Manual of Coal Fire Detection PDF

Development and implementation of a coal fire
monitoring and fighting system in China
MANUAL OF COAL FIRE

DETECTION AND
MONITORING
Rosema, A.
Guan, H.
van Genderen, J.
Veld, H.
Vekerdy, Z.
ten Katen, A.M.
Prakash, A.
Sharif, M.
1
Development and implementation of a coal fire
monitoring and fighting system in China
MANUAL OF COAL FIRE

DETECTION AND
MONITORING
BRSC Beijing Remote Sensing Corporation (BRSC)
Environmental Analysis and Remote Sensing (EARS)
International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC)
Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience TNO (NITG)
This report may be referred to as follows:
Rosema, A., Guan, H., van Genderen, J., Veld, H., Vekerdy, Z., ten Katen, A.M.,
Prakash, A. and Sharif, M. (1999) ‘Manual of Coal Fire Detection and
Monitoring’. Report of the project ‘Development and implementation of a coal fire
monitoring and fighting system in China’. Published by the Netherlands Institute of
Applied Geoscience as report NITG 99-221-C, ISBN 90-6743-640-2, 245 p.
@ Copyright 1999 BRSC/EARS/ITC/NITG-TNO
This PDF version was re-edited from the original files (ed. Harry Veld, 1999) by
Zoltán Vekerdy in January 2009; without changing the contents.
Acknowledgments
This manual is a joint effort of all partners involved in the project. The
following people have made contributions:
Cui Bailin (FIRE FIGHTING DEPARTMENT, NINGXIA)
Andries Rosema, Arthur ten Katen, Ko Bijleveld (EARS)
Guan Haiyan, Kong Bing, Ma Jianwei, Zhang Jianmin, Wang Mei

(BRSC)
Harry Veld, Peter van Tongeren, Jean Weijers, Leo Jegers, Henk
Schalke, Hans van Duijne (NITG-TNO)
John van Genderen, Zoltán Vekerdy, Anupma Prakash, Massoud

Sharif, Wang Feng, Paul van Dijk, Cees van Westen, Zhang Xiaoxia,
Chem Liding, Jose Antonio Pacheco Navarette, Rüdiger Gens (ITC)
Ko den Boeft (TNO-MEP)
Proofreading was done by Craig Cassells.
This project is jointly funded by the Netherlands Development Agency

(ORET/MILIEV) and the Chinese Government (MOFTEC).
This report may be referred to as follows:
Rosema, A., Guan, H., van Genderen, J., Veld, H., Vekerdy, Z., ten
Katen, A.M., Prakash, A., and Sharif, M. (1999) ‘Manual of Coal Fire
Detection and Monitoring’. Report of the project ‘Development and
implementation of a coal fire monitoring and fighting system in
China’. Published by the Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience
as report NITG 99-221-C, ISBN 90-6743-640-2, 245 p.
© Copyright 1999 BRSC/EARS/ITC/NITG-TNO
This PDF version was re-edited from the original files (ed. Harry Veld,
1999) by Zoltán Vekerdy in January 2009; without changing the
contents.
i
ii
Contents
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 The project and its objectives 2
1.1.1 Objectives and deliveries 3
1.1.2 Brief description of the work done in phase 1 of the
project 3
1.2 Set-up of this manual 6
1.3 The coal fire monitoring and management system 6
1.3.1 Functions of CoalMan 7
1.3.2 Users of CoalMan 8
1.4 General description of the study area 9
1.4.1 Climate 10
1.4.2 The Rujigou coalfield 10
1.4.3 Coal mining 11
1.4.4 Geology 13
1.4.5 Structural features 14
1.4.6 Stratigraphy and depositional environment 15
1.4.7 Coal seams 16
1.4.8 Coal fires 18
2 PROPERTIES OF COAL AND THEORY OF COAL

FIRES 19
2.1 Properties of coal 20
2.1.1 Chemical analysis 21
2.1.1.1 Proximate analysis 22
2.1.1.2 Ultimate analysis 23
2.1.2 Physical analysis 26
2.1.2.1 Density 26
2.1.2.2 Internal surface area 27
2.1.2.3 Porosity 28
2.1.2.4 Heat capacity 28
2.1.3 Petrographic analysis 29
2.1.3.1 Maceral composition 29
2.1.3.2 Vitrinite reflectance 30
2.1.4 Coal oxidation tests 34
2.1.4.1 Determination of the activation energy 35
2.1.4.2 Oxidation susceptibility test 35
2.1.5 Susceptibility for spontaneous combustion 37
2.2 Modelling spontaneous combustion 38
2.2.1 The oxidation rate of coal 38
2.2.2 Heat and oxygen transport in coal and
spontaneous combustion 42
2.2.2.1 Differential equations 43
2.2.2.2 Boundary conditions 44
iii
Contents
2.2.3 Calculation of the diffusive properties of the coal

matrix 45
2.2.4 Calculation of the surface heat balance components 46
2.2.4.1 Radiation 46
2.2.4.2 Sensible heat flux into the atmosphere 47
2.2.5 Solving the differential equations for heat and oxygen
flow 48
2.2.6 COALTEMP simulation model 50
2.2.7 The effect of coal susceptibility on spontaneous
combustion 52
2.2.8 The effect of air infiltration on spontaneous
combustion 54
2.2.9 The influence of radiation; will spontaneous
combustion occur underground? 55
2.2.10 The effect of porosity: solid coal versus coal dust 56
2.2.11 Long-term simulations for coal of the Rujigou
coalfield 57
2.2.12 Spontaneous combustion: summary and conclusions 60
2.3 The burning process of coal 60
2.3.1 Reaction products 62
2.3.2 Surface versus subsurface fires 63
2.3.2.1 Open fires 64
2.3.2.2 Subsurface fires 64
2.4 The daily course of the surface temperature 69
2.4.1 Horizontal surfaces 69
2.4.1.1 Boundary conditions 70
2.4.1.2 Differential equation for transient heat flow in
the ground 72
2.4.1.3 Solving for the ground temperature 72
2.4.1.4 Effect of the atmosphere on the surface temperature 73
2.4.1.5 Effect of the ground material on the surface
temperature 73
2.4.2 Inclined surfaces 75
2.4.3 Conclusions for satellite and airborne data acquisition 76
2.5 The thermal anomaly of coal fires 76
2.5.1 The thermal expression of coal fires 77
2.5.1.1 Thermal expression of open fires 78
2.5.1.2 Thermal expression of subsurface fires 78
2.5.1.3 Thermal expression of coal-tailing fires 79
2.5.2 The simulation of thermal anomalies produced by
subsurface fires 80
2.5.2.1 General methodology 80
2.5.2.2 A model with heat transport dominated by
conduction 81
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Contents
2.5.2.3 A model with heat transport dominated by

conduction and mass transport 82
2.5.2.4 Heat flow equations 84
2.5.2.5 Numerical calculation procedures 88
2.5.2.6 Numerical calculation results 92
3 FOUR-LEVEL DATA COLLECTION 97

3.1 Satellite data collection 98
3.2 Airborne thermal data gathering 101
3.2.1 Requirements for airborne thermal data gathering 101
3.2.2 Data gathered during the 1997 fieldwork 106
3.3 Surface data collection 107
3.3.1 Topographic data 109
3.3.2 Positioning with GPS 110
3.3.3 Surface collection of thermal data 115
3.3.3.1 Equipment used for thermal measurements 115
3.3.3.2 General data collection procedures 119
3.3.3.3 Surface data collection for ground truthing airborne
and satellite data 120
3.3.4 Spectrometric data collection 121
3.3.4.1 Equipment 121
3.3.4.2 General data gathering procedures 122
3.3.4.3 Data gathered during the 1997 fieldwork 123
3.4 Subsurface data collection 126
3.4.1 Borehole temperature measurements 126
3.4.2 Mining data 127
3.4.2.1 Geological information 128
3.4.2.2 Mining techniques and mining plans 128
3.4.2.3 Safety regulations 129
4 GIS: THE INTEGRATED WORKING ENVIRONMENT 131

4.1 Components of geographical information systems 132
4.1.1 Software components 133
4.1.2 Hardware components 135
4.2 Spatial aspects of data 136
4.2.1 The vector data-model 137
4.2.2 The raster data-model 139
4.2.2.1 Vector model 140
4.2.2.2 Raster model 140
4.2.3 Resolution and pixel size 141
4.2.4 Quality of information and quality control 143
4.3 Attribute data and data dependencies in CoalMan 147
4.3.1 Data handling in the background tabular database 149
4.3.2 Object-oriented approach and data dependency in
ILWIS 149
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Contents
4.3.3 The meta-database 152

4.4 Three-dimensionality and temporal aspects 153
4.4.1 Representation of the vertical dimension 153
4.4.2 Time-referencing and time series 160
5 DATA PRE-PROCESSING 163

5.1 Positioning using GPS 163
5.1.1 Suggested method of working 163
5.1.1.1 Derivation of co-ordinates for the Reference
Station 164
5.1.1.2 Processing the Baselines 165
5.1.2 Mathematical transformation 167
5.2 Geometric correction and registration 168
5.3 Atmospheric correction 176
5.4 Cosmetic surgery of RS data 179
5.4.1 Periodic line dropouts 179
5.4.2 Line striping 180
5.4.3 Random Noise or Spike Noise 181
6 PROCESSING OF DATA 183

6.1 Statistical study of remote sensing data 183
6.2 Single image enhancement 184
6.2.1 Contrast enhancements 184
6.2.2 Edge enhancement 186
6.2.3 Colour viewing, colour enhancement and
transformations 188
6.3 Spectral analysis of surface features 193
6.3.1 Methods and procedures for spectral analysis 194
6.3.2 Description and analyses of measured spectra 195
6.3.2.1 Evaluation of spectral field measurements of
common lithology 195
6.3.2.2 Evaluation of spectral field measurements of selected
samples 195
6.3.2.3 Spectral effect of heating 198
6.3.2.4 Conclusions and recommendations 198
6.3.3 Analysis of Landsat data 198
6.3.4 Conclusions and recommendations 202
6.4 Image and data fusion 202
7 INVENTORY TECHNIQUES 207

7.1 Inventory using satellite data 207
7.1.1 Inventory of the thermal anomalies in the Landsat
data 207
7.1.1.1 Gradient evaluation 209
7.1.1.2 Thresholding 210
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Contents
7.1.2 Inventory of spectral satellite data 212

7.1.2.1 Supervised classification 212
7.1.2.2 Unsupervised classification 214
7.1.2.3 Classification based on spectral measurements 215
7.1.2.4 Conclusions and recommendations 216
7.2 Inventory using airborne data 217
7.2.1 Inventory of thermal anomalies of airborne data 217
7.3 Inventory using measurements at ground level 218
7.3.1 Inventory of thermal anomalies at ground level 218
7.3.2 Inventory of spectral properties of rock 220
7.4 Inventory using borehole date 221
7.5 Inventory of subsidence caused by coal fires 222
8 INTEGRATED ANALYSIS 225

8.1 Integrated analysis of coal fires 225
8.1.1 Location and outlining of coal fires 225
8.1.2 Inventory and analysis of the magnitude of coal
fires and of the overburden thickness 229
8.1.3 Change-in time analysis 230
8.1.4 Conclusions and recommendations 231
8.2 Hazard identification and risk assessment 232
8.2.1 Hazard identification 234
8.2.2 Vulnerability 234
8.2.3 Susceptibility 235
8.2.4 Risk assessment 235
8.3 Keys for coal fire-fighting 235
8.3.1 Priorities in coal fire-fighting 236
8.3.2 Improving coal fire-fighting 236
8.3.3 Monitoring coal fire-fighting 237
8.4 Keys for coal fire prevention 237
8.4.1 Air flow rate 237
8.4.2 Particle size and surface area 238
8.4.3 Coal rank 238
8.4.4 Temperature 238
8.4.5 Pyrite content 238
8.4.6 Geological factors 239
8.4.7 Mining practice 239
vii
Introduction
Chapter 1
1 Introduction
In the People's Republic of China (PRC), coal is the most important
mineral resource for the national economy. The PRC is also the largest
producer of coal in the world.
The coal basins of China are widely distributed over the country. The
estimated total reserves, ranging in quality from lignite to anthracite,
amount to 115 Gt (1.15 x 1011 tonnes). China produced 1348 Mt (1.3 x
109 tonnes) of hard coal in 1997 (World Coal Institute, December 1998).
Exploitation is mainly in the northern half of the country, both by open
pit and by underground mining. There are many outcrops of coal seams,
due to both the geological conditions and the mining activities. Many
outcrops of these coal seams are burning. It is estimated that 100 – 200
Mt (1 – 2 x 108 tonnes) of high quality coal are lost every year. This
amounts to approximately five times the annual export.
Coal fires originate at the interface of the coal seams and the atmosphere
and have both natural and man-made causes. The fires occur mainly in
the northern part of the country, where semi-arid to arid conditions
prevail. The annual precipitation equals 300 – 450 mm; the potential
evapotranspiration per year is about 750 mm. Conditions that influence
the development of coal fires are:
 The type of coal. Its vulnerability to spontaneous combustion
decreases with the maturity of the coal.
 The presence of mining works or faults and fissures in the geological
formations, which facilitate the exchange of oxygen and exhaust
gasses with the atmosphere.
The burning coal outcrops cover substantial areas. There is geological

evidence that coal fires have existed since prehistoric times. It is
believed, however, that their number has increased substantially since
mining activities started.
Coal fires induce various hazards:

 loss of coal resources and loss of mining productivity
 CO2 emission
 air pollution
 degradation of the environment
 safety and health risks for the miners and local population
1
Chapter 1
The social and economic impact of these hazards is high. The coal fire
problem cannot be solved easily. Much attention should be paid to coal
fire detection, prevention and fighting. Since 1988 about 300 fire-
fighters have been active in the Rujigou coal basin, their work was
interrupted for two years (1994 – 1995). Notwithstanding their efforts
the active fire area has increased.
1.1 The project and its objectives
In 1985, the Chinese Government selected the Rujigou coal field in the
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region as a test area for testing fire-fighting
techniques. The Beijing Remote Sensing Corporation (BRSC) was set
up at the end of 1992 affiliated to six government organisations: the
Ministry of Coal Industry, the Ministry of Geology and Mineral
Resources, the Nuclear Industry Corporation, the Ministry of
Metallurgical Industry, the China Non-Ferrous Metal Industry
Corporation and the China Petroleum Corporation. Since the end of
1996, the BRSC has been owned by the State Planning Committee.
Using an existing contact with the International Centre for Aerospace
Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC, the Netherlands), the BRSC has
sought the possibility of strengthening their effort and 'know-how’ by
co-operation with Dutch experts in this field. In response to their
request, a Dutch counterpart consortium was formed. This consortium
consists of:
 EARS Remote Sensing Consultants (Delft)

 Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience (NITG-TNO, Utrecht,
formerly known as the Geological Survey of the Netherlands)
 The International Centre for Aerospace Surveys and Earth Sciences
(ITC, Enschede)
A project identification mission was carried out in September -

October 1993 resulting in a letter of intent to co-operate in the
development of a coal fire monitoring system. In June 1996 the
contract for the development of a coal fire monitoring system was
signed.
The project partners provide the following, largely complementary

know-how:
 NITG: geology, geochemistry, coal basin evaluation
 ITC: remote sensing, data processing, geo-information systems
 EARS: mining engineering, remote sensing, physics and modelling
 BRSC: remote sensing, airborne and satellite data collection,
fieldwork, logistics
2
Introduction
The project consists of two phases:

