13. SU1
48.86 18.74 108.70 92.87
14. SU2

95
 120

100

80
Load (kN)

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Deflection (mm)

T TC1 TC2 TW1 TW2 TU1 TU2

Fig.6.19 Load –Deflection Response of T-Series Beams

120

100

80
Load (kN)

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Deflection (mm)

S SC1 SC2 SW1 SW2 SU1 SU2

Fig.6.20 Load –Deflection Response of S-Series Beams

96
6.14 COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The load-deflection responses of typical un-strengthened and strengthened PSC beams

obtained experimentally and those obtained by non-linear finite element analysis are shown

in Figs. 5.19 to 5.20. It can be seen from the results that the experimental and numerical

solutions are in reasonably good agreement for both the categories of beams signifying the

validity of the numerical model adopted for the purpose.

The method adopted for modeling the PSC beams (both un-strengthened and strengthened)

using three-dimensional finite element technique has proved to be reasonably reliable as a

predictive tool for the analysis of externally strengthened (with GFRP laminates) PSC beams.

It is to be noted that, when carrying out a non-linear finite element analysis, it is very

important to choose appropriate finite elements and correct mesh density to obtain a

satisfactory solution to the problem.

97
 CHAPTER – 7

REGRESSION ANALYSIS

7.1 GENERAL

Regression analysis is a statistical tool for the investigation of relationships between

variables. Regression analysis with a single explanatory variable is termed simple regression.

Multiple regression is a technique that allows additional factors to enter the analysis

separately. It is valuable for quantifying the impact of various simultaneous influences upon a

single dependent variable. Regression analysis is a procedure for relating known input

variables and output parameter using statistical principles. The general regression technique

is to assume a form of relationship for the input parameters and the results, with a number of

unknown coefficients. The unknown coefficients are found out using the data available from

experiments or other sources using the Legendre's principle of least squared errors.

Legendre's principle of least squared errors, is a general purpose curve fitting technique

which helps to choose the values of unknown coefficients, also called the regression

coefficients, in such a way that the predicted results agree with the target results to the

maximum extent possible. Some of the terms related to regression analysis are defined in the

following subsections.

7.1.1 Regression

The mathematical technique used for fitting curves, whether linear or non-linear of the

predetermined shape. The purpose of regression is to evaluate the unknown coefficients in an

equation. The form of the equation is assumed a priori in such a way that it might best suite

the anticipated relationship between the input and the output.

98
7.1.2 Regression Coefficient

Regression coefficient is an unknown parameter introduced into the equation, to modify the

input variable or a combination of input variables. On solving the regression problem using

the principle of least squared errors, all the regression coefficients are evaluated.

7.1.3 Legendre's Principle of Least Squared Errors

Legendre's principle of least squared errors attempts to solve the problem of regression using

the condition that the square of the difference between the actual value and the value

predicted by the equation should be a minimum. This is accomplished by finding the

derivative of the square of the error with reference to each one of the unknown coefficients in

the assumed equation. Each derivative results in one equation, and the total number of

equations available shall be equal to the total number of unknown regression coefficients to

be evaluated.

7.1.4 Karl Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation

Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation is a numerical quantity having values in the range of

0 to 1, which measures the strength of the relationship between the input parameters and the

resulting values. When the value of Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation is closer to unity,

the relationship between the input and the result is stronger. The coefficient of correlation is

not affected by the predictions of regression equation, but is a property of the give set of

inputs and output.

(7.1.a)

99
7.1.5 Sum of Squared Errors (SSE)

Sum of squared errors is the summation of the squares of the difference between values

predicted by the regression equation (or by any other system) and the actual results expected

for the given input values. Larger value of SSE indicates higher deviation of the predicted

values from the expected values.

(7.1.b)

7.1.6 Mean Squared Error (MSE)

Mean squared error is evaluated as the sum of squared errors divided by the number of values

summed up The MSE is a better measure of error than SSE, since it signifies the squared

error per data point.