 Phase 1: Research and development
 Phase 2: Implementation
During phase 1, the coal fire monitoring system is developed. This is

then implemented during phase 2 at the coal fire department of the
Bureau of Coal Industry in Ningxia.
1.1.1 Objectives and deliveries
The objectives of the project are:

 to develop a system for detection, monitoring and fighting of coal
fires, using satellite and airborne remote sensing data and other
information
 to develop a methodology to prevent the development of new coal
fires
 to improve the coal fire-fighting techniques
The deliverables of the project are:
 a locally implemented coal fire monitoring system for Ningxia

 this manual describing the coal fire monitoring methodology and the
coal fire monitoring system which will serve as a reference for those
using the monitoring system
 a coal fire prevention and fighting plan, for implementation in
Ningxia
1.1.2 Brief description of the work done in phase 1 of the project
Inventory
The project started with the making of an inventory of the existing

literature and data on the coal fires, with emphasis on their causes,
detection and abatement. Data on the physical and chemical properties of
the various coal types were collected, as well as data on the geological
structures, coal seams and coal types. These data were used to study the
causes of coal fires, to estimate the coal fire hazard and to simulate the
temperature anomalies caused by coal fires.
Theoretical study
A theoretical study was made of the possibility of, and conditions for,
spontaneous combustion. Using the thermal properties of the coal and
rock, a computer model was developed to simulate coal and rock
temperatures under variable insulation and climatic circumstances. This
3
Chapter 1
model included oxygen transport and the heat generated by coal

oxidation. Laboratory experiments on coal samples were carried out to
obtain information on the oxidative properties and the corresponding
production of heat as a function of coal type and the temperature of the
sample. Also studied were the factors determining the migration of coal
fires from the surface to greater depths. This migration depends on the
possibility of oxygen supply and on the ease of exhaust of combustion
gases. In this respect, the properties of the overburden (overlying rock)
play an important role.
In addition, the heat flow from the coal fire at a given depth to the
surface was investigated. Two mechanisms play a role: conduction and
convection. Calculations were made of their relative significance and a
theoretical model was elaborated that related the depth and burning rate
of the coal fire to the surface temperature anomaly. This temperature
increase is the main way in which underground coal fires are expressed
at the surface. Temperature anomalies can be detected, mapped and
monitored by means of airborne or satellite thermal infrared scanning.
Software was developed to evaluate this thermal information.
Another way in which coal fires of the present or of the past may be
detected is by the presence of outcrops of 'burnt rock' (also named
'micrite'). Due to the high temperature of the fire and the exhaust gases
the cap rock of the coal layer is metamorphosed. This results in a typical
reddish colour change. Once coal fires have been detected by thermal
scanning, visual imagery may reveal the presence and extension of burnt
rock. The spectral reflection of burnt and original rock samples was
measured and studied. The question of which spectral bands allow for
the best discrimination between the burnt and unchanged rock was
investigated.
Theoretical studies were also made on the integration of the various data
sources, including remote sensing imagery, geological and petrophysical
maps and point data, topographical data, etc., into a user friendly
information system. The required input data was defined and collected.
Output was created in various formats: maps of coal fire extension,
estimated burning rates, coal fire hazard etc.
4
Introduction
Methodology development
The coal fire monitoring methodology consists of a set of procedures,

defining how data input into the system must be collected and processed
to obtain the required output information.
An important aspect of the methodology is the planning of the remote

sensing data acquisition and the interpretation of these data. Thermal and
multispectral scanning data provided by LANDSAT and/or airborne
platforms provide adequate detail. For the thermal imagery, the time of
acquisition is very important. Mathematical modelling and simulations
were set up to establish the data acquisition requirements in terms of
season, time of day and meteorological conditions.
The possibilities for the mapping of burnt rock and coal seams based on
the use of LANDSAT and airborne multispectral imagery were
investigated. Rock spectra were measured; this information was used to
develop manual and automatic data processing procedures for the
classification of rock types, in particular to discriminate burnt rock from
unchanged rock. The interpretation of the thermal data gathered by
satellite and airborne survey was also addressed. Special data processing
procedures to quantify the gravity of the fires and estimate the coal loss
rates were developed.
Prototype design and testing
Finally, various sources of information (geological, remote sensing etc.),

and processing procedures were integrated in a geo-information system
(GIS) environment. In the second phase of the project, logical and
numerical model structures will be developed which will allow the
system to generate answers to various user questions, e.g. those
regarding hazard, extent, prevention and fighting of coal fires.
An experimental coal fire monitoring system was set up. For this system
the following requirements have been met: the hardware and software
have been selected, data acquisition methods and interpretation
procedures have been defined, simultaneous ground truth collection
equipment and procedures have been described, manpower and
management requirements for the system have been set and system
products and end-users have been defined.
This manual
This manual marks the end of the first phase of the project and serves as
a user reference. For the users of the coal fire monitoring system, the
equipment, data acquisition, data processing and interpretation
5
Chapter 1
methodologies, and the theoretical backgrounds of these are documented

here.
1.2 Set-up of this manual
The intention of this manual is to provide a reference in which all skills

and knowledge built up in the first phase of the Ningxia Coal Fire
project is gathered together and made accessible to the users. The work
done in the first phase of the project is presented. The theoretical
background of the detection is discussed and the coal fires present in
the Ningxia area are examined further. For this purpose, insight is
given into the backgrounds of the tools developed and used. An effort
was made to present the information coming from all the project
participants in an integrated format. The manual is therefore
subdivided into the following subjects of interest:
 Basic theory of Coal Fires: Chapters 1 and 2 provide an overview
of the knowledge gathered and developed on the theoretical
background. An insight is given into the causes, occurrences,
mechanisms, progression and consequences of coal fires.
 GIS: the Geographical/Geological Information system: Chapter 3.
The GIS is the backbone of the project. All tools and information
are stored/linked here and made accessible to the users. It will be
the provider of the output of the monitoring system.
 Data handling, gathering, processing and examination: Chapters 4
to 8. Being the main part of the manual, these chapters present the
procedures and methods advised for the monitoring of the coal
fires.
1.3 The coal fire monitoring and management system
Coal fires in the Rujigou coalfield cause several million dollars worth
of damage per year, and the fight against them further decreases the
revenues from coal mining. The losses and costs have to be minimised,
so making the fire-fighting the most efficient is of the primary interest
of the mining community.
Coal fire-fighting is a complex activity, which has to be based on

many-folded information. Therefore, it requires extensive knowledge
about the processes involved, exact data about the existing fires in the
coalfield and predictions about the possible effects of fire-fighting
measures. Not only are the required data sets large but the processes
are complex too. It is, therefore, essential to have proper data and
information management tools to hand. To fulfil this task, a coal fire
monitoring and management system (CoalMan) is developed in the
framework of the present project.
6
Introduction
1.3.1 Functions of CoalMan
The coal fire monitoring and management system is a personal

computer (PC) based database and information system. It runs under
Windows 95 (or higher). It is designed to store, retrieve and manage
tabular and image data, to analyse the data and to provide the user with
information needed for optimal decisions in fire-fighting and
prevention. CoalMan uses information technology combined with
environmental modelling to meet the following fire-fighting
objectives:
 detection and mapping of coal fires
 determination of the properties of coal fires
 definition of areas at coal fire risk
 setting priorities in coal fire-fighting
 decision support in the definition of optimal fire-fighting and
prevention methods
Three major groups of tools are used in CoalMan:

1 Database management tools. These are developed to manage the
database of CoalMan. The tabular data are principally in Microsoft
Access format; only the attribute tables of the maps are in other
formats.
2 Geographical Information System including image processing
functions for remote sensing data. The system is based on the
Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS, a product
of ITC). This software provides both raster and vector map
operations as well as tools for analysing attribute tables.
3 Special coal fire analysis programmes. These are special pieces of
software which were developed for specific coal fire related tasks.
The tools are accessible to the user via an easy-to-use interface.
CoalMan also contains a database, which can be continuously

developed as the monitoring of the coal fires proceeds in the Rujigou
Coalfield. The database is subdivided into the database of original
data, a database of processing results and a meta-database. It consists
of the following main data types:
 maps (geological, topographical)
 digital elevation model
 satellite images (Landsat TM including night-time thermal images,
SPOT, IRS-1C)
 airborne thermal infrared images and aerial photographs
 data of field measurements and observations (surface and
subsurface temperature, geology, mining, etc.) in tabular format
7
Chapter 1
 reports, fire-fighting and prevention plans, and

 photographs
Data and information security was considered during the design of

CoalMan. With the help of the meta-database, the system checks the
integrity of the data and gives a warning as well as providing tools for
database maintenance when needed.
The best way to avoid loss of data due to hardware or software failure
is to create regular backups. When the database being used is damaged,
these backups can help to restore the database and minimise the losses.
CoalMan contains both backup and restore functions. It is designed to
use a CD-ROM for storing the backup data.
Every computer hard disk has a limited storage capacity. It is foreseen

that the database – especially that part which contains imagery – will
grow fast and sooner or later will not fit the hard disk of the host
computer. To avoid such a storage crisis, a selective archiving is
implemented in CoalMan. It is intended that data which are not used
frequently be stored on CD ROMs.
1.3.2 Users of CoalMan
The primary users of CoalMan are the Fire-Fighting and Prevention

Team of Ningxia Autonomous Region. The system is to be set up in
the central office of the team. The decision-makers in the team will be
the primary beneficiaries of the system. They are not the ones who will
operate the system on a daily basis because most of the operation time
will be spent on data entry/management. Decision-makers are the
‘high-end’ users, they use the value-added information produced by
the system: the analysis results and reports.
The ‘actual operators’ have to have fire-fighting and computer

backgrounds. They must be specifically trained for the daily operation
of the system. Two user-levels are identified:
1. The Master User, who has full access to all the functions of
CoalMan. He is the one who can modify the database and upgrade
the meta-database. Besides the specific functions of CoalMan, the
Master User also has to be familiar with ILWIS, including all those
functions which are not directly used in the coal fire related
programs.
2. The Operator carries out the routine data processing. He can enter
data into the system, but can enter only some selected types. The
final authorisation for including other types of data is given by the
Master User.
8
Introduction
The system is designed to fit the information flow both during the day-
to-day fire-fighting and in emergency cases. The requirements of the
Fire-Fighting Group of Ningxia were given prime consideration during
the development of CoalMan.
1.4 General description of the study area
The project area, known as the Rujigou coalfield, is situated in the

Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Ningxia is located in north central
China on the middle reaches of the Yellow River (Huang He). It is a
provincial level autonomous region, covering an area of over 66,400
km2. Ningxia has a population of approximately 5 million; one third of
these are of the Hui nationality. With approximately 1800 mosques,
Ningxia is the home for many Chinese Moslems. Yinchuan is the
capital. Ningxia is bordered by Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces and the
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Ningxia is divided into 16
counties.
The region encompasses a semi-arid loess plateau in the south and

east, the Liupan Mountains in the southwest, the Ningxia or Yinchuan
plain in the north and the Helan Mountains at the western border of the
province. The altitude is 2000 meters in the mountains and 1000 to
1200 meters on the plains. The highest peak, Helan Mountain, is 3556
meters high.
The Helan Mountains are situated roughly at the western edge of the
Ordos Basin. The chain generally strikes in a direction of about 30
degrees northeast and its extension is somewhat over 200 km. Its width
varies mostly from 20 to 30 km, but reaches about 130 km in its
middle part. Based on morphological features, the Helan Mountains
can be divided into a western side with mainly gentle hillslopes and a
maximum internal relief of 1556 m, and an eastern part with much
shorter, rather steep hillslopes and a maximum internal relief of 2056
m. The transition from the western part of the mountains to the
adjacent Gobi-desert is through large and well-developed, broad
alluvial fans and related sediments. In contrast to this, the transition at
the eastern side to the alluvial plains of the Yellow River is much more
abrupt and the alluvial fans here are smaller and shorter.
9
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1. Location of the Rujigou coalfield in the Ningxia Hui

Autonomous Region
1.4.1 Climate
The region has a continental climate with long, cold winters, hot
summers, low precipitation and strong winds. The average temperature
varies from -10 ºC to -7 ºC in January and 17 ºC to 24 ºC in July.
Rainfall varies from 190 to 700 mm. Precipitation increases from north
to south and varies greatly from year to year.
The climate in the Rujigou area is relatively dry, with temperatures

that fall below minus -35 ºC in winter (November – April) and in
places may rise above 40 ºC in summer (June – August). Although
generally the precipitation in the area is rather limited, snow may cover
the area for weeks in winter and can reach an average depth of 30 cm.
The maximum annual rainfall is 238 mm, whereas the maximum
annual potential evapotranspiration can be 2721 mm.
1.4.2 The Rujigou coalfield
The Rujigou coalfield is situated in the west of Pingluo County in the

Helan Mountains at the border with Inner Mongolia. The area is 14 km
long and 5.3 km wide, covering an area of nearly 54 km². It lies
between latitudes 39° 00' 54" N and 39° 08' 10" N and between
longitudes 106° 02' 54" E and 106° 11' 23" E and has a roughly NE-
SW orientation.
10
Introduction
The coalfield has been studied since the beginning of this century, due
to its increasing importance to the coal mining industry. The coals,
with ranks varying from low volatile bituminous coal to meta-
anthracite, constitute very valuable sources of energy and income. The
topography of the region is mountainous with an average altitude of
2000 m. The southwestern part generally lies between 2100 to 2300 m
above sea-level. The highest peak in this area, however, reaches 2451
m. The middle part of the area is generally not much higher than 2000
m, and the peaks in the northern and north-western parts are around
1900 m high. The lowest part of the area is at its northeastern limit,
were heights are around or just below 1800 m.
The basin has some valleys running across the general strike of the
basinal axis. Three river systems cross the basin, eventually running in
a southwesterly direction. The first river rises in the Yushugou and
Bajigou areas, the second springs in the Shang Yi and Dafeng areas
and the third in the Rujigou area. These rivers have created incised
valleys and are of a braided type and have a very high intermittent and
seasonally determined run off, especially during the occasionally short,
torrential rains in springtime. Often, this causes damages to the local
transport infrastructure, to the mines and to the telecommunication
systems.
1.4.3 Coal mining
Coal mining and its related activities are the main local providers of
employment. The most important towns accommodate the workforces
of the two major underground mines, i.e. Bajigou and Rujigou. There
are small settlements, Nan Er and Gulaben, located around the Dafeng
open cast coalmine. This latter is just across the provincial border in
the province of Inner Mongolia.
China has three principal types of coalmines: state-run, locally-

controlled, and township private or county mines. All three types are
present in the Rujigou coal basin. Examples of each type are the
underground Bajigou mine in the northeast, the Dafeng opencast mine
in the central area and the underground Rujigou mine in the
southwestern part.
The Bajigou underground mine is a state-run mine operated by the

Shitanjing Coal Mining Administration. In general, state-run mines are
large, modern and relatively highly mechanised, many using longwall
mining methods. The annual production of these mines is typically in
the range of 100 thousand to 5 million tons of coal, with the production
at the largest state-run mining administrations exceeding 10 million
11
Chapter 1
tons per year. The Bajigou mine has an annual coal production of
approximately 2 million tons and employs 5100 people.
The Rujigou underground mine is financed and owned by the local

(provincial) government, with a minimum of central government
investment. Locally-controlled mines include county, provincial and
prefectural mines. The larger locally-run mines operate in a similar
way to the government mines, but are less mechanised. The Rujigou
mine has an annual production of 0.9 million tons of coal. Information
about the number of people employed by this mine is not available.
The Dafeng opencast mine is also a provincial mine. The annual

production is 0.5 million tons of coal. The mine employs 2000 people.
Figure 1.2. Private coal mining in the Rujigou coalfield
Besides these three large mines, some smaller mines of intermediate

size, also owned by local authorities or the Chinese army are present.
Examples are the Shang Yi and Youshugo mines. There are
approximately 55 private or county coalmines with a total annual
production of 0.4 million tons of coal in the area. In the past several
years, the number of private mines has grown tremendously. In 1993,
private mines produced 5 percent of the total coal produced in China.
Although the production of coal from these mines is increasing, they
have the lowest level of mechanisation, as well as the poorest safety
standards. The private mines are collectively – or privately – financed
and operated mines. Essentially, there is no government investment
involved.
12
Introduction
1.4.4 Geology
The Mesozoic was a time of important tectonic change in China. Two

tectonic domains, which are roughly separated by the Helanshan,
superposed the previous east-west trending fold belts and
Longmenshan imbricated thrust zone in central China. As a result,
three basic different types of basins can be identified:
 The basins in eastern China can be classified as extensional
(rifted). The crustal thickness in the eastern range is 25 – 35 km.
Examples of such basins include the Bohai Gulf Basin and the
Songliao Basin.
 The basins in central China can be classified as transitional types.
These basins have been affected by both the Trans-Eurasian Tethys
tectonism and the circum-Pacific tectonism, with dual extensional
and compressional-shearing mechanisms. Basins in this category
include the Ordos Basin (including the Rujigou coalfield) and the
Suchuan Basin. The crustal thickness in this region is 35 – 45 km.
 Basins in western China are compressional types. These basins
have been formed by the northward impacting Indian plate.
Examples include the large-scale composite basins, such as the
Junggar and Tarim basins, and intermontane basins such as the
Turpan basin. The crustal thickness in the western part of China is
45 – 70 km.
The Rujigou basin is situated in the Helan Mountains, which form the
fold-and-fault belt of the western rim of the Ordos basin. These
mountains are bounded on their western edge by the large
Xiaosongshan thrust fault system and by the Helanshan normal fault
zone on their eastern margin. Both fault zones have a general northeast
strike. In the south-central part of the Helan mountains the
Xiaosongshan fault zone joins the north-south striking ‘westfoot fault
zone’.
The (partially lateral) movements along the faults during the various
tectonic phases of the Yanshan orogeny (Jurassic) created a
compressional regime between the two fault zones. This initially
created folding, resulting in basin formation, and during the Late
Jurassic caused uplift and erosion of the Helan Mountains. In the same
period, the Liupanshan area subsided. The uplift was renewed during a
second period of intense movement in the Himalayan period, which
started approximately 25 My ago and is still active today. The two
orogenic events above mentioned caused the present outline and
position of the Helan Mountains.
The compression of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata resulted in a
13
Chapter 1
structurally rather complex synclinal belt. This belt consists basically

of a series of relatively small asymmetrical synclines and anticlines in
an east-west direction. The Rujigou coal-bearing syncline is located in
the north-central part of this synclinal belt.
Figure 1.3. Regional geological map of the northern Helan Mountains
1.4.5 Structural features
The Rujigou coal basin is an asymmetrical synclinal structure in which

the principal axis in the northern part strikes at about 15 degrees
towards the north-northeast. However, its strike changes – apparently
14
Introduction
gradually – to a more purely northeasterly direction of about 45

degrees in the southern part of the basin.
The eastern limb of the northern part of the synclinal basin generally
displays a rather modest dip angle of about 5 to 12 degrees. The
western limb in this part usually exhibits a much steeper dip of
approximately 25 to 35 degrees at the outer areas of the syncline, but
towards the centre of the structure the dips decline, varying here from
20 to 13 degrees. In the more southern part of the structure, dips stay
relatively high at both the eastern and western synclinal limbs. They
vary from 20 to 34 degrees. In the more central part of this area, the
dips become less steep, varying from about 6 to 15 degrees.
Smaller-scale folding has been mapped in the western half of the

northern part of the Rujigou basin where the folds have a general
north-northeastern strike parallel to the principal synclinal axis, as well
as being mapped at the eastern edge of its southern part. In this latter
area, however, the folds generally have east-west striking axes and are
positioned obliquely roughly at a 45-degree angle to the main synclinal
axis.
Faults mapped in the Rujigou area generally show either a northwest-

southeast, or a north-northeast strike. Most of them are reversed faults,
or appear as normal faults with a reversed part. Their dips may vary,
but are in most cases directed towards the basinal centre.
In particular, the large north-northeast striking fault in the Yushugou

area, displaying parts with reversed as well as normal movement, is
remarkable. This fault can also clearly be seen on aerial photographs.
Another relatively large fault is the northwest-southeast striking
structure, roughly separating the Dafeng and Rujigou mining zones.
The appearance of this fault is mapped as normal, but its outcropping
fault-trace is very likely connected on-strike to another curved fault-
trace, which shows reversed behaviour, about 200 m further to the
northwest. These faults would then have mapped outcropping lengths
of over 2 and 1.5 km, respectively; their general strikes making angles
of approximately 75 to 80 degrees.
1.4.6 Stratigraphy and depositional environment
Apart from some Quarternary alluvial deposits along the rivers, the
Rujigou coal basin consists of Triassic and Jurassic strata. Minable
coal seams occur exclusively in the Jurassic sediments. These coals are
15
Chapter 1
generally covered by thick sandstone and siltstone deposits related to

alluvial sediments in which stacked, channel-sands (braided rivers)
often predominate and are interbedded with silstones and – only
occasionally – claystones. Seven sedimentary cycles from fluvial to
lacustrine facies have been recognised. At places, distributed laterally
throughout the basin, the sandstones grade into more quartzitic rock.
This influences the local relief due to the lithologically-dependent
differences in jointing and weathering.
The oldest-known strata in the area belong to the Late Triassic

Yanchang Formation (T3yn2). The Yanchang Formation is exposed in
the eastern limb of the syncline and consists mainly of grey-white,
middle to fine-grained sandstones with intercalation of yellow-green,
thin-bedded siltstones and shales. Locally, some thin coal beds may be
present. This formation is unconformably overlain by the Middle
Jurassic Yan’an Formation (J2y).
The unconformity covers a time span from the Late Triassic to the
Middle Jurassic and is marked by the presence of a gravel bed.
The Yan’an Formation consists of interbedded, grey and greyish-white

coarse-grained sandstones, medium to fine-grained sandstones,
siltstones, shales and coal beds. Conglomerates are minor and, where
present, typically occur as (channel-) lag at the base of sandstones.
Major individual sandstone beds may have thicknesses exceeding 10
m. These thick, laterally continuous sandstones may be interpreted as
major meandering fluvial channel complexes. The deposits are
exclusively continental; no indications of any marine influence have
been observed.
The Yan’an Formation is conformably overlain by the Middle Jurassic

Zhiluo Formation (J2z). This formation is characterised by
interbedded conglomerates, feldspathic quartzose sandstones,
siltstones, shales and, locally, some thin coal beds. The formation is
exposed along the axis of the syncline. Well-developed joints,
frequently filled with quartz, have been observed.
The palaeogeographic setting of the Rujigou area during the deposition

of the Yanchang, Yan’an and Zhiluo formations shows that the
Rujigou area consisted of an isolated basin throughout its main periods
of deposition. Sediment transportation was mainly from the positive
areas in the east and southeast.
1.4.7 Coal seams
16
Introduction
Coal is mined from the Middle Jurassic Yan’an Formation (J2y). The
Yan’an Formation contains more than 10 coal beds. Only some of the
coal seams are minable. The total minable thickness of these seams is
approximately 40 m. Most mining activities are concentrated in seam
no. 2.
Coal seam no. 2 actually consists of several, discontinuous splits,

indicated as 21 and 22-1 and 22-2, or when no splitting is observed as
seam 2. The sediments between the splits in coal seam no. 21,
consisting of medium- to coarse-grained sandstone-channels, increase
in thickness from south to north. The split thickness varies from 0.30
to 60 m. The contacts with the coal beds are generally erosive. Seam
no. 21 has a minimum thickness of 2 m and a maximum thickness of
38.7 m, with an average thickness of 10 m.
Coal seam no. 22 has one main split, which varies in thickness from 0.5
to 2 m. The thickness of this seam varies from 6.5 to 40 m, with an
average thickness of approximately 20 m.
The average distance between coal seam no. 21 and the underlying
seam no. 22 is 22 m. A summary of the thicknesses is given in Table
1.1.
Table 1.1. Overview of the thicknesses of the coal seams in the Rujigou
coal basin
Seam Thickness (m)
Minimum Maximum Mean
1 0.0 7.8 1.2
21 2.1 38.7 10.1
22 6.5 39.6 18.8
3 0.4 8.3 3.6
4 0.0 4.8 1.0
5 0.0 8.6 2.7
6 0.0 7.0 0.9
71 0.0 7.0 1.0
72 0.0 6.7 1.4
73 0.0 8.7 2.3
A table with all the available borehole and outcrop information is

included in the monitoring system. This allows the creation of Z-maps
and thickness maps for all the coal seams and associated overburden.
Figure 1.4 gives an example of the Z-map for the bottom of coal seam
no. 2.
17
Chapter 1
Figure 1.4. Depth of the bottom of coal seam no. 2 in the Rujigou basin
1.4.8 Coal fires
To date, more than 20 coal fires have been detected in the area, many
of which started after mining was intensified in the 1960s. Most coal
fires occur in coal seams 21, 22 and 3 and are mainly found at, or close
to, the coal outcrops up to an average depth of 100 m.
The total area affected by the coal fires is more than 2.3 km2. The main
characteristics of the coal fires in the area are given in more detail in
Chapter 7.
18
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Chapter 2
2 Properties of coal and theory of coal fires

Some important questions in connection with coal fires are:
 How likely is spontaneous combustion?
 How does a coal fire develop?
 What physical properties of coal are important?
 What fraction of the dissipating heat of the fire can be detected by
remote sensing?
The theory behind the processes in a coal fire is important for the
understanding of what actually controls the occurrence of the fires. The
coal fires in the Rujigou coal basin are strongly related to the mining
activity. Where fresh coal comes into contact with oxygen, fires may
develop. The probability of this occurring depends on the area of the
surface of the coal that is exposed, the type of coal, the accessibility
for oxygen, the presence of water etc. Some of these factors may be
related to the activity of man. If, for some reason, the coal catches fire,
either due to external factors or spontaneous combustion, the rate of
combustion is controlled by a combination of the following factors: the
temperature, the availability of fuel and the oxygen supply.
Once the fire has started, the problems in extinguishing it are

considerable. As much as reasonably possible should be done to
prevent the ignition of fires. The economic loss and the extinguishing
costs will increase with time.
Figure 2.1. Digging-out of the Nanyi coal fire
19
Chapter 2
The prevention and detection of the fires is therefore of primary

importance. For these reasons, this chapter provides an insight into the
development of coal fires.
Section 2.1 contains a discussion of the properties of coal that

influence its susceptibility to combustion: physical properties, the
classification of coal, the oxidation mechanisms of coal, environmental
factors, temperature, etc. To improve the understanding of the
phenomenon of spontaneous combustion, a model for the calculation
of temperature of coal particles is discussed. The modelling describes
the behaviour of coal under circumstances commonly encountered in
the field. It was proved that spontaneous combustion of freshly
exposed coal dust is indeed likely to contribute to the initiation of coal
fires. This model includes the effects of solar heating and wind and is
described in section 2.2, 'Modelling spontaneous combustion'.
In section 2.3, a brief description of the combustion processes and the

associated phenomena involved in coal fires is given. In section 2.4 the
daily course of the surface temperature is discussed. The last section of
this chapter, 2.5, deals with the relations between the thermal emission
of a fire and the amount of coal that is burning and the depth of the
fire. For this reason, a simulation model was developed. The model
includes conductive heat transport through the overburden as well as
convective heat transport by the exhaust gases.
2.1 Properties of coal
In this section, the main properties of coal that are generally

considered to be a factor in the susceptibility of coal to spontaneous
combustion will be presented.
Although a considerable number of studies have been conducted with

the aim of understanding the mechanisms and factors influencing the
spontaneous combustion characteristics of coal, a complete
understanding is lacking. This is because of the many factors that can
individually and jointly cause the spontaneous combustion of coal. In
addition to the variation in the effect of the various intrinsic coal
properties on the liability to spontaneous combustion, other
(local/regional) factors such as the geological setting, climate and
methods of mining also play a major role.
Coal is defined as a readily combustible rock containing more than

50% by weight and more than 70% by volume of carbonaceous
material, including inherent moisture, formed by the compaction and
induration of variously altered plant remains similar to those in peat.
20
Differences in the kinds of plant materials (type), in degree of

metamorphism (rank), and in the range of impurity (grade) are
characteristics of coal and are used in classification.
Coal is used industrially for a number of purposes. Since it is a highly

variable product, its use is dependent on the individual properties of a
seam or part of a seam. Coal is as variable as the conditions in the mire
during and after peat accumulation. To accommodate this, a number of
classification systems have been developed so that the coal is used
appropriately. The four most commonly used systems are:
 International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
 American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
 Australian Standard (AS)
 British Standards Institution (BSI) classifications
Because of the complexity of its chemical and physical properties and

its varied use, a multitude of numerical parameters is used to classify
and characterise coal. These can broadly be subdivided into three
different types of analyses:
1. Chemical analysis
2. Physical analysis
3. Petrographic analysis
2.1.1 Chemical analysis
For the chemical analysis of the coal samples from the Rujigou area
the following (standard) procedures were applied in the different
analyses:
 sample preparation NEN 3010
 moisture content NEN-ISO 331
 ash content NEN-ISO 1171
 volatile matter NEN-ISO 562
 carbon content NEN-ISO 609
 hydrogen content NEN-ISO 609
 nitrogen content NEN-ISO 333
 oxygen content NEN-ISO 609
 total sulphur content NEN-ISO 351
 calorific value NEN-ISO 1928
The results are implemented in the monitoring system as tables and can
be updated or edited. On the basis of these tables, maps can be
prepared by using the ILWIS contouring or interpolation techniques.
21
Chapter 2
2.1.1.1 Proximate analysis

A proximate analysis is the determination by prescribed methods of the
moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon (by difference) and ash
contents. Unless specified, proximate analyses do not include
determinations of sulphur or phosphorous content or any
determinations other than those named. Proximate analyses are
reported by percentage and on as-received, moisture-free, and
moisture- and ash-free bases.
%VM
30
25
20
15
10
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
% Rmax
Figure 2.2. Correlation between vitrinite reflectance (% Rmax) and
volatile matter values (%VM, daf) for 27 samples of the Rujigou
coalfield and comparison with a standard correlation curve
Proximate analyses were performed on a selection of 27 samples. The

results are summarised in Table 2.1. The moisture content of these
samples ranges from 0.66 % to 5.45 %. Volatile matter content is often
used as a coal-classification parameter. In the present samples, it
ranges from 6.02 % to 21.99 % on a dry and ash-free basis. The
calorific values show a relatively wide range, from 6892 kcal/kg to
8567 kcal/kg, on a dry and ash-free basis (daf).
Figure 2.2 displays the standard correlation curve between volatile

matter (%VM) and vitrinite reflectance (%Rmax) together with the
results of 27 samples from the Rujigou area. Although there is a wide
variation, the overall trend suggests that the volatile matter values of
the Rujigou coals are too high or, alternatively, that the measured
vitrinite reflectance values are too high compared to the NW European
22
/ US standard correlation. Since (most of) the Rujigou coals are

methane-rich, this may explain the higher volatile matter values.
Table 2.1. Results of the proximate analyses

No. Sample Moisture Ash Volatile matter Calorific Value
(mass-%) (mass-%, dry) (mass-%, daf) (kcal/kg, daf)
3 960299 0.80 5.20 7.74 8567
7 960303 0.73 6.79 11.79 8260
11 960307 0.76 54.30 21.99 6892
15 960311 0.70 11.00 9.98 8380
20 960316 5.45 6.50 18.62 7558
22 960318 1.12 5.48 11.34 8378
32 960328 0.98 3.83 7.43 8442
37 960333 0.84 11.15 12.40 7957
44 960340 1.10 4.62 8.51 8445
48 960344 0.89 4.56 8.03 8386
59 970990 0.57 4.69 10.70 8392
74 971005 0.73 12.40 17.32 8001
83 971014 0.66 10.04 13.04 7985
91 971022 0.79 2.56 6.44 8422
95 971026 0.66 6.40 10.44 8099
110 971041 0.95 3.10 6.41 8371
111 971042 0.95 2.21 6.33 8391
114 971045 0.85 2.72 6.02 8406
118 971049 0.73 7.15 10.31 8314
132 971063 1.00 5.65 6.72 8208
133 971064 0.71 8.09 12.64 8236
137 971068 1.89 4.28 9.44 8230
138 971069 0.87 2.40 8.27 8247
139 971070 0.87 3.06 8.11 8391
146 971078 1.11 4.38 8.96 8296
147 971079 0.72 1.88 7.23 8456
148 971080 1.00 3.35 8.19 8297
2.1.1.2 Ultimate analysis

An ultimate analysis is the determination by prescribed methods of the
ash, carbon (%C), hydrogen (%H), nitrogen (%N), oxygen (%O, by
difference), and sulphur (%S) contents. Quantities of each analysed
substance are reported by percentage for the following conditions: as
received, dried at 105 °C, and moisture- and ash-free.
The principal reason for the ultimate analysis is the classification of

coals by rank, although it is often used for commercial and industrial
purposes when it is desirable to know the sulphur content.
Elemental analyses were carried out on the same set of samples as in
the proximate analyses The results given in Table 2.2 are presented on
a dry and ash-free basis. The oxygen content was calculated on a ‘by
difference’ basis.
23
Chapter 2
Figure 2.3 indicates the correlation between the oxygen content and
the carbon content of the Rujigou coal samples. The samples plot on
the standard correlation curve between these two parameters. A,
preliminary, conclusion is that both the oxygen content as well as the
carbon content of the Rujigou coals have values that can be expected
from the standard correlation.
%C (daf)
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
%O (daf)
Figure 2.3. Correlation between oxygen content and carbon content
for the samples of the Rujigou coal field and comparison with the
standard correlation curve
The evolution path of each maceral group is illustrated through

pyrolysis. Van Krevelen and Schuyer (1957) conducted a number of
pyrolysis experiments on organic matter to plot the evolutionary path
of each maceral group. Liptinite is characterised by a high H/C ratio
and low O/C ratio. During metamorphism, the increased temperature
results in the liberation of oxygen with a sudden decrease in hydrogen
after maturity levels exceed ~0.6 – 0.7 vitrinite reflectance. Vitrinite is
characterised by high O/C ratios and an intermediate-to-low H/C ratio.
During metamorphism, vitrinite follows an uniform path with the
gradual liberation of oxygen and hydrogen. Inertinite has a low
hydrogen content and a high oxygen content, which are steadily
reduced during metamorphism. These evolutionary paths are best
illustrated using a van Krevelen diagram (Tissot and Welte, 1984).
24
Table 2.2. Results of the ultimate analyses.