(7.1.c)

7.1.7 Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE)

Root mean squared error is the square root of the Mean Squared Error. This indicates the

extent of deviation from the expected value to the higher side or to the lower side. Hence, the

RMSE is a better measure of error when compared to the MSE.

(7.1.d)

100
7.1.8 Root Mean Squared Percentage Error (RMSPE)

Root mean squared percentage error is the square root of the squared sum of percentage

errors divided by the number of error values summed up, multiplied by one hundred. The

RMSPE is can be understood independent of the numerical values of the resulting data, since

it is a normalized parameter. In the case other errors, a value of 10 for RMSE (or MSE or

SSE) for results having mean value of 15 might represent a worse scenario than for results

having mean value of 1500. But, RMSPE being normalized, smaller values represent better

fit conditions than larger values (Carpenter and Barthelemy, 1994).

(7.1.e)

7.2 MULTIVARIATE LINEAR REGRESSION

Multivariate linear regression helps to construct first order equations involving more than one

independent variable. The basic formulation for multivariate linear regression is,

(7.2.a)

101
where, a0…an are the coefficients to be determined, x1...xn are the independent variables, P is

the dependent variable or the actual result value for the set of ith input data and K is the

number data sets available for regression. On executing the partial derivative operators,

equation 7.2.a reduces to,

(7.2.b)

The above equation can be solved by summing up the values of independent and dependent

variables after carrying out the required operations.

7.3 REGRESSION EQUATION FOR STRENGTH

The data used for the regression analysis is presented in Table 7.1 and the regression

equations are presented in Table 7.2

102
Table 7.1 Data Used for the Regression Analysis

Total Energy
Crack width
Designation

Absorption
Yield Load

Number of

Maximum
Load (kN)

Deflection

Deflection
deflection

deflection
Ultimate

Ductility

Ductility
Ultimate

Ductility

Ductility

(Joules)
Energy

Energy

Cracks
(mm)

(mm)

(mm)
Ratio

Ratio
Yield
(kN)

T 18.62 3.08 50.52 39.25 12.74 34.42 1 1 9 1.58 1125.09

TC1 20.00 3.00 59.56 42.00 14.00 39.61 1.1 1.15 14 1.19 1391.25
TC2 22.24 3.10 63.00 44.86 14.47 49.12 1.14 1.43 17 0.89 1725.28
TW1 25.60 3.24 70.20 55.20 17.04 44.96 1.34 1.31 25 0.81 2057.67
TW2 23.24 3.93 79.44 64.50 16.41 48.07 1.29 1.4 28 0.76 2109.47
TU1 33.74 4.09 85.26 68.00 16.62 45.06 1.31 1.31 31 0.72 2839.81
TU2 36.12 4.53 97.58 75.50 16.67 54.95 1.23 1.6 34 0.7 3011.87
S 20.43 10.70 70.50 62.34 5.83 6.10 1 1 11 1.71 1873.4
SC1 30.70 11.70 78.00 68.45 5.85 10.79 0.88 1 16 1.48 1920.67
SC2 35.86 11.70 82.30 71.30 6.09 17.30 0.8 1.04 20 1.26 1997.9
SW1 35.14 12.00 83.50 73.86 6.16 18.27 0.91 1.06 27 1.08 1881.75
SW2 42.70 12.37 87.60 77.65 6.28 22.19 0.82 1.08 30 0.97 1872.52
SU1 45.00 13.03 93.50 83.98 6.45 23.20 0.94 1.11 31 0.82 2142.89

103
Table 7.2 Regression Equations

Sl. Prediction Adjacent RMSE

Equation
No. Parameter R2 Value

1 Yield Load 18.17 - (0.000308 EFRP) + (0.052 Tk) +

0.886 7.90
(kN) (0.047ffu)

Yield
2 3.72-(0.00015 EFRP) + (0.3232 Tk) +
Deflection 0.947 7.16
(0.0081ffu)
(mm)

3 Ultimate
48.51-(0.00457EFRP) + (8.05Tk) + (0.22ffu) 0.908 11.38
Load (kN)

Ultimate
4 37.07-(0.00164 EFRP) + (9.24Tk) + (0.06079
Deflection ffu)
0.899 13.57
(mm)

5 Deflection
13.27-(0.000833EFRP) + (1.38Tk) + (0.024ffu) 0.648 5.93
Ductility

6 Energy 33.07-(0.000125EFRP) + (2.546Tk) +

(0.0101FFU)
0.801 13.06
Ductility

Deflection
7 1.05-(0.0000718EFRP) + (0.1155Tk) +
Ductility 0.698 0.21
(0.0019ffu)
Ratio

Energy
8 0.9604 + (0.00000308EFRP) + (0.0754Tk) +
Ductility 0.796 0.18
(0.000307 ffu)
Ratio

9 Number of
9.25-(0.0038 EFRP) + (6.38Tk) + (0.13ffu) 0.901 2.27
Cracks

Maximum
10
Crack 1.5 + (0.0000814 EFRP)-(0.2123Tk)-(0.0027ffu) 0.870 0.17
Width (mm)

Total
11
Energy 1099.39-(0.1428EFRP) + (224.65Tk) + (7.04ffu) 0.920 13.76
Absorption

Note: Efrp - Elasticity Modulus of FRP, ffu – Tensile Strength of FRP and
Tk – Thickness of FRP

104
7.4 OBSERVATIONS ON THE REGRESSION EQUATIONS
The regression equations were used for predicting the ultimate load and ultimate deflection

values. An observation of the measures of fitness of regression shows that the multivariate

linear regression can estimate the prediction values with reasonable levels of accuracy for

yield load, yield deflection, ultimate load, ultimate deflection, deflection ductility, energy

ductility, deflection ductility ratio, energy ductility ratio, number of cracks, maximum crack

width and total energy absorption of GFRP strengthened PSC beams. The root mean square

error values varied from 0.17 to 13.76.

Linear regressions are inherently limited in their ability to model very complete sets of data,

since first order regression parameters try to fit a monotonically varying linear relationship

curvature for the prediction parameter.

Predictions from the regression equations were compared against experimental values and

presented in Figs.7.1 to 7.11.

50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
Yield Load (kN)

30.00
25.00
Exp
20.00
15.00 Reg
10.00
5.00
0.00
T
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
S

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2

Beam Designation

Fig.7.1 Regression Predictions for Yield Load

105
 14.00
Deflection at Yield Load (mm)
12.00

10.00

8.00

6.00 Exp

4.00 Reg

2.00

0.00
T

TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
S

SU1
SU2
TC1
TC2

SW1
SW2
Beam Designation

Fig.7.2 Regression Predictions for Deflection at Yield Load

120.00

100.00
Ultimate Load (kN)

80.00

60.00
Exp
40.00 Reg

20.00

0.00
T

TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
TC1
TC2

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2

Beam Designation

Fig.7.3 Regression Predictions for Ultimate Load

106
 90.00

Deflection at Ultimate Load (mm)

80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00 Exp
30.00 Reg
20.00
10.00
0.00
T

TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2
Beam Designation

Fig.7.4 Regression Predictions for Deflection at Ultimate Load

18.00
16.00
14.00
Deflection Ductility

12.00
10.00
8.00 Exp
6.00 Reg
4.00
2.00
0.00
T
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
S