No. Sample %C %H %O %N %S O/C H/C
(daf) (daf) (daf) (daf) (daf)
3 960299 92.82 4.48 1.49 0.98 0.18 0.01 0.58
7 960303 92.58 4.28 2.28 0.70 0.13 0.02 0.55
11 960307 82.09 5.78 10.50 1.12 0.44 0.10 0.84
15 960311 90.70 4.61 3.53 0.79 0.34 0.03 0.61
20 960316 84.64 4.25 9.89 0.86 0.27 0.09 0.60
22 960318 90.68 4.58 3.64 0.82 0.21 0.03 0.61
32 960328 91.49 4.21 3.36 0.69 0.20 0.03 0.55
37 960333 89.94 4.01 5.10 0.78 0.15 0.04 0.53
44 960340 92.51 4.29 2.12 0.93 0.12 0.02 0.56
48 960344 89.47 4.05 5.42 0.85 0.18 0.05 0.54
59 970990 92.28 4.12 2.49 0.85 0.26 0.02 0.54
74 971005 90.06 3.82 5.07 0.99 0.26 0.04 0.51
83 971014 91.13 3.66 4.39 0.69 0.13 0.04 0.48
91 971022 93.67 3.59 1.81 0.73 0.21 0.01 0.46
95 971026 90.75 3.59 4.71 0.79 0.17 0.04 0.47
110 971041 93.72 3.29 2.30 0.54 0.13 0.02 0.42
111 971042 93.33 3.71 1.98 0.85 0.13 0.02 0.48
114 971045 89.96 2.71 6.62 0.57 0.14 0.06 0.36
118 971049 85.84 4.24 8.17 1.12 0.63 0.07 0.59
132 971063 94.14 3.56 1.11 0.84 0.31 0.00 0.45
133 971064 91.08 3.93 3.66 0.77 0.56 0.03 0.52
137 971068 93.14 3.82 2.08 0.69 0.27 0.02 0.49
138 971069 92.70 3.75 2.60 0.72 0.24 0.02 0.49
139 971070 92.92 3.84 2.34 0.75 0.16 0.02 0.50
146 971078 92.82 3.62 2.77 0.71 0.06 0.02 0.47
147 971079 93.45 3.72 2.01 0.71 0.11 0.02 0.48
148 971080 93.00 3.62 2.65 0.67 0.07 0.02 0.47
Figure 2.4 is a ‘Van Krevelen’ diagram for the Rujigou coals. The
correlation curve as displayed in this figure is the standard curve for
vitrinite-rich coals. Also indicated is the degree of coalification in
terms of vitrinite reflectance values. Although most of the samples lie
on the standard curve, their inferred vitrinite reflectance value is much
too low. In combination with the conclusion that the oxygen content
shows normal values (see figure 2.3), another conclusion regarding
these coals of the Rujigou area is that heir hydrogen content may be
too high. This seems to be in agreement with the previous observation
that their volatile matter content also deviates from expected values.
However, since the Rujigou coals are inertinite-rich coals, the
correlation of figure 2.4 may not be valid.
25
Chapter 2
Figure 2.4. Van Krevelen diagram with the standard correlation

between H/C and O/C atomic ratios for vitrinite-rich coals and a plot
of the Rujigou coals
2.1.2 Physical analysis
Because coal is a microporous polymeric material containing

significant numbers of heteroatoms in the form of diverse chemical
groups the interaction of various fluids and gases with the coal is
complicated. Therefore, the results of physical analyses on coal should
be considered with caution if only a limited number of samples have
been used.
2.1.2.1 Density
The density measurements were performed on a selection of the same
set of samples as in the proximate and ultimate analyses. In addition,
three samples collected by ITC were analysed. Their exact location is
unknown, except that these were taken near the Beisan coal fire. The
samples 960355 and 960356 are sandstone samples. The densities of
the coals range from 950 to 1490 kg/m3. It should be noted that sample
960307, with a density of 1950 kg/m3, is an impure coal with a mineral
matter content of 38 percent.
26
Table 2.3. Results of the density measurements

No Sample Density
(kg/m3)
3 960299 1090
7 960303 950
11 960307 1950
15 960311 1120
20 960316 1490
22 960318 1090
32 960328 1150
37 960333 1070
44 960340 980
48 960344 1000
‘1’ / ITC 960354 1540
‘2’ / ITC 960355 2590
‘3’ / ITC 960356 2630
2.1.2.2 Internal surface area

The results of the determination of the macropore volumes and the
internal surface areas are given in Table 2.4. The average pore radius
was also calculated for each sample. The analyses were carried out on
seven different coal samples. Since the measurements of the volume
of the macropores show large deviations from the data in the literature,
the results are considered to be unreliable. A possible cause of these
extremely large volumes may be the fact that very high mercury
pressures were applied in the analyses.
Table 2.4. Results of pore volume and internal surface area

measurements
No. Sample Volume of Average Internal
macropores pore radius surface area
(mm3/g) (nm) (m2/g)
3 960299 568 1578 12.0
7 960303 574 1578 10.0
15 960311 589 1980 8.5
20 960316 563 1981 3.1
37 960333 499 2486 14.0
44 960340 535 2485 12.0
48 960344 557 2484 12.0
27
Chapter 2
2.1.2.3 Porosity
The porosity of four of the samples was determined by measurement of
the true density (density of the solid excluding all internal voids, DIN
51057-pyknometer method) and the apparent density (density of the
solid including the internal voids, but excluding all voids between
single particles-Hg method).
The total porosity of the samples was determined from the ratio of the
apparent density to the true density (porosity = 1- apparent/true
density). Table 2.4 shows that these porosities range from 7.1 % to
12.9 %.
Table 2.5. Results of the porosity determinations of four coal samples.

No. Sample True density Apparent Porosity
(g/cm3) density (%)
(g/cm3)
1 960297 1.487 1.382 7.1
9 960305 1.529 1.331 12.9
23 960319 1.397 1.274 8.8
49 960345 1.486 1.356 8.7
On the basis of the density determinations and the volume of

macropores, a ‘macro-porosity’ can be calculated. Since these
calculations produced extremely high values, which added to the
suspicion of the incorrectness of the macropore volumes, the porosity
of four further samples was determined additionally
2.1.2.4 Heat capacity

Table 2.6. Results of the heat capacity measurements
No. Sample Heat capacity
(J/g ºC)
22 960318 0.35
32 960328 1.09
44 960340 0.98
‘1’ 960354 0.29
‘2’ 960355 0.73
‘3’ 960356 0.64
The heat capacity was determined for six samples, including two
sandstone samples collected by ITC. The results are given in Table 2.6
The values range from 0.29 J/g ºC for sample 960354 to 1.09 J/g ºC for
sample 960328.
28
2.1.3 Petrographic analysis
Petrography is the microscopic study and description of coal and rocks.

The composition of coal is important since it affects the physical and
chemical nature of the coal. Coal crushing, grinding, handling,
washability, gasification, liquefaction, combustion and carbonisation
are all processes that are affected by the petrography of the coal.
Coal is not a homogeneous substance but consists of various basic

components analogous to the minerals of inorganic rocks. In coal,
these components are called macerals. The terminology used to
describe organic matter is based on the petrologic examination of coals
using the Stopes-Heerlen system of nomenclature (Stopes, 1935; Stach
et al., 1982). A maceral is an elementary microscopic constituent of
coal that can be recognised by its shape, morphology, reflectance and
fluorescence (Stopes, 1935).
Each maceral group can be divided into a number of maceral sub-

groups, which are in turn divided into a number of macerals. Chemical
and physical properties of the macerals such as elemental composition,
moisture content, density and petrographic features differ widely and
are also subject to changes in the course of coalification.
2.1.3.1 Maceral composition

The three maceral groups for coal are: Vitrinite, Liptinite and Inertinite
Vitrinite is the most common maceral (organic component) in most
humic coals and is a common constituent of organic source rocks.
Vitrinite is the coalified remains of cell lumens (cell walls), woody
tissue of stems, branches, leaves and roots of plants and the
precipitated gels from these materials. The cell structure can often still
be found in low rank coals, in particular. Organic rocks, which are
dominated by vitrinite, tend to be prone to gas rather than oil
generation. The chemistry of vitrinite varies with rank (degree of
heating) but it is generally composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
with trace amounts of sulphur and nitrogen. Increasing rank leads to
homogenisation of the macerals of the vitrinite group. In white
(reflected) light, vitrinite denotes a group of macerals which are grey
in colour and which have a reflectance generally between that of the
associated darker liptinites and lighter inertinites.
The liptinite macerals (also referred to as exinite) are composed of the

waxy, lipid-rich and resinous parts of plants. During coking, these
macerals devolatilise to produce gasses and oily tars; hence, this
29
Chapter 2
maceral group has the greatest potential to produce oil and gas. In the
lower part of the rank scale, liptinite macerals are characterised by a
much lower reflectance than the corresponding vitrinite of the same
rank. With increasing rank, the reflectance increases slowly up to the
stage of medium-volatile bituminous coals. At this point (approx. 1.1
percent vitrinite reflectance), the reflectance of the liptinites increases
rapidly and reaches the reflectance of vitrinite when the rank of low-
volatile bituminous is reached (approx. 1.3 to 1.5 percent vitrinite
reflectance). Chemically, liptinite is similar to vitrinite but has the
highest amount of hydrogen of all the maceral groups.
The inertinite maceral group is composed of plant material (bark,

stems, leaves, roots etc) which has undergone oxidation during the
early peat stages of burial diagenesis. It is chemically similar to
vitrinite but has a high carbon and low hydrogen content. Hence, it is
considered 'inert' – generally incapable of oil and gas generation.
Inertinite is common in most organic rocks and has a bright grey-white
colour in white light. It generally does not fluoresce under ultraviolet
light. Inertinite has the highest reflectivity of all maceral groups. The
processes which produce some of the inertinite macerals, for example
fusinite and semifusinite, are different from those which produce
vitrinite from the same parent material. During the course of
coalification, the petrographic properties of the inertinites vary very
little as aromatisation has taken place before, or at a very early stage
after deposition (charring, oxidation, mouldering, or fungal attack).
Exceptions are the maceral semifusinite, which represents an
intermediate stage between vitrinite and fusinite and whose properties
are believed to change considerably during coalification, and the
maceral micrinite, which is considered to be formed as a secondary
maceral at the transition between sub-bituminous to bituminous coals.
The composition of the Rujigou coals in terms of maceral groups

shows a wide variation. The volume percentage of the vitrinite group
varies from 0.2 to 95.2. The inertinite group of macerals is the most
dominant; its volume percentage varies from 4.8 to 99.8. The overall
average of the percentage of vitrinite for the whole area is
approximately 21 percent and for inertinite approximately 79 percent.
No macerals of the liptinite group were encountered.
2.1.3.2 Vitrinite reflectance

The progressive and irreversible transformation of peat through lignite
and (sub-) bituminous coal to anthracite is referred to as coalification.
The degree of metamorphism of organic material within this natural
series is termed rank. The coalification process is the path taken by
30
organic matter during biochemical and physiochemical metamorphism.

During the biochemical stage of coalification, liptinite matures slowly,
while inertinite undergoes rapid changes. In the physiochemical stage
liptinite alters dramatically and is rarely found in high-rank bituminous
coals. Inertinite changes at a much-reduced rate. Vitrinite is distinctive
in that it changes at a uniform rate throughout its coalification history.
The uniform response of vitrinite to metamorphic grade increase
makes it ideal as an indicator of maturity. Hence, as vitrinite is a
common constituent of dispersed organic matter and coal, it is ideally
suited as a coalification indicator. The rank parameters, which define
the different coalification stages, include a variety of both chemical
and physical properties. The rank is estimated by measuring the
moisture content, specific energy and reflectance of vitrinite or volatile
matter content.
Vitrinite reflectance is the percentage of normal incident white light

reflected from the surface of polished vitrinite and is the most
commonly used coalification parameter in the coal and petroleum
industry. It is accurate, quick, non-destructive and relatively
inexpensive. This reflection is a function of the chemical composition
of the vitrinite (Tschamler & DeRuiter, 1963). As the aromatic ring
structures which comprise vitrinite undergo reordering with the
increase in rank, the reflectivity of vitrinite is an indication of its
maturity (Cook, 1982).
Reflectivity (R) is generally reported as %Rmax or %Rm. The absolute

value of %Rm is determined by comparison with reflectance standards.
Vitrinite is an anisotropic substance where the reflectance is dependent
upon the position of the vitrinite with respect to the plane of polarised
light (Davis, 1978).
A polished surface, where the bedding is parallel to incident polarised

light, will record a maximum reflectance of vitrinite. A section cut
perpendicular to the bedding will display minimum values of
reflectance, whilst an oblique section will display intermediate values
of reflectance (Davis, 1978). As vitrinite is anisotropic, rotation of the
microscope stage through 360° will result in the presence of two
maxima and two minima.
Maximum reflectance (%Rmax) is considered to be more accurate than

the random method (%Rm) and is favoured by most petrologists
(Cook, 1982). Where reflectance is less than 1%, the difference
between %Rmax and %Rm is considered to be insignificant (Ting,
1978; Sweeney and Burnham, 1990).
31
Chapter 2
After initial sample preparation, a reflectance measurement can be

completed in approximately 30 to 60 minutes. Samples of coal, coaly
shales and sediments containing dispersed organic matter from drill
core cuttings and surface outcrop can be used for vitrinite reflectance
measurements. Sample preparation techniques are detailed in Stach et
al. (1982) and the ISO 7404. Between 2 and 10 g of each sample is
then bonded with cold-setting polyester resin. The sample mounts are
then ground and polished using various sizes of carborundum paper
and water irrigation. This is followed with final polishing using fine-
grained powders and cloth.
Vitrinite reflectance measurement techniques are detailed in Stach et

al. (1982) and the ISO 7404 standard for measurement of coal samples
for incident light microscopy. Samples are analysed using a Leitz
microscope with vertical illuminator. A photomultiplier mounted on
top of the microscope measures incident light supplied by a 12 V, 100
W tungsten source which has been stabilised using a high-stability
power supply. The room temperature should ideally be 23 ºC±1ºC and
the stabiliser should be switched on and allowed to stand for at least 30
minutes. Glass and diamond standards of known refractive index are
used to calibrate the microscope. The refractive index of the immersion
oil used is 1.518. Once standardisation is complete and with the
polariser set at 45°, unknown samples can be tested. When the stage is
rotated to find the maximum reflectance of an unknown vitrinite
sample, that value is recorded and the stage is rotated again to find the
second maxima. The reflectance of both maxima should be the same to
within ±5%; otherwise further calibration is required. A minimum of
30 measurements of mean maximum reflectance per block is generally
recorded, except were insufficient organic matter content prevents this.
Measurements are made in oil immersion with a 50x lens
(magnification 500x) and standards are used at regular intervals to
check for any drift, which should not exceed ±2%.
A summary of the results of the microscopic analyses is included in the

monitoring system. On the basis of the vitrinite reflectance
measurements, a coalification map of the Rujigou coalfield was
constructed in ILWIS. This map is given in Figure 2.5.
32
Figure 2.5. Vitrinite reflectance map of the Rujigou coal basin

(%Rmax)
Figure 2.6 shows the correlation between the Chinese and the US
(ASTM) coal classification systems. According to the volatile matter
values, as provided by Yang Qi et al. (1982), all coals of the Rujigou
coal field can be classified as anthracites. The range of the four
classification parameters as presented in this section indicate that the
Rujigou coals show a much wider variation in coal type. The measured
volatile matter and vitrinite reflectance values indicate also the
presence of coking coal or low volatile bituminous coal to semi-
anthracite in the area. The values for the calorific value and fixed
carbon content show an even wider variation, especially towards the
high volatile bituminous coal values.
33
Chapter 2
Figure 2.6. Coal classification using volatile matter (VM), vitrinite

reflectance (VR), carbon content (C) or calorific value (CV)
2.1.4 Coal oxidation tests
Many researchers have studied the low-temperature oxidation of coal,

as the reaction with oxygen at ambient conditions can lead to self-
heating, which in certain cases may result in the spontaneous
combustion of coal. The oxidation also has an adverse effect on many
of the coal properties which are needed when the coal is processed to
obtain economic products.
In any deposit, the depth and degree of oxidation will be a function of

the climate, the groundwater conditions, the extent of fracturing of the
34
rocks and coal, and the particle size and composition of the coal. If the
coal is accessible to atmospheric oxygen, the degree of oxidation will
be greater. If the coal is below the groundwater table, oxidation will be
less, but, where the coal seam is an aquifer, oxidation may be
pronounced. Fracturing of the coal and adjacent rocks, and the particle
size of the coal have a notable effect on the degree of oxidation. If coal
is sheared or acts as an aquifer, oxidation will be more extensive.
Oxidised coal has been observed at depths of 100 metres (Bustin et al.,
1985). Two types of oxidation tests were performed on the Rujigou
coals:
 determination of the activation energy
 oxidation susceptibility test
2.1.4.1 Determination of the activation energy

The determination of the activation energy and frequency factor of the
oxidation reaction was determined for three different coal samples.
The results of these laboratory tests are presented and applied in the
modelling of spontaneous combustion in section 2.2.
2.1.4.2 Oxidation susceptibility test

The second experiment is based on the determination of the so-called
crossing-point temperature. The equipment required for this test has
initially been described by Banerjee (1982). A modified experimental
set-up is shown in figure 2.7.
Exhaust gas
Filter
Thermocouple 1
Computer
Thermocouple 2
Programmable oven
Crushed coal sample
Filter
Flow controller
Figure 2.7. Schematic representation of the coal oxidation device

The results of this oxidation test have been included in the monitoring
system as a table.
35
Chapter 2
Basically, the instrument consists of a tube filled with 25 grams of

coal. The grain size of the crushed coal always is between 0.5 and 1.0
mm. The tube is placed in a GC-oven which is programmed with a
heating rate of 0.4 °C / min. and using (synthetic) air at a flow rate of
50 ml/min. The oxidation test starts at a temperature of 60 °C and is
terminated at a temperature of 400 °C. One thermocouple is placed in
the oven, whereas the other thermocouple is positioned inside the
crushed coal. The signals from both thermocouples are stored on a
computer and processed in a spreadsheet program. Figure 2.8 displays
the calculated difference in temperature between both thermocouples.
10
6
Tdiff
-2
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Oven temperature
Figure 2.8 Typical thermogram of the coal oxidation test
The point at which the maximum temperature difference is recorded is

considered to be indicative for the susceptibility of coal for oxidation.
The higher this temperature, the less susceptible the coal is for
oxidation. Figure 2.9 shows the correlation between the degree of
coalification (%Rmax) and the temperature difference between the two
thermocouples (Tdiff). It is generally assumed that susceptibility for
oxidation decreases with increasing coalification (Banerjee, 1982).
On the basis of this correlation additional samples can be selected for

the determination of the activation energy.
36
400
380
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
0 1 2 3 4 5
%Rmax
Figure 2.9. Correlation between the degree of coalfication and the

temperature difference between the thermocouples (Tdiff)
2.1.5 Susceptibility for spontaneous combustion
Although the first objective of most analyses presented in this section

was to obtain an overview of the overall variation in coal properties in
the Rujigou area, some of the observed deviations may (partly)
contribute to the demonstrated susceptibility for spontaneous
combustion of the coals. The following conclusions and summary can
be given:
 The coals from the Rujigou basin show deviations from standard
(European/US) classifications schemes and correlation curves. This
may partly be the result of the fact that measurements on Chinese
coals in general have rarely been incorporated in such generalising
correlations. Deviations could, therefore, be caused by the different
maceral composition of the Rujigou coals.
 The level of coalification in the Rujigou coal field shows a much
wider variation than is deduced from the available literature data.
A relative clear zonation of the area seems possible.
 The correlation between volatile matter content and vitrinite
reflectance differs from the standard curve and appears to be more
gradual.
 In most cases the oxygen/carbon ratio of the Rujigou coals is in
accordance with the classical correlation curve.
37
Chapter 2
 In regard to their oxygen content the values of the hydrogen

content of the coals of the Rujigou area appear to be too low in
comparison to standard.
 The oxidation test gives a good proxy record for the susceptibility
of the coals for spontaneous combustion.
2.2 Modelling spontaneous combustion
It has been suggested that spontaneous combustion of coal is the main

cause of the coal fires in the Ruijigo coal basin. In section 2.2 we will
study the possibility of spontaneous combustion. To this end a
conceptual simulation model is developed. This conceptual model
consists of a system of differential equations, which describe the
oxydation reaction and the transport of heat and oxygen through the
coal matrix, in exchange with the atmosphere and exposed to the sun.
This system is solved numerically by means of an implicit finite
differences scheme, using an expanding grid. It is shown that the
model is capable of simulating spontaneous combustion. The model is
subsequently used to study the effects of several variables and
conditions on spontaneous combustion. It is finally concluded that
sponteneous combustion of coal is indeed a likely cause of coal fires in
the Ruijigo coal basin, both at the surface and in the undergound. Air
infiltration in the coal matrix plays an important role. Possible
preventive strategies are indicated.
Section 2.2.1 discusses the oxidation rate of coal. In section 2.2.2 the
differential equations describing heat and oxygen transport are
presented. Section 2.2.3 shows how the diffusive properties of the coal
matrix may be derived as a function of its porosity. Section 2.2.4
presents the formulation of the boundary conditions. The numerical
solution is discussed in section 2.2.5. The input and output of the
model are presented in section 2.2.6. Sections 2.2.7 through 2.2.10
discuss the influences of coal susceptibility, air infiltration, radiation,
and porosity on the spontaneous heating of coal. Long term oxidation
studies are carried out in section 2.2.11. In section 2.2.12 conclusions
are drawn.
2.2.1 The oxidation rate of coal
The oxidation of coal is a chemical reaction which can very simply be

represented as:
COAL + O2  CO2 + heat
38
In reality, the reaction is complicated and may consist of various stages

and pathways which depend also on the presence of other substances
such as water and pyrite. For the overall chemical reaction of dry coal,
Schmal (19..), referring to Kok (19..), presents the following overall
reaction equation:
C100H74O11 + 113 O2  100 CO2 + 37 H2O + 4.2E8 J/kmol O2 (2.1)
For the first part of the reaction, which consists of the chemical
absorption of oxygen at the coal surface, the following reaction is
presented:
C100H74O11 + 17.5 O2  C100H74O46 + 2.5E8 J/kmol O2 (2.2)
Experimentally found reaction heat values generally lie in between the

two above values. The reaction speed depends on a number of factors.
The most important are:

 oxygen content of air
 specific surface area of the coal
 temperature
 coal composition
If we consider a small volume of coal and oxygen, in which the

reaction is steady and not limited by the oxygen supply, then the
reaction rate, i.e. the oxygen depletion rate, may be represented by the
following 'Arrhenius' equation:
Q = Z. F. exp. (–E/RT) (2.3)
The meaning of the symbols used is given in table 2.7. The frequency
factor F can be considered to be a measure of the 'activity' of the coal
matrix in the oxidation process. It represents such factors as the coal
specific surface area and the coal composition. F will normally
increase as the coal matrix becomes finer, but is expected to decrease
due to partial oxidation (weathering) of the matrix.
The two coal properties F and E may be determined by coal oxidation

tests in the laboratory. In the framework of the present project these
oxidation tests were carried out. The tests were carried out in a fixed
bed reactor under isothermal conditions at different temperatures. A
coal sample of about 10 g which had a grain size smaller than 1.0 mm
was used. Air was flown through the sample at a constant elevated
temperature.
Table 2.7. Meaning of symbols used in section 2.2
39
Chapter 2
A Albedo of the (coal) surface -

CA Volumetric heat capacity of air J/m3K
CC Volumetric heat capacity of solid coal J/m3K
CM Volumetric heat capacity of the coal matrix J/m3K
D Diffusion coefficient of oxygen in air m2/s
E Activation energy of coal matrix J/kmol
F Frequency factor of coal matrix 1/s
H Reaction heat of coal oxidation J/kmol_02
Heat flux into the atmosphere by turbulent transport J/m2s
IG Global (direct+diffuse) solar radiation flux at the earth surface J/m2s
LD Downward thermal radiation flux at the surface J/m2s
LU Emitted, upward thermal radiation flux at the surface J/m2s
Q Oxidation reaction rate kmol_O2/m3s
R Gas constant (=8314) J/kmol.K
RN Net radiation absorbed by the coal surface J/m2s
S Solar constant (flux outside the atmosphere: 1400) J/m2s
T(z,t) Temperature of the coal matrix at depth z and time t K
T0 Temperature of the coal surface K
TA Air temperature at height zA K
Z(z,t) Oxygen content inside the coal matrix pore space kmol/m3
Z0 Oxygen content at the surface kmol/m3
ZA Oxygen content of air kmol/m3
C Gravimetric heat capacity of air (1010) J/kg
F Atmospheric (in)stability factor -
iS Solar inclination degree
sA Air specific humidity at height zA -
T Time s
vA Wind speed at height zA m/s
W Air infiltration speed into the coal matrix m/s
Z Depth m
z0 Aerodynamic roughness length of the surface m
zA Reference height of air temperature and windspeed m
 Atmosphere transmissivity of solar radiation -
 Finite difference
 Turbulent heat exchange coefficient between the coal surface m/s
and atmosphere level zA
 Solar declination relative to the equator -
 Porosity of the coal matrix -
0 Emissivity of the (coal) surface -
A Effective downward emissivity of the atmosphere -
o
 Geographical latitude N
A Thermal conductivity of air J/mKs
C Thermal conductivity of solid coal J/mKs
0 Atmospheric optical depth -
M Thermal conductivity of the coal matrix J/mKs
 Density of air kg/m3
40
17.5
17.0
16.5
16.0
15.5
y = 3816.8x + 6.0027
15.0
14.5
14.0
0.0024 0.0025 0.0026 0.0027 0.0028 0.0029 0.0030
1/Temperature (1/K)
Figure 2.10. Plot of the natural logarithm of the oxygen depletion rate
against the inverse temperature of the coal
The kinetics of the coal oxidation process was determined by

measuring the CO and CO2 content in the outflow of the reactor. A gas
chromatograph was used to measure the CO and CO2 content. From the
increase in the amount of CO and CO2 between the inflow and the
outflow, the oxygen depletion rate (Z/t) was determined. The
oxidation test was repeated at different temperatures. Each test took
more than 20 hours. The data analysis consists of making a plot of the
natural logarithm of the oxygen depletion rate ln(Z/t) against the
inverse temperature (1/T), as shown in figure 2.10. A straight line
through the data points is determined by means of a linear regression,
which results in a regression equation of the following type:
–ln(Q) = a/T + b (2.4)
It follows from equation (2.3) and (2.4) that
–ln(Q) = E/(RT) –ln(Z.F)
and so
a = E/R (2.5a)
b = –ln (Z.F) (2.5b)
In equation (2.5), Z is the oxygen content of the inflowing air (0.009

kmol_O2/m3) and R is the gas constant (8314 J/kmol K). From the
above equations, the frequency factor F and the activation energy E
may be determined:
E = aR (2.6a)
F = exp(–b)/Z (2.6b)
41
Chapter 2
Table 2.8. Observed ranges of the activation energy and frequency

factor
Sample E FZ F Temp range
(106J/kmol) (kmol_O2/m3s) (1/s) (oC)
960344 65.6 – 70.4 45 – 118 4500 – 11800 180 – 260
960316 73.3 – 75.6 295 – 979 29500 – 97900 180 – 260
971078 34.6 – 43.9 0.007 – 0.08 0.7 – 8.0 70 – 130
This analysis may be carried out for different durations of the reaction.
The values found for E are fairly constant. F may change with the
duration of the reaction. The observed ranges of E and F are presented
in table 2.8.
It is remarkable that the test in the low-temperature range gives very

different values for E and F than in the high-temperature range.
Banerjee (1985) discusses this change in the reaction that occurs from
low to higher temperatures. He notes that in the low temperature range
the activation energy E increases with temperature, while above a so-
called threshold temperature (80 – 120 oC) a more stable reaction takes
place. He presents values of E and F for a number of Indian coal types
both at 70 oC and beyond the threshold temperature. These values are
in the following ranges:
Table 2.9. Range of values for activation energy and frequency factor
for Indian coals.
Banerjee (1985, p.17) at 70 oC beyond threshold
6
E (10 J/kmol) 25 – 33 47 – 54
F (1/s) 1 – 48 700 – 45000
From a comparison with the previous table, it is clear that the

activation energies of our samples are somewhat higher than those of
Banerjee. The frequency factors of our samples show an even larger
range.
2.2.2 Heat and oxygen transport in coal and spontaneous

combustion
In the previous section, the equation that describes the speed of the
oxidation of coal was presented. This reaction requires oxygen from
the air and generates heat. The heat that is generated will tend to
increase the temperature and, as one can see from equation (2.3), this
would again increase the reaction speed. In this way, the reaction may
be accelerated and the coal may finally ignite. However, there may be
other factors which prevent this scenario. The heat generated may flow
42
into the environment and the temperature not rise sufficiently. Another
reason could be that the oxygen required for the reaction is depleted
and not supplied with sufficient speed. Therefore, to study the
spontaneous combustion of coal, it is necessary to take such aspects
into account and to consider and describe the flow of heat and oxygen
through the coal matrix.
To this end, we will consider heat and oxygen flow through a coal
mass with an assumed depth of at least 2 meters. The coal matrix is
exposed to the atmosphere and the sun at its surface. Heat and oxygen
exchange with the atmosphere and heat and oxygen flow within the
coal mass are assumed to be uni-dimensional and to take place
perpendicular to the surface. The coal mass may be solid coal, fine
coal or coal dust and is characterised by a porosity .
2.2.2.1 Differential equations

The non-steady flow of heat through the coal mass may be described
with the continuity equation for heat flow, which, in fact, states that
the amount of heat stored inside an infinitesimal volume of coal equals
the net inflow of heat to that infinitesimal volume plus the heat
generated inside that infinitesimal volume:
CM (T/t) = M (2T/z2) +  CA w (T/z) + Q.H (2.7)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
The meaning of the various terms in this equation is as follows:

(a) = storage of heat
(b) = conduction of heat in minus conduction out
(c) = mass flow of heat in minus mass flow out
(d) = generation of heat due to oxidation of coal
For oxygen flow through the (pore space of the) coal matrix a similar
continuity equation is valid:
 (Z/t) = D (Z2/z2) + . w. (Z/z) – Q (2.8)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
The meaning of the respective terms is here:

(a) = storage of oxygen
(b) = diffusion of oxygen in minus diffusion out
(c) = mass flow of oxygen in minus mass flow out
(d) = depletion of oxygen due to oxidation of coal
43
Chapter 2
2.2.2.2 Boundary conditions