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2

Beam Designation

Fig.7.5 Regression Predictions for Deflection Ductility

107
 1.4

1.2

Deflection Ductility Ratio

1

0.8

0.6 Exp

0.4 Reg

0.2

0
T

TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2
Beam Designation

Fig.7.6 Regression Predictions for Deflection Ductility Ratio

60.00

50.00
Energy Ductility

40.00

30.00
Exp
20.00 Reg

10.00

0.00
T
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
S

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2

Beam Designation

Fig.7.7 Regression Predictions for Energy Ductility

108
 1.6
1.4

Energy Ductility Ratio

1.2
1
0.8
Exp
0.6
Reg
0.4
0.2
0
T

TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2
Beam Designation

Fig.7.8 Regression Predictions for Energy Ductility Ratio

40
35
30
Number of Cracks

25
20
Exp
15
Reg
10
5
0
T
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
S

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2

Beam Designation

Fig.7.9 Regression Predictions for Number of Cracks

109
 1.8

Maximum Crack Width (mm)

1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8 Exp
0.6 Reg
0.4
0.2
0
T

TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2
Beam Designation

Fig.7.10 Regression Predictions for Maximum Crack Width

3500
Energy Absorption (Joules)

3000

2500

2000

1500 Exp

1000 Reg

500

0
T
TC1
TC2
TW1
TW2
TU1
TU2

SC1
SC2
S

SW1
SW2
SU1
SU2

Beam Designation

Fig.7.11 Regression Predictions for Total Energy Absorption

110
 CHAPTER – 8

CONCLUSIONS

The epoxy bonding of GFRP laminates offers an attractive means of strengthening RC beams

in flexure. Based on the results obtained from laboratory experiments, non-linear finite

element analysis, modeling with artificial neural network and their discussions, the following

conclusions are drawn.

1. GFRP laminates properly bonded to the tension face of PSC beams can enhance the

flexural strength capacity substantially. The strengthened beams exhibit an increase in

flexural strength upto 24.70% with CSMGFRP, 57.24% with WRGFRP and 93.15% with

UDCGFRP laminate for T-series beams and an increase of 16.74% with CSMGFRP,

24.26% with WRGFRP and 54.18% with UDCGFRP laminate for S-series .

2. At any given load level, the deflections and the crack widths in the strengthened PSC

beams are reduced significantly compared to the unstrengthened beams. At the ultimate

load level of the reference specimens, strengthened beams exhibit a decrease of deflection

upto 38.85% with CSMGFRP, 69.43% with WRGFRP and 80.89% with UDCGFRP

laminate for T-series beams and a decrease of 16.59% with CSMGFRP, 35.84% with

WRGFRP and 51.88% with UDCGFRP laminate for S-series .

3. The reduction in crack width for T-series beams, at ultimate load level was found to be

24.68% with 3mmCSMGFRP, 48.73% with 3mm WRGFRP, 54.43% with 3mm

UDCGFRP, 43.67% with 5mm CSMGFRP, 51.91% with 5mm WRGFRP and 55.70%

with 5mm UDCGFRP when compared to the control beam.

4. The reduction in crack width for S-series beams, at ultimate load level was found to be

13.45% with 3mmCSMGFRP, 36.84% with 3mm WRGFRP, 52.05% with 3mm

111
 UDCGFRP, 26.32% with 5mm CSMGFRP, 43.27% with 5mm WRGFRP and 55.56%

with 5mm UDCGFRP when compared to the control beam.

5. All the PSC beams strengthened with GFRP laminates experience flexural failure. None

of the beams exhibit premature failure of the laminate. An examination of the crack

distribution indicates that the size and density of cracks are less in the strengthened beams

than in the un-strengthened beam.

6. The PSC beams strengthened with externally bonded GFRP laminates provide adequate

ductility to ensure a ductile mode of failure. The GFRP strengthened PSC beams exhibit

an increase in deflection ductility of 30.84% and an increase in energy ductility of

59.64% with 5mm UDCGFRP with respect to the control beam.

7. The ultimate loads obtained from experiments agree well with the values predicted using

analytical work.

8. The non-linear finite element modeling adopted proves to be an acceptable predictive

tool for the analysis of PSC beams strengthened externally with GFRP laminates. The

numerical predictions show a good correlation with the experimental results.

9. The regression equations proposed in the present study closely predict the study

parameters of yield load, yield load deflection, ultimate load, ultimate load deflection,

deflection ductility, energy ductility, deflection ductility ratio, energy ductility ratio,

number of cracks, maximum crack width and total energy absorption of GFRP

strengthened PSC beams.

112
 SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDY

The present research work is significant on account of the investigation on flexural behaviour

on pre-stressed concrete beams strengthened with different GFRP configurations. In future

study strengthening of pre-stressed concrete beams could be done using externally bonded

Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Polymer (HyFRP) Laminates, which may conquer the strength and

ductility properties obtained through externally bonded Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer

(GFRP) laminates.

113
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47. Park, H., Jeong, S., Lee, S.C. and Cho, J.Y., 2016. Flexural Behaviour of Post-

Tensioned Pre-stressed Concrete Girders with High-Strength Strands. Engineering

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External Tendons. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 14(2), pp.93-101.

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Sheet. International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER),4(7), pp.30-

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50. Tan, K. H., M. K. Saha, and Y. S. Liew. (2009), FRP-Strengthened RC Beams under

Sustained Loads and Weathering. Cement and Concrete Composites 31(5), 290-300.

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The Bond Interface Between FRP Sheets And Concrete Members. Composite

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52. Urmil V.Dave & Kinjal H. Trambadia, Behaviour of pre-stressed concrete beams

using gfrp wrapping, 2009.

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Deformation Coefficients of Pre-stressed Concrete Beams. Materials and

Structures, 49(4), pp.1443-1453.

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Concrete Beams with Tendon Wrapped by Plastic Sheets. Journal of Marine Science

and Technology, 21(1), pp.76-81.

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Performance Concrete Pre-stressed T-Beams. Canadian Journal of Civil

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Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Composite Laminates. Construction and Building

Materials 25(2), 591-597.

120
 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS BASED ON THIS RESEARCH WORK

1. D.S. Vijayan and J. Revathy, “Multiple Regression Model for the Prediction of
Flexural Behaviour of FRP Plated Pre-stressed Concrete Beams”, Asian Journal of
Applied Sciences, 4(6), 1299-1304, 2016. (Scopus Indexed Journal, SNIP - 0.389)

2. Vijayan D. S and Revathy. J, “Flexural Response of Fibre Reinforced Polymer

Laminated Pre-stressed Concrete Beams”, Indian Journal of Science and Technology,
9(42), 1-6, 2016. (Scopus Indexed Journal, SNIP – 1.289)

3. Vijayan, D. S and Revathy. J, “Flexural Behavior of Reinforced and Pre-stressed

Concrete Beam Using Finite Element Method”, International Journal of Applied
Engineering Research, 10 (1), 717-736, 2015. (Scopus Indexed Journal, SNIP –
0.260)

121
 ANNEXURE-I

Name of the program: Section analysis of Unstrengthened Prestressed concrete beams.cpp

Compiler: C + +

Purpose: Predicting the ultimate moment and ultimate deflection for FRP laminated beams
using various e perimental results.

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
double inc(double,double);
void inputdetails();

void calculate(double);
int load;
double increment;
//beam dimension
double L,b,d,ddash,epsilon;
//concrete details

double Ec,fcdash;
//non-prestressed steel details
double As,Asdash,fs,fsdash,Es,fy,ds,Esdash,dsdash;
//input for As
double nos,dia;
//input for Asdash

double nosd,diad;
//prestressed steel details
double Aps,Eps,e,fpup,dps;
//input for Aps
double nosp,diap;
//composite details

122
double n,bfib,tf,df,Af,Ef,fpuc,ff,epsilonfu,psi=0.85;
void inputdetails()
{
clrscr();