Differential equations (2.7) and (2.8) are coupled by the source/sink
term (d) in both equations. Our objective is to solve these equations
simultaneously and find the functions T(z, t) and Z(z, t). This solution,
however is not fully determined by the two differential equations
alone, but also requires the specification of the conditions at the
beginning and at the boundaries of the depth-time domain being
considered. The initial condition (t = 0), for example could be
T(z, 0) = Ta (2.9a)
Z(z, 0) = Za (2.9b)
This means that, at the beginning, the temperature and oxygen content
at every depth in the coal mass are assumed to be equal to the
corresponding values in the air above the coal mass. The boundary
conditions will be specified at two levels. One is at the lower boundary
at depth d in the coal mass, where the influence of the weather and coal
oxidation can be considered negligible. Here we assume that the
temperature and oxygen content are constant in time; for example they
may also be equal to the values in the atmosphere:
T(d, t) = Ta (2.10a)
Z(d, t) = Za (2.10b)
The upper boundary condition, at the surface of the coal mass (depth z
= 0), is a more complicated one. Here the conditions are not steady, but
may vary as a result of solar radiation and the exchange of heat
between the coal surface and the atmosphere. The boundary condition
at the surface can be expressed in terms of the requirement that no
energy is lost from the surface and thus the fluxes at both sides of the
surface balance. This energy balance at the surface may be expressed
as follows:
M (T/z) z=0 +  CA w T = RN –  CA (T0-TA) (2.11)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
where
(a) = heat flux into the coal by conduction
(b) = heat flux into the coal mass flow (air infiltration)
(c) = net (solar and terrestrial) radiation absorbed at the surface
(d) = heat flux into the atmosphere by turbulent transport (H)
In the heat budget equation (2.11) we have assumed that the coal is dry
and that there is no latent heat flux due to evaporation of water. Under
most conditions, water will have a cooling influence on the coal mass.
44
Since the conditions in our test area are semi-arid and since we are
interested in the worst-case conditions, water infiltration and
evaporation have been omitted in the system of equations.
The boundary condition for the oxygen flow is found from the
requirement that the fluxes at both side of the surface are the same:
 D (Z/z) z=0 +  w Z =  (Z0 – ZA) (2.12)

(a) (b) (c)
where:
(a) = oxygen flux into the coal by diffusion
(b) = oxygen flux into the coal mass by air infiltration
(c) = oxygen supply to the coal surface by turbulent transport
2.2.3 Calculation of the diffusive properties of the coal matrix
The calculation of the thermal conductivity of the coal mass (M) as a

function of the porosity uses the method of De Vries (1952). The
equations are as follows:
M = [ A + f (1 – ) C] /[ + f (1 – )] (2.13)
where:
f = 0.66/(1+0.125 C/A) + 0.33/(1+0.75 C/A) (2.14)
The values taken for the thermal conductivies of (solid) coal and air
are
C = 3.4 (W/mK) (Guan Haiyan, 1990)

A = 0.0235 (W/mK)
The volumetric heat capacity of the coal mass can be found as the
weighted average of the volumetric heat capacity of the solid coal and
that of air.
CM = (1 – ) CC +  C (2.15)
The volumetric heat capacity of the solid coal may be taken as

(Schmal, 1989)
45
Chapter 2
CC = 1.5*106 (J/m3 K)
The volumetric heat capacity of air is temperature dependent because

the density of air is temperature dependent, as follows from the gas
law. The value may be calculated from
CA =  c = 3.52*106 / T (J/m3 K) = 1.174 (at 300 K)
Since CA is so much smaller than CC, we may safely neglect the

second term in equation (2.15).
The diffusivity of oxygen in air may also be found in the literature. We

have used the value given by Schmal (1989):
D = 2*10–5 (m2/s)
To find the effective diffusion coefficient through the coal matrix, the
above value is multiplied by the porosity.
2.2.4 Calculation of the surface heat balance components
The formulation of the radiation terms and of the sensible heat flux
into the atmosphere are disciplines on their own. We will only briefly
describe their calculation.
2.2.4.1 Radiation
The net radiation input at the coal surface consists of solar and
terrestrial radiation components, and can be formulated as follows:
RN = (1 – A) IG + LD – LU (2.16)
Solar radiation
IG is the global radiation coming from the sun. It consists of a direct

part which comes directly from the sun, and a diffuse part, scattered by
the atmosphere. A is the albedo, or reflection coefficient, of the (coal)
surface. In a cloud-free situation, the global radiation on a horizontal
surface depends on the solar inclination relative to the normal (iS) and
on the turbidity of the atmosphere. In its most simple form, the global
radiation can be formulated as follows:
IG = S *  * cos (iS) (2.17)
46
Here S is the solar constant, i.e. the solar radiation flux outside the
atmosphere (1400 W/m2), and  is the transmissivity of the
atmosphere. The solar inclination is a function of the latitude (), the
solar declination relative to the equator () and the time of the day (t):
cos (is) = sin()*sin() – cos()*cos()*cos(0.262*t) (2.18)
The solar declination may be calculated from
 = 0.441 * sin (0.0172*day – 1.377) (radians) (2.19)
The atmospheric transmissivity calculation is based on theory by

Kondratyev (1952):
 = (b – a) / {(b (1 – A) – (a – bA) exp[(a – b)0]} (2.20)
The equations presented apply to the calculation of incoming radiation

on a horizontal surface. The theory, however, may be extended to
include inclined surfaces. The corresponding equations, however, will
not be presented here.
Terrestrial radiation
Terrestrial radiation is the thermal radiation emitted by the Earth's

surface and by the atmosphere. At the surface of the coal mass two
fluxes have to be considered. First, there is the emitted, upward
thermal radiation flux (LU). According to the Stefan Bolzmann law,
this can be calculated from the surface temperature (T0) and the surface
emissivity (0):
LU = 0  T04 (2.21)
The second radiation flux is the downward thermal radiation flux

consisting of radiation emitted by the atmosphere. The empirical
formulation is similar:
LD = A  TA4 (2.22)
Here A is the effective emissivity of the atmosphere, which can

empirically be calculated from the humidity of the air.
2.2.4.2 Sensible heat flux into the atmosphere

The sensible heat flux into the atmosphere (H) is usually formulated as
47
Chapter 2
H = CA (T0 – TA) / rA = CA  (T0 – TA) (2.23)
The atmospheric resistance rA, or its inverse, and the atmospheric heat
transfer coefficient  depend on the windspeed (vA), the (aerodynamic)
roughness of the surface (z0) and on the stability of the atmosphere.
The latter in turn depends on the temperature difference between the
surface and the air. In the daytime, when T0 is larger than TA, the air at
the surface is less dense than the air at higher levels and this increases
the turbulent exchange. At night, the reverse is true and turbulent
exchange is suppressed.
 = 0.16 * vA *  / [ln (zA/z0)] 2 (2.24)
where  is the stability function, which depends on (T0 – TA). The

detailed calculation of this function, using Monin-Obukhov theory,
will not be discussed here. The windspeed vA is that measured at the
level zA.
2.2.5 Solving the differential equations for heat and oxygen flow
Analytical solutions for the system of coupled differential equations

(2.7) and (2.8) with the boundary conditions (2.11) and (2.12) are not
known. Therefore, we will have to find the solutions T (z, t) and Z (z,
t) numerically.
The numerical solution method used is known as the implicit finite

difference approach with expanding grid. In this approach, the
differentials in the previous equations are replaced by finite
differences. This is illustrated in figure 2.11, which shows a grid
representing the z and t co-ordinates of our problem. Let us consider
grid point j at depth zj and time t. At this point, we rewrite the various
terms of differential equation (2.11) as follows:
CM (T/t) = CM (Tj - Tj-)/t (2.25)
M (2T/z2) = M [(T/z) j+1 – (T/z) j] / (zj + zj+1)/2

= 2 M [(Tj+1 – Tj)/zj+1 – (Tj – Tj-1)/zj) / (zj + zj+1) (2.26)
 CA w (T/z) =  CA w (Tj+1 – Tj-1) / (zj + zj+1) (2.27)
48
zA
TA
atmosphere
depth coal surface T0 upper boundary
coal matrix
T j-1
 zj
z
T j- Tj
 z j+1
T j+1
t lower boundary
t-1 t
time
Figure 2.11. Schematic representation of the grid and finite differences

used in the numerical solution of the differential equations
The temperature at grid point j at time t – 1 (Tj-) is known from the

initial conditions. So, in the above finite difference equations, we have
3 unknowns, Tj-1, Tj and Tj+1, and we can now express differential
equation (2.11) at point j by the following linear equation:
Aj Tj-1 + Bj Tj +Cj Tj+1 + Dj = 0 (2.28)
where
Aj = 2 M / [zj*(zj + zj+1)] +  CA w / (zj + zj+1)

Cj = 2 M / [zjj+1*(zj + zj+1)] -  CA w / (zj + zj+1)
Bj = – CM/t – Aj – Cj
Dj = Q*H + CM*Tj-/t
The result is, therefore, a linear equation with three unknown

temperatures for each grid point. Similar finite difference equations
may be elaborated for the boundary conditions. All together, this
results in n equations with n unknowns which may be solved for the
temperature at each grid point. The same methodology is applied
49
Chapter 2
simultaneously for the differential equation (2.12) and the

corresponding boundary conditions, which describe the oxygen
transport.
To obtain an accurate solution, the finite differences have to be made

small. Very small z and t however lead to there being very many
points and long computation times. Small finite differences are
particularly required where rapid changes occur; i.e. close to the coal
surface. To reduce the number of computations, an expanding grid is
used. The grid starts at the surface with z = 0.001m. The grid distance
then expands by a fixed multiplier, in such a way that 50 points cover
exactly the 2 m depth to the lower boundary In this way, only 50 points
are required instead of 2000 m. The time step has to be relatively small
compared to the changes occurring at the upper boundary during the
daily cycle. A time step of t = 900 s appeared to be a good choice for
obtaining sufficient accuracy at high computation speed.
2.2.6 COALTEMP simulation model
The formulations and calculations described in the previous sections

were programmed in computer code. Versions in FORTRAN and
DELPHI (object-oriented PASCAL), which run on a PC under DOS
and WINDOWS, respectively, were produced. These programmes are
referred to as the COALTEMP simulation model. This model enables
the simulation of coal oxidation and the related heat and oxygen flow
in a coal matrix and can be used to investigate spontaneous
combustion.
The outputs of the model are the values of temperature and oxygen
content at the grid points as a function of time. The results of the
simulation with the above input values, covering a period of two days,
is shown in figure 2.12a (temperatures) and figure 2.12b (oxygen
contents).
The temperature shows the typical behaviour. The highest temperature

at the surface occurs just after noon. The greater the depth, the lower
the amplitude and the larger the phase shift.
The oxygen content in the coal matrix shows a remarkable pattern. At

night, when the surface temperature is lower than the air temperature,
the turbulent exchange with the atmosphere is suppressed by
atmospheric stability. As a consequence, almost no oxygen is supplied
from the atmosphere to the coal matrix. Due to oxidation inside the
coal matrix, the oxygen is depleted and, without sufficient supply from
outside, the oxygen contents decrease. After sunrise, the surface heats
50
up and the atmosphere becomes unstable, thus enhancing turbulent

exchange. As a result of the oxygen supply from the atmosphere, the
oxygen content in the coal matrix rises and tends to stabilise, until after
sunset, when the atmosphere becomes stable again.
Table 2.10. The input to be specified by the user

Input variables of COALTEMP Symbo Example Units
l value
Climate
Day of the year 180
Wind speed at reference height vA 1 m/s
Air temperature at reference height TA 300 K
Air specific humidity at reference sA 0.006 –
height
Reference height zA 200 m
Atmospheric optical depth 0 2 –
Temperature at lower boundary T(2,t) 300 K
Site
Air infiltration speed w 0.000 m/s
Geographical latitude  40 degree
Aerodynamic roughness of the surface z0 0.0001 m
Albedo or reflectivity of the surface A 0.05 –
Emissivity of the surface 0 0.95 –
Slope dip 0 degree
Slope direction 180 degree
Coal
Porosity of the coal  0.5 –
Frequency factor A 10 1/s
Activation energy E 40*106 J/kmol
General
Gridpoint spacing at the surface 0.001 m
Depth of lower boundary 2 m
Number of gridpoints 50
Time step 300 s
Output time step 3600 s
Number of time steps to end 138 (=1 day)
The meteorological conditions do, of course, influence the results. The

example given here is, in a climatological sense, more or less a worst-
case situation for the province of Ningxia (40 oN), and one which
should be favourable for spontaneous combustion. We have assumed a
rather high air temperature (300 K = 27 oC at 200 m height), a rather
high temperature at the lower boundary inside the coal matrix (300 K),
and a cloudless day in the middle of June with a very high sun and
very low windspeed (vA = 1 m/s at 200 m height). We will not show
the effects of varying these climatological conditions, since, for
51
Chapter 2
spontaneous combustion to occur, we particularly need to consider this

kind of extreme situation.
0
375
0.006
355 0.017
335 0.036
315 0.067
0.122
295
0.215
275
0.376
0 20 40 60
0.652
time (hrs)
1.125
2 (a)
0
9.2
0.006
9 0.017
8.8 0.036
8.6 0.067
8.4 0.122
8.2 0.215
0.376
8
0.652
0 20 40 60
1.125
time (hr)
2
(b)
Figure 2.12 a, b. Temperature (a) and oxygen content (b) in the coal
matrix as a function of time at various depth levels (in m) as simulated
with the COALTEMP model using the input shown in table 2.10
2.2.7 The effect of coal susceptibility on spontaneous combustion
In this section, we will investigate whether we can simulate

spontaneous combustion. Coal which is susceptible to spontaneous
combustion has a low activation energy (E) and a high frequency
factor (F). We have chosen the most sensitive coal presented by
Banerjee (1985). This is the coal sample from Talcher (Orissa) with E
= 26.88 * 106 (J/kmol) and F = 6 (1/s).
52
(a)
0
1000
0.006
800 0.017
0.036
600
0.067
400 0.122
200 0.215
0 50 100 150 0.376
0.652
time (hr)
1.125
(b)
0
10
0.006
8 0.017
6 0.036
0.067
4
0.122
2
0.215
0 0.376
0 50 100 150 0.652
time (hr) 1.125
2
Figure 2.13 (a, b). Temperature simulation for Talcher coal dust
(Banerjee, 1982) with a porosity of 50 %, but without air infiltration,
showing spontaneous combustion after 75 hours
As in the previous simulation we assume a coal matrix porosity of

50%, which may be representative of slack or coal dust. The
simulation results are shown in figures 2.13(a) and 2.13(b).
In this case, we have simulated a four-day period for the very reason
that with this sensitive coal spontaneous combustion appears to occur
at the beginning of the fourth day. Heating of the coal at shallow
depths, however, is already evident during the night after the first day,
when the temperature in the depth range 6 to 12 cm has reached almost
the boiling point of water: about 370 K. The night thereafter, the
temperature has already reached 440 K. In the early morning of the
fourth day, the temperature rises exponentially to levels far above 1000
K: after almost 80 hrs the coal is burning!
53
Chapter 2
2.2.8 The effect of air infiltration on spontaneous combustion
In this section we repeat the previous simulations, but this time with a
small air infiltration speed of 0.001 m/s. The results are shown in
figure 2.14. This time spontaneous combustion occurs after only 20
hrs. Air infiltration apparently favours spontaneous combustion.
(a)
0
1000
0.006
900
0.017
800
0.036
700
0.067
600
0.122
500
400 0.215
300 0.376
200 0.652
0 50 100 150 1.125
time (hr) 2
(b)
0
10
0.006
9
8 0.017
7 0.036
6 0.067
5 0.122
4
0.215
3
2 0.376
1 0.652
0 1.125
0 50 100 150 2
time (hr)
Figure 2.14 (a, b). Temperature and oxygen content as a function of

time simulated for Talcher coal dust (Banerjee, 1982) with a porosity
of 50 % and an air infiltration speed of 0.001 m/s. Spontaneous
combustion occurs after about 20 hours
54
2.2.9 The influence of radiation; will spontaneous combustion

occur underground?
This question can be investigated by setting the net radiation to zero

the whole time. The air infiltration speed is taken to be the same as in
the previous case: 0.001 m/s. The resulting simulation results are
shown in figure 3.14 (a, b). It is clear that in this case too, spontaneous
combustion can be expected. Spontaneous combustion occurs about 2
hrs later than in the previous above-ground case.
(a)
0
1000
0.006
900 0.017
800 0.036
temperature (K)
700 0.067
0.122
600
0.215
500
0.376
400 0.652
300 1.125
200 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time (hr)
(b)
0
10
0.006
9
oxygen content (mol/m3)
0.017
8
0.036
7
0.067
6
0.122
5
4 0.215
3 0.376
2 0.652
1 1.125
0 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time (hrs)
Figure 2.15 (a, b). Temperature and oxygen content simulation for
Talcher coal dust (Banerjee, 1982) in an underground situation (no
irradiation) with a porosity of 50 %, and an air infiltration speed of
0.001 m/s. Spontaneous combustion occurs after 20 hours
55
Chapter 2
2.2.10 The effect of porosity: solid coal versus coal dust
The effect of coal porosity is demonstrated by repeating the simulation

for the Talcher coal (section 2.2.7) with a porosity of 0.1 instead of
0.5. This can be assumed representative for solid coal. The results are
shown in figures 2.16(a) and 2.16(b).
In this case no spontaneous combustion occurs within the given period.