//beam input
cout<<"enter the type of loading(2 or 3 point loading),load";
cin>>load;
cout<<"enter the length of the member,L";
cin>>L;
cout<<"enter the width of the member,b";

cin>>b;
cout<<"enter the overall depth of the member,d";
cin>>d;
cout<<"enter the distance between e treme compression fibre and centroid of non-
prestressed compression steel,ddash";
cin>>ddash;
//concrete input
cout<<"enter the concrete compressive strength,fcdash";
cin>>fcdash;
Ec=5000*sqrt(fcdash);

//non-prestressed input
cout<<"enter the number and diameter of non-prestressed tension steel,nos & dia";
cin>>nos>>dia;
As=0.785*nos*dia*dia;
cout<<"enter the number and diameter of non-prestressed compression steel,nosd &
diad";
cin>>nosd>>diad;
Asdash=0.785*nosd*diad*diad;
cout<<"enter the yield strength of steel at tension fibre,fs";
cin>>fs;

123
cout<<"enter the yield strength of steel at compression fibre,fsdash";
cin>>fsdash;
cout<<"enter the modulus of non-prestressed tension steel,Es";
cin>>Es;

cout<<"enter the modulus of non-prestressed compression steel,Esdash";

cin>>Esdash;
cout<<"enter the yield stress of steel,fy";
cin>>fy;
cout<<"enter the distance between e treme compression fibre and centroid of non-
prestressed tension steel,ds";
cin>>ds;
cout<<"enter the distance between e treme compression fibre and centroid of non-
prestressed compression steel,ds";
cin>>dsdash;
//prestressed input
cout<<"enter the number and diameter of prestressed steel,nosp & diap";
cin>>nosp>>diap;
Aps=0.785*nosp*diap*diap;

cout<<"enter the modulus of prestressed steel,Eps";

cin>>Eps;
cout<<"enter the eccentricity,e";
cin>>e;
cout<<"enter the ultimate tensile strength of prestressed steel,fpu";
cin>>fpup;

cout<<"enter the depth of prestressed steel from compression fibre,dps";

cin>>dps;
//composite input
cout<<"enter the number of layers of composite,n";
cin>>n;
cout<<"enter the width of fiber,bfib";

124
cin>>bfib;
cout<<"enter the equivalent fiber thickness,tf";
cin>>tf;
cout<<"enter the distance between e treme compression fibre and composite,df";

cin>>df;
Af=bfib*tf;//area of fiber
cout<<"enter the equivalent modulus of fiber,Ef";
cin>>Ef;
cout<<"enter the ultimate stress of fiber,fpuc";
cin>>fpuc;

cout<<"enter the fracture strain guaranteed by manufacturer,epsilonfu";

cin>>epsilonfu;
ff=Ef*epsilonfu;//stress in fiber
cout<<"\nthe area of non-prestressed tension steel,As "<<As;
cout<<"\nthe area of non-prestressed compression steel,Asdash "<<Asdash;
cout<<"\nthe area of prestressed steel,Aps "<<Aps;

cout<<"\nthe area of fiber,Af "<<Af;

cout<<"\nthe stress in fiber,ff "<<ff;
//strain and increment details
cout<<"enter the increment value (0-0.0035)";
cin>>increment;
}

void calculate(double e)
{
double c1=n*Ef*tf;
double c2=1/(60*epsilonfu);
double Km;
double epsilonfe;

double c;

125
double epsiloncdash;
double ratio;
double gamma;
double beta1;

double ohm;
double fpe;
double fps;
double fpy;
double delta;
double curvature;

epsilon=e;
if(c1<=180000)
{
Km=(1/c2)*(1-(c1/360000));
}
else

{
Km=(1/c2)*(90000/c1);
}
if(Km>0.9)
Km=0.9;

epsilonfe=Km*epsilonfu;
//neutral a is depth
c=(d/2)-((epsilon/(epsilon + epsilonfe))*df);
epsiloncdash=1.71*fcdash/Ec;
ratio=epsilon/epsiloncdash;
beta1=2-4*((ratio-atan(ratio))/(ratio*log(1 + (ratio*ratio))));

gamma=0.9*log(1 + (ratio*ratio))/(beta1*ratio);

126
 if(load==3)
ohm=3*(dps/L);
else
ohm=1.5*(dps/L);

fpe=0.75*fpup;
fpy=fpup/1.1;
double fpy8=fpy*0.8;
fps=fpe + (ohm*Eps*epsilon*((dps/c)-1));
if(fps>fpy8)
fps=fpy8;

double Mb=gamma*fcdash*beta1*b*c*c*(1-(0.5*beta1));
double Mcs=Asdash*fsdash*(c-ddash);
double Ms=As*fs*(ds-c);
double Mps=Aps*fps*(dps-c);
double Mf=psi*Af*ff*(df-c);
double M=Mb + Mcs + Ms + Mps + Mf;

double P=6*M/L;
double I;
if(epsilon<0.002)
I=b*d*d*d/12;
else
I=(b*d*d*d/3) + (Aps*Eps*(dps-c)*(dps-c)/Ec) + (As*Es*(ds-c)*(ds-c)/Ec) +
(Asdash*((Esdash/Ec)-1)*(c-dsdash)*(c-dsdash)) + (Af*Ef*(df-c)*(df-c)/Ec);
if(load==2)
delta=23*P*L*L*L/(648*Ec*I);
else

delta=P*L*L*L/(48*Ec*I);
curvature=epsilon/c;
cout<<"epsilon\t c\t curvature\t moment\t load\t
deflection\n"<<epsilon<<c<<curvature<<M<<P<<delta;

127
 epsilon=inc(epsilon,increment);
if(epsilon<=0.0035)
calculate(epsilon);
}

int main()
{
inputdetails();
calculate(0);
getch();
return 0;

}
double inc(double a,double b)
{
double c=a + b;
return c;
}

128
 ANNEXURE-II

Name of the program: Section analysis of Pre-stressed concrete beams externally bonded
with FRP laminates.cpp

Compiler: C + +

Purpose: Predicting the ultimate moment and ultimate deflection for FRP laminated beams
using various experimental results

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
double inc(double,double);

void inputdetails();
void calculate(double);
int load;
double increment;
//beam dimension
double L,b,d,ddash,epsilon;
//concrete details
double Ec,fcdash;
//non-prestressed steel details
double As,Asdash,fs,fsdash,Es,fy,ds,Esdash,dsdash;
//input for As
double nos,dia;

//input for Asdash

double nosd,diad;
//prestressed steel details
double Aps,Eps,e,fpup,dps;
//input for Aps

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double nosp,diap;
void inputdetails()
{
clrscr();

//beam input
cout<<"enter the type of loading(2 or 3 point loading),load";
cin>>load;
cout<<"enter the length of the member,L";
cin>>L;
cout<<"enter the width of the member,b";

cin>>b;
cout<<"enter the overall depth of the member,d";
cin>>d;
cout<<"enter the distance between e treme compression fibre and centroid of non-
prestressed compression steel,ddash";
cin>>ddash;
//concrete input
cout<<"enter the concrete compressive strength,fcdash";
cin>>fcdash;
Ec=5000*sqrt(fcdash);

//non-prestressed input
cout<<"enter the number and diameter of non-prestressed tension steel,nos & dia";
cin>>nos>>dia;
As=0.785*nos*dia*dia;
cout<<"enter the number and diameter of non-prestressed compression steel,nosd &
diad";
cin>>nosd>>diad;
Asdash=0.785*nosd*diad*diad;
cout<<"enter the yield strength of steel at tension fibre,fs";
cin>>fs;