However, the temperatures at some depths are rising and, in the longer
term, spontaneous combustion cannot be excluded.
(a)
0
375
0.006
365
0.017
355
0.036
temperature (K)
345
0.067
335
0.122
325
0.215
315
0.376
305
0.652
295
1.125
285
2
275
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time (hr)
(b)
0
10
0.006
oxygen content (mol/m3)
9
0.017
8
7 0.036
6 0.067
5 0.122
4 0.215
3
0.376
2
0.652
1
0 1.125
0 50 100 150 2
time (hr)
Fig 2.16 a, b. Temperature and oxygen content simulation for solid

Talcher coal, assuming a porosity of 10 % and without air infiltration.
Spontaneous combustion does not occur during the given time perio;.
however, temperatures are still notably rising
56
2.2.11 Long-term simulations for coal of the Rujigou coalfield
In section 2.2.1, we have reported the values of the activation energy E

and frequency factor F that were determined in the laboratory. We will
use the values determined in the low-temperature range for coal
sample 971078 (E = 43.9*106 and F = 8) to simulate the temperature
and oxygen content of coal dust with a porosity of 50 % under the
same conditions as given in table 2.10. It is clear from the experiment
described in section 2.2.6, with a slightly more susceptible coal (E =
40*106, F = 10), that combustion does not take place within 2 days.
We will now investigate whether in the present case, combustion may
occur after a longer time period. The simulation was, therefore, carried
out for a period of 4 years. The results of the simulation are plotted in
figure 2.17 (a, b).
(a)
0
375
0.006
365
midnight temperature (K)
355 0.017
345 0.036
335
0.067
325
315 0.122
305 0.215
295
0.376
285
275 0.652
0 500 1000 1500 1.125
tim e (days) 2
(b)
0
9.1
0.006
midnight oxygen content
9.05
0.017
9
0.036
8.95
(mol/m3)
0.067
8.9
0.122
8.85
0.215
8.8
0.376
8.75
0.652
8.7
0 500 1000 1500 1.125
2
tim e (days )
Figure 2.17 (a, b). Midnight temperature and oxygen content as a

function of time for a period of 4 years, as simulated with the
COALTEMP simulation model
57
Chapter 2
Only the temperature and oxygen content at midnight are shown. From
this simulation result it is clear that, during the 4 years, no spontaneous
combustion occurs. During the first year, the temperature increase
mainly occurs at depths of 12 to 21 cm. Thereafter, the zone of highest
temperature gradually shifts upwards and reaches the surface after
about 1000 days, i.e. after almost 3 years. During this time, the oxygen
content remains close to the maximum: almost 9 mol/m3. For this
reason, applying air infiltration will hardly increase the oxygen content
and a corresponding simulation gives almost the same temperature
patterns as in the previous figure 2.16 and there is no spontaneous
combustion.
(a)
600
0
550
0.006
500 0.017
0.036
450
0.067
400 0.122
0.215
350
0.376
300 0.652
1.125
250
2
200
0 500 1000 1500
tim e (hrs)
(b)
0
10
0.006
9
0.017
8
7 0.036
6 0.067
5 0.122
4 0.215
3
0.376
2
0.652
1
0 1.125
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2
time (hrs)
Figure 2.18 (a, b). Midnight temperature and oxygen content

simulated for a Ningxia coal with slightly higher susceptibility (E =
40*107, F=10) than in the previous example
58
We also repeated this long-term simulation for the slightly more

sensitive coal mentioned at the beginning of this section (E = 40*106,
F=10). The results are shown in figure 2.18.
The results show that the temperatures below the surface layer rise
considerably and reach a value of almost 600 K after about half a year
and then remain almost constant. The temperature cannot rise further
because of the limited oxygen. One can expect, however, if for some
reason the top layer of the coal matrix is disturbed, that the sudden
contact with high oxygen levels will set the coal on fire. One can also
expect that some air infiltration will enhance the possibility of ignition.
We, therefore, repeated this simulation with an air infiltration rate of
0.001 m/s. The results are shown in the following figures 2.19 (a, b).
(a)
375
0
365
0.006
355
0.017
345 0.036
335 0.067
325 0.122
315 0.215
305 0.376
295 0.652
1.125
285
2
275
0 10 20 30 40 50
tim e (days)
(b)
10 0
midnight oxygen content (mol/m3)
9 0.006
8 0.017
7 0.036
6 0.067
5 0.122
4 0.215
3 0.376
2 0.652
1 1.125
0 2
0 10 20 30 40 50
time (days)
Figure 2.19 (a, b). Midnight temperature and oxygen content

simulated for a Ningxia coal with the same susceptibility (E = 40*107,
F = 10) as in the previous sample, but this time with an air infiltration
rate of 0.001 m/s
59
Chapter 2
Because of the air infiltration, the oxygen content remains close to the
maximum at all depths. As a consequence, the heat generation due to
oxidation is not limited and spontaneous combustion occurs after only
35 days!
2.2.12 Spontaneous combustion: summary and conclusions
From the simulation results shown in the previous section, we can

summarise the following observations:
1. Talcher coal from India is very susceptible to spontaneous

combustion and can catch fire easily.
2. Under solar irradiation, ignition takes place sooner than it does
underground. High porosity and air infiltration increase the risk.
3. The coal sample 971078 from the Rujigou coalfield showed much
lower susceptibility than the Talcher coal from India. Spontaneous
combustion, even under favourable conditions, could not be
demonstrated within a period of 4 years.
4. A slightly more susceptible coal, however, would heat up to 600 K
after 60 days but would not catch fire due to the limited oxygen.
5. The same coal, would, however, catch fire after 30 days if an air
infiltration rate of 1 mm/s was assumed.
From these observations we may draw the following conclusions:
1. Slack and coal dust are the most likely candidates for spontaneous
combustion, particularly when exposed to the sun and air
infiltration.
2. Solid coal is not likely to catch fire.
3. Cleaning up slack and coal dust in the environment of the coal
outcrop during and after open pit mining activities will reduce the
risk of new fires.
4. In the case of underground mining, the same applies but may be
less feasible. In this case, it is important to seal off the old galleries
and shafts in those parts where coal exploitation has finished.
2.3 The burning process of coal
This section describes the overall combustion mechanisms of coal,

from the molecular level up to the physical interaction of the fire with
its environment.
Coal seams may be set on fire by spontaneously ignited heaps of coal

dust, by heaps of burning tailing, humans, or even by lightning. In this
chapter, a description of the mechanisms that drive coal fires.
60
Coal fires are controlled by three factors: temperature, fuel and

oxygen. These can be found in the simplified combustion reaction of
coal:
COAL + O2  CO2 + H2O + Heat
To indicate the influence of these factors on the intensity of the fire,

the following plot is illustrative:
Fire area
Non fire area
Figure 2.20. Combustion triangle
The coal fire will thrive only when the values of the three controlling
factors are located in the red area. A situation with low oxygen, high
fuel content and high temperature is plotted in the lower right-hand
corner, outside the fire area, in which case no combustion is possible.
The effects of changes in the environment are also illustrated by this

diagram. Hot coal in a low-oxygen environment is more likely to
combust when it is brought into contact with fresh air; the plotted
situation may well change from that corresponding to the lower right-
hand corner to the middle of the graph. This is a common situation
directly after the collapse of overburden. If a heap of coal is not yet on
fire, but the controlling factors place it in the red zone, it is clear that
ignition will quickly lead to rapid combustion. Conversely, lowering
one of the three components will result in a slowing down of the
combustion process.
The combustion of coal is a solid-gas reaction as well being a reaction

in the gaseous phase. The solid coal surface will react with the gases
near its surface. The reaction in the gaseous phase occurs when the
volatiles expelled from the coal are oxidised. The coal consumption
rate is usually limited by the rate of mass transfer through the
61
Chapter 2
boundary layer between the coal and the gas. This mass transfer is
controlled by convection and, to a much lesser degree, by diffusion.
Due to the high reaction heat of coal and its volatiles, the oxygen-coal
reaction is highly exothermic. The temperature difference with the
environment will increase the convective gas transport, thus increasing
the oxygen transport. Under these favourable conditions, the fire will
spread quickly. This spreading will in most cases decrease when a lack
of either oxygen or fuel occurs. If the combustion spreads into the
subsurface, lack of oxygen is usually the factor controlling the burning
rate.
2.3.1 Reaction products
The volume of coal combusted is related to the amount of gas and heat
produced. Below, an estimate relating the total weight of the exhaust
gas and the amount of air needed for the combustion, to the amount of
coal combusted is calculated. The amount of heat produced per unit
weight of coal can be found directly from the literature, or a value may
be available from laboratory results. It is more difficult to relate the
amount of coal combusted to the volume of exhaust gas produced.
We can calculate the volume of gas produced by applying a very

general reaction equation for the combustion of coal and combining
this with the laws of mass and heat conservation. In the absence of
specific data for the Ningxia coal, assumptions are made using general
data available from the literature.
A general reaction formula for the combustion of coal is:
4 C2H + 9 O2 → 8 CO2 + 2 H2O + ΔH (2.29)
The following calculation was done to estimate the amount of air

consumed per kilogram coal. Knowing that 1 m3 air at 273 Kelvin
contains 21 mass % O2. One kg Coal requires 8.63 m3 of air. The
calculation is outlined in table 2.11.
The total amount of air needed for total combustion is approximately

11.1 kg / kg coal. Because of conservation of mass, the mass of gas
leaving the fire is 11.1 + 1 = 12.1 kg / kg coal combusted.
62
Table 2.11. Calculation of air consumption

constituent quantity units calculation value unit
a. (C2H) 1 mol = 2 x 12 + 1 25 g
b. Coal 1 kg = 94 % x 1000 940 g C2H
c. Coal 1 kg =b/a 36 mol C2H
e. C2H 36 mol = c x 4/9 81 mol O2
g. O2 81 mol = d / 21 mass % 8.63 m3 Air/kg
Coal
h. Air 1 m3 = 1.293 kg/m3
i. Air 8.63 m3 =gxh 11.1 kg Air / kg
Coal
Table 2.12. Calculation of CO2 production

constituent quantity units calculation value Unit
j. CO2 1 mol = 12 + 2 x 16 44 g / mol CO2
k. Coal 1 kg =ex2 72 mol CO2
l. Coal 1 kg = jxk 3200 g CO2
The amount of CO2 produced by the combustion is estimated at 3.2 kg

CO2/kg Coal. Neglecting the 1% of CO2 in the natural gas entering the
fire, the percentage of CO2 in the exhaust gas is thus 26.7 mass %.
2.3.2 Surface versus subsurface fires
Open, or surface, fires denote any fire that is in direct contact with the
atmosphere. Open fires are unlikely to exist for a long period of time
and are likely to evolve quickly into subsurface fires. Due to the good
oxygen supply, open fires burn vividly as long as enough fuel is
available. However, due to the high fuel consumption at the surface,
this type of fire soon runs out of fuel. The subsurface coal, if not
already on fire, will then be the only direction in which the fire can
spread.
Compared to weathered coal, fresh coal has a higher calorific value

and contains more volatiles. Because of the insulating effect of the
overburden, the heat of combustion can dissipate less easily into the
subsurface. Referring to the combustion triangle, two of the three
factors are, therefore, favourable: fuel and temperature. The third side
of the triangle, oxygen availability, is less favourable, and, therefore,
controls the rate of combustion.
In most cases, a balance between the surface and subsurface situations

will be maintained. The result is a subsurface fire that spreads along
63
Chapter 2
the outcrop strike direction. It has been stated that the fire spreads
towards the point from which the oxygen is entering (S.C. Banerjee,
1985). Subsurface combustion is relatively slow compared to surface
combustion. For this reason, the subsurface type of fires will burn for
the longer time.
2.3.2.1 Open fires

An open coal fire is defined as a coal fire that burns in direct contact
with the atmosphere. Much research has been done on the ignition of
these fires. Because of their low rate of occurrence (if any), not much
research was put into the burning of open fires or into the
transformation of a just-ignited open fire into a subsurface fire. Open
fires are seldom encountered in the field. The most common
occurrence of these is where it has been decided to load-out an active
fire, or when mining takes place where the fire was already a problem.
Open fires in (abandoned) underground mines are probably even more
rare: soon after ignition the overburden will start to collapse.
As stated before, this type of fire only occurs over a short period of
time and the area affected is relatively small. Therefore, these fires are
unlikely to be detected by remote sensing.
2.3.2.2 Subsurface fires

The combustion rate is, in general, dependent on the oxygen supply to
the coal. In the case of subsurface combustion, the oxygen required
enters the fire via cracks or fissures in the rock or coal, or via old mine
shafts or tunnels. The permeability of the adjacent rock is controlled by
the collapse of the overburden as a consequence of the reaction to the
disappearance of the coal. Subsidence occurring during and after
mining has the same influence.
Heat generated by the coal fire is dissipated in several ways:

 Heat is transported to the surface by the exhaust gases.
 Heat is conducted through the rock.
 Heat is used for the vaporisation of volatiles.
 Heat changes the mineralogy of the rock (baking).
As previously discussed in this section, most long-standing coal fires

are subsurface fires. In general, subsurface fires are oxygen-controlled.
The fires will develop a typical cross section (see figures 2.21 to 2.23):
64
Figure 2.21. Cross section of a subsurface fire
Figure 2.22. Clos-up of the fire
Figure 2.23. Fire clos-up with indexes