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cout<<"enter the yield strength of steel at compression fibre,fsdash";
cin>>fsdash;
cout<<"enter the modulus of non-prestressed tension steel,Es";
cin>>Es;

cout<<"enter the modulus of non-prestressed compression steel,Esdash";

cin>>Esdash;
cout<<"enter the yield stress of steel,fy";
cin>>fy;
cout<<"enter the distance between e treme compression fibre and centroid of non-
prestressed tension steel,ds";
cin>>ds;
cout<<"enter the distance between e treme compression fibre and centroid of non-
prestressed compression steel,ds";
cin>>dsdash;
//prestressed input
cout<<"enter the number and diameter of prestressed steel,nosp & diap";
cin>>nosp>>diap;
Aps=0.785*nosp*diap*diap;

cout<<"enter the modulus of prestressed steel,Eps";

cin>>Eps;
cout<<"enter the eccentricity,e";
cin>>e;
cout<<"enter the ultimate tensile strength of prestressed steel,fpu";
cin>>fpup;

cout<<"enter the depth of prestressed steel from compression fibre,dps";

cin>>dps;
cout<<"\nthe area of non-prestressed tension steel,As "<<As;
cout<<"\nthe area of non-prestressed compression steel,Asdash "<<Asdash;
cout<<"\nthe area of prestressed steel,Aps "<<Aps;
//strain and increment details

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cout<<"enter the increment value (0-0.0035)";
cin>>increment;
}
void calculate(double e)

{
double c1=n*Ef*tf;
double c2=1/(60*epsilonfu);
double Km;
double epsilonfe;
double c;

double epsiloncdash;
double ratio;
double gamma;
double beta1;
double ohm;
double fpe;

double fps;
double fpy;
double delta;
double curvature;
epsilon=e;
if(c1<=180000)

{
Km=(1/c2)*(1-(c1/360000));
}
else
{
Km=(1/c2)*(90000/c1);

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if(Km>0.9)
Km=0.9;
epsilonfe=Km*epsilonfu;
//neutral a is depth

c=(d/2)-((epsilon/(epsilon + epsilonfe))*df);
epsiloncdash=1.71*fcdash/Ec;
ratio=epsilon/epsiloncdash;
beta1=2-4*((ratio-atan(ratio))/(ratio*log(1 + (ratio*ratio))));
gamma=0.9*log(1 + (ratio*ratio))/(beta1*ratio);
if(load==3)

ohm=3*(dps/L);
else
ohm=1.5*(dps/L);
fpe=0.75*fpup;
fpy=fpup/1.1;
double fpy8=fpy*0.8;

fps=fpe + (ohm*Eps*epsilon*((dps/c)-1));
if(fps>fpy8)
fps=fpy8;
double Mb=gamma*fcdash*beta1*b*c*c*(1-(0.5*beta1));
double Mcs=Asdash*fsdash*(c-ddash);
double Ms=As*fs*(ds-c);

double Mps=Aps*fps*(dps-c);
double M=Mb + Mcs + Ms + Mps + Mf;
double P=6*M/L;
double I;
if(epsilon<0.002)
I=b*d*d*d/12;

else

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 I=(b*d*d*d/3) + (Aps*Eps*(dps-c)*(dps-c)/Ec) + (As*Es*(ds-c)*(ds-c)/Ec) +
(Asdash*((Esdash/Ec)-1)*(c-dsdash)*(c-dsdash));

if(load==2)
delta=23*P*L*L*L/(648*Ec*I);
else
delta=P*L*L*L/(48*Ec*I);
curvature=epsilon/c;
cout<<"epsilon\t c\t curvature\t moment\t load\t
deflection\n"<<epsilon<<c<<curvature<<M<<P<<delta;
epsilon=inc(epsilon,increment);
if(epsilon<=0.0035)
calculate(epsilon);
}
int main()
{
inputdetails();
calculate(0);

getch();
return 0;
}
double inc(double a,double b)
{
double c=a + b;

return c;
}

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