1 primary combustion zone 7 fresh coal
2 secondary combustion zone 8 degassed coal
3 tertiary combustion zone 9 tar zone
4 collapsed zone of burnt rock 10 'normal' rock in
situ
5 oxygen rich inlet 11 'burnt' rock in situ
6 exhaust gas outlet 12 ash zone
65
Chapter 2
From the preceding discussion, it is clear that the oxygen supply is the
most important parameter controlling the rate of combustion of
subsurface fires. The oxygen supply is controlled by:
 the permeability of the inlet
 the permeability of the outlet
 the ‘hydrostatic’ pressure balance between the hot gases in the
outlet and the cool gases in the inlet and atmosphere.
 the length of the inlet/outlet system
The inlet/outlet system consists in most cases of collapsed rock, coal

and/or ashes. The bulk permeability depends on the form and size-
distribution of these materials. The burn-out of the coal supporting the
overburden results in subsidence. Because of the subsidence, the rock
is broken. The distribution of the size of the collapsed rock material
depends on the joint-spacing and continuity, and on the thermal history
of the rock and is difficult to predict. Even after collapse, the outlet
material is likely to further disintegrate due to thermal processes. The
better graded and finer the material, the lower the bulk permeability.
The most important roof failure mechanisms above a fire zone are:
 large scale collapse
 spalling
 melting
The large-scale collapse takes place when the rock is not able to
support the open space of the burning chamber. The result is a
disrupted, permeable mass consisting of rock blocks.
The critical span depends on the rock-mass properties (joint frequency

and orientation, material strength, pressures etc.). These properties
vary with temperature and heating history.
Spalling is the process of chipping of the rock due to the differential

stress caused by the thermal and mechanical processes. This process
occurs at a high rate only when temperatures are above 500oC (Biezen
1996, p.15). Melting is a very local phenomenon; from field
experience it is known to be rare.
As the coal is combusting, and thus creating a hot zone, the heat
degasses the ‘volatiles’ from the adjacent coal and tars previously
condensed in the rock. The higher the temperatures, the more of the
coal is gassified. The volatile fractions of lower molecular weight
change to the gas phase earlier then the heavier fractions. These
fractions are not necessarily combusted together with the solid coal;
the gases emitted by the heated coal can only catch fire when enough
66
oxygen is available and their temperature is high enough. When

entering an oxygen-rich environment, they may ignite and contribute
to the combustion process at some distance from the solid coal. The
non-oxidised constituents of the gases emitted from the fire and its hot
zone into the cooler zone may condense. This condensation takes place
if the temperature of the host rock is under the damp temperature of the
specific fractions. Another precipitation in the form of micro particles
(soot) may occur. This zone of precipitation around the fire is referred
to as the ‘tar zone’. When this zone is heated in an oxygen-rich
environment, the fractions present may well catch fire (pyrophoros
fire). These fractions are very prone to ignition because of their
enormous specific surface and because, in general, they are composed
of the lighter fractions of the coal. The ash remaining after combustion
forms the ash zone.
The ash generally only contributes a few percent of the original

volume of fresh coal. From field experience, it is known that only the
upper few meters of a coal seam burn out. The coal close to and under
the fire may not burn, but are likely to expel part of their volatiles.
Since coal has a very low thermal conductivity, this zone is likely to be
relatively thin.
The interface of the gases and the solid coal that is combusting can be
defined as the primary combustion zone. The gaseous zone adjacent to
the coal can be defined as the secondary combustion zone. The tar
zone, if on fire, is defined as the tertiary combustion zone.
The oxygen supply is also controlled by the chimney effect of the

exhaust gas outlet and inlet. The hot gas has a lower density then the
cool inlet gas; thus the exhaust gas is buoyant and moves upward. The
pressure difference causes the cool, fresh air to be sucked into the fire
zone, while the hot exhaust gases move upward. This effect gets
stronger if the temperature or vertical length of the column of hot gas
increases. This is illustrated by the following outline of a simplified
subsurface fire as illustrated by figure 2.24. A pressure difference
between chimney and atmosphere exists over the full length of the
chimney, and is at its maximum near the fire, where the temperature is
the highest. As the atmospheric pressure is assumed equal to the
pressure of the gases in the overburden, and the pressure in the
chimney is lower than the atmospheric pressure, gas will tend to enter
the chimney at all levels. This mechanism is much more complex than
shown here; factors and processes not taken into account are:
 The chimney is actually an elongated zone along the strike of the
fire.
 Air enters the ‘chimney’ at unpredictable levels.
67
Chapter 2
 The cool gas which enters changes the density of the gas in the
chimney.
 The cooling of the exhaust gas by the overburden rock changes its
density.
 The amount of coal burning differs locally.
 The thickness of overburden (length of the chimney) differs locally
etc.
Figure 2.24. Pressure balance
p  p o    0  1   g  l (2.30)
where

p = Pressure difference between the in and the outside of the
chimney,
l = distance to the top of the chimney
po = atmospheric pressure
0 = density of air
1 = density of the exhaust gas
g = gravity constant (9.8 m/s2)
Combustion in heaps of tailing
Tailing fires are mentioned separately because these behave very

differently from in-situ fires. Tailings are dumped almost everywhere
mining is, or has been, taking place. In the case of a coal mine, the
dumped material is rock, possibly mixed with some coal. The
percentage of coal varies from place to place and can be in the order of
68
a few percent. Though containing only a few percent of coal, the

enormous volumes of these tailing adds up to a significant amount of
coal. The situation is often ideal for combustion:
 There is a high bulk permeability in all directions.
 Lumps of coal might already be on fire when dumped.
The exhaust gases will move quikly to the surface. Because of the high
surface area of the lumps of tailing, the heat exchange between gas and
rock is very good and the temperature of the lumps will be close to that
of the passing gases. As the oxygen supply is good, in general the coal
can be on fire over large areas. Consequently, the temperature of these
bodies is usually very high over a large surface area. These fires may,
therefore, continue to burn for a long time. These fires should not be
considered a present economic loss; they were already ‘lost’ when
dumped. The occurrence of these fires is problematic because of their
polluting effect, and because they may start subsurface fires in the
underlying coal-bearing strata.
2.4 The daily course of the surface temperature
In section 2.2, we discussed a model that simulates the spontaneous

combustion of coal under daily solar radiation cycles. The model
calculates the daily temperature and oxygen cycles at the surface and
various other depths. This model, or a similar model, may also be used
to study the response of different rock types to the solar irradiation
cycle.
Rocks and sediments differ in their thermal properties and, therefore,

have a different temperature response to the solar cycle. This causes
temperature differences at the surface which are not due to coal fires,
and which could hamper the discrimination of coal fires from such
temperature differences. It is, therefore, useful to study such
temperature differences between rocks and sediments, and to find out
what part of the day is most suitable for coal-fire detection.
2.4.1 Horizontal surfaces
For (nearly) horizontal surfaces, the relevant thermal properties of the

ground and atmosphere that govern the behaviour of the surface
temperature in an arid region like the Helan mountains can best be
studied and understood by means of a relatively simple thermal model
that can be solved analytically.
69
Chapter 2
2.4.1.1 Boundary conditions

This model starts from the surface energy balance, which states that
the net radiation absorbed by the surface (RN) is converted into heat
which flows into the ground (G), the atmosphere (H) and may be used
to evaporate water (LE). Giving fluxes towards the surface a positive
sign, the surface heat budget reads
RN + G + H + LE = 0 (2.31)
The sensible heat flux into the atmosphere is proportional to the

temperature difference between the surface and the atmosphere
devided by the atmospheric resistance (rA), which is the inverse of the
atmospheric heat transfer coefficient :
H = CA (TA – T0) / rA =  CA (T0 – TA) (2.32)
The calculation of the atmospheric resistance and heat transfer

coefficient is given in section 2.4.4.2.
The latent heat flux, resulting from the evaporation of water, is

proportional to the difference in specific humidity in the soil (sD) and
the specific humidity in the atmosphere (sA), divided by the sum of the
atmospheric resistance and the resistance for water vapour diffusion
through the soil (rD):
LE = L  (sA – sD) / (rA + rD) (2.33)
The specific humidity in equilibrium with the soil water (sD) is an

exponential function of temperature, for which we take by
approximation the surface temperature (T0). Using this relation we
may express the previous relation as a function of the air-surface
temperature difference, as follows:
LE = [L  (sA – sD) - L  (sA – sA)] / (rA + rD)

= [L (s/T) (TA – T0) – L  (sA – sA)] / (rA + rD) (2.34)
where LEA is the evaporation according to equation (2.33) that would
occur if the surface was at air temperature. The previous equation may
also be written
LE =    CA(TA – T0) + LEA (2.35)
or, in view of equation (2.32),
LE =   H + LEA (2.36)
70
where =rA/(rA+rD) is an evaporation resistance factor, equal to 1

(rD=0) if there is free water at the surface, and smaller if the water is at
(a shallow) depth.
The ground heat flux (G) is given by
G = M(T/z)z=0 (2.37)
where M is the thermal conductivity of the rock or soil matrix (see

section 2.4.3).
The net radiation can be described as the sum of the solar and the
terrestrial radiation components
RN = (1 – A) IG + LN (2.38)
Here, LN is the net terrestrial radiation, i.e, the vector sum of the
downward and the upward thermal radiation (section 2.2, eqs 2.16,
2.21 and 2.22). The solar global radiation can be aproximated by a
cosinus function, which equals zero when the function values become
negative:
IG = k2 – k1 cos (t) for IG > 0, otherwise IG=0 (2.39)
Using Fourier analysis, this truncated cosine function may be

expressed as the sum of a series of cosine functions of increasing
frequency. The general expression is
IG = A0/2 +  An cos (nt) (2.40)
The Fourier constants A0.....An can be calculated analytically, but this

will not be discussed here.
We may now split the energy budget into a constant, average part and
a periodic part. To do so, we assume the temperature to consist of an
average part (T@) and a periodic part (T'):
T = T@ + T'
Now the average part of the energy budget equation may be written as
follows:
IN@ + M (TA – T0@) + LEA +  (T@/z)z=0 = 0 (2.41)
with
71
Chapter 2
M = (1+  )  CA (2.42)
and
IN@ = (1 – A) A0/2 + LN (2.43)
M is the overall atmospheric heat transfer coefficient. IN@ is the

average net radiation. Defining the ground temperature at a depth D as
TG, eq. (2.41) may also be written as
IN@ + M (TA – T0@) + LEA + (TG – T0@)/D = 0 (2.44)
The periodic part of the energy budget is
(1 – A)  An cos (nt) – M (TA – T0') +  (T'/z)z=0 (2.45)
2.4.1.2 Differential equation for transient heat flow in the ground

The continuity equation for transient heat flow in the ground is given
by
CM (T/t) = M (2T/z2) (2.46)
CM is the heat capacity of the rock or soil matrix (see section 2.4.3)
2.4.1.3 Solving for the ground temperature

The solution for the average part of the ground surface temperature
follows directly from equation (2.44):
T0@ =[M TA+ (/d)TG+ IN@ + LEA] / [M+(/d)] (2.47)

The solution for the periodic part of the temperature can be found for
differential equation (2.46) with boundary condition (2.45). The
analytical derivation of this solutionis not discussed here. The resulting
solution is:
T0' =  Fn An cos (nt – n) (2.48)

Fn is the amplitude factor and n the phase shift of the periodic part of
the surface temperature, relative to the corresponding periodic part of
the global irradiation.(equation 2.40). They may be calculated from
Fn = [(Nn+M)2 + Nn2]0.5 (2.49)
and
72
n = arctan [Nn/(Nn+M)] (2.50)
where
Nn = (n M CM /2)0.5 = p (n/2)0.5 (2.51)
and
M = (1+  )  CA (2.52)
In equation (2.51) the term (M CM)0.5 is referred to as the thermal

inertia (p) of the ground. M is the overall heat transfer coefficient from
the ground to the atmosphere. It is clear from the previous equations
that the thermal inertia p is the ground property, and M the
atmospheric property, that determines the temperature amplitude and
phase response of the surface to the solar irradiation.
2.4.1.4 Effect of the atmosphere on the surface temperature

With respect to the calculation of M, it is noted that   2.3, and so if
the surface is wet (=1) the overall heat transfer coefficient M is 3.3
times larger than in the case of a dry surface (=0). Thus, evaporation
from a wet surface causes a very strong decrease in the surface
temperature amplitude and phase shift. In the arid conditions of the
Helan mountains in Ningxia, however, on most days the evaporation
will be negligible. Strong winds (higher) will also decrease the
temperature amplitude and phase shift.
2.4.1.5 Effect of the ground material on the surface temperature

The ground material consists mainly of sediments or rock. The
thermal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity of sediments,
including coal dust or litter, can be calculated from the thermal
conductivities of the solid and of air, as discussed in section 2.4.3.
Besides these thermal properties, radiative properties also play a role
in the temperature response of the surface to solar radiation. This
particularly applies to the albedo or reflectivity (A) and the emissivity.
The following table presents some typical values of the thermal and
radiative properties for sandstone, solid coal and coal dust. These data
are used in the simulations shown later.
Table 2.13. Thermal properties of sandstone and coal
CM M p A 
(J/m3 K) (J/m K s) (SI units) (fraction) (fraction)
73
Chapter 2
Sandstone 2.10 * 106 2.5 2290 0.2 0.85

Coal 1.95 * 106 3.4 2500 0.05 0.95
Coal dust (dry)
60% solid 1.17 * 106 0.2 483 0.05 0.95
40% solid 0.78 * 106 0.1 280 0.05 0.95
From the table, it appears that sandstone and coal have a thermal
inertia of the same order of magnitude. Dry coal dust including a
considerable amount of air has much lower values of volumetric heat
capacity and of thermal conductivity. As a consequence, the thermal
inertia is 80 to 90% lower. The same applies to dry sediments such as
sand and clay; their thermal inertias will be of the order of 500. The
thermal inertia of moist sediments depends on their water content,
usually varying between 500 (dry) and 1500 (very wet).
380
360 Ta (280 K)
temperature (K)
340 Tg (290 K)
Sandstone
320
Coal
300 Coaldust (60%)
280 Coaldust (40%)
260
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time hrs)
Figure 2.25. Simulation of the daily course of the surface temperature

of sandstone, coal and coal dust using an analytical model ("Surtemp")
Figure 2.25 shows an example of a (surface) temperature simulation

produced using the analytical model discussed in the present section.
Besides the surface temperature curves of sandstone, coal and coal
dust, the boundary layer air temperature (TA) and ground temperature
(TG) at 0.2 meter depth are indicated as horizontal lines. As well as the
thermal and radiative properties specified in the previous table, the
following input was used: day of the year = 180, atmospheric optical
depth = 2, geostrophic windspeed = 2 m/s, aerodynamic roughness of
the surface = 1 mm, air temperature = 280 K and ground temperature
at 0.2 m depth = 290 K.
The graph indicates that under dry, high-radiation conditions (summer

period) the surface temperature of rocks may rise 40 – 45K above the
air temperature at noon. Dry sediments, may show considerably higher
surface temperatures, as high as 80 – 100 K above air temperature in
74
the case of coal dust. At night, however, the temperature differences

are much smaller, of the order of only 5 K.
2.4.2 Inclined surfaces
The surface inclination and orientation also influence the surface

temperature. This effect cannot easily be simulated, however, with the
analytical model that was described in the previous section. Therefore,
we will use the more elaborate numerical model that was described in
section 2.3 and run it for sandstone, setting the reaction heat (H) at
zero.
310
temperature (K)
300
290
280
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time (hrs)
horizontal 30 W 30 E
Figure 2.26. Simulated sandstone surface temperatures for a

horizontal surface, and for westward and eastward orientated slopes
of 30 degrees
Simulations were carried out for a horizontal surface, and for a 30-
degree slope facing both westwards (30W) and eastwards (30E).
Figure 2.26 shows the daily course of the surface temperature for each
case. The input used was almost the same as was used in the previous
section for sandstone. The surface temperature around noon, however,
remains notably lower than that simulated with the analytical model
(figure 2.25). The reason is that the analytical model does not account
for atmospheric heat transport by free convection, whilst the numerical
model does. Figure 2.26 demonstrates that the eastward-orientated
slope heats up earlier than the westward-orientated slope. At night, the
westward slope remains warmer than the eastward slope up until
midnight.
In figure 2.27, the course of the difference between the temperatures of

the east and west slope is shown. The arrows in this graph indicate the
LANDSAT data acquisition times, which are around 10.30 and 22.30
75
Chapter 2
hrs. This figure shows that, during the morning acquisition, the
temperature contrast between the west and east slopes is 11 to12 K.
During the night-time acquisition, this contrast is not more than 1 K.
15
10
temp. difference (K)
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
-5
-10
-15
tim e (hrs)
Figure 2.27. Temperature contrast between a westwar- and an

eastwar- orientated slope of 30 degrees. The arrows indicate the
LANDSAT data acquisition times
2.4.3 Conclusions for satellite and airborne data acquisition
From figure 2.25 to 2.27, it is clear that under solar radiation,

considerable temperature contrasts develop between various surface
materials and between surfaces with different exposures to the sun.
These temperature contrasts can be very large in the daytime. It will be
difficult to discriminate such temperature contrasts from temperature
anomalies which are caused by coal fires. For this reason, thermal
infrared scanning data acquired in the day-time is not very useful for
fire detection.
With LANDSAT, the most suitable data acquisition time is 22.30 at

night. For airborne thermal scanning, it would be even better to carry
out the data acquisition at a later time during the night, preferably
during the last hours before sunrise. However, if there is a growing risk
of fog development during the night, a trade-off is necessary.
2.5 The thermal anomaly of coal fires
The thermal anomaly of a fire is the most important characteristic as

regards survey. It can be used as an indicator for the fire's areal extent
and intensity andof the amount of coal loss. To establish the relation
76
between thermal anomaly and coal loss, a calculation method for the
thermal anomaly was developed.
2.5.1 The thermal expression of coal fires
The thermal anomaly caused by the heat of combustion of the coal is a

clear indicator of the existence and outline of a fire. This anomaly can
be detected by satellite, airborne or handheld equipment. To maximise
the use of this data, it is essential to have a thorough knowledge of the
processes that control the size and intensity of the thermal anomaly. To
get a rough indication of the impact of a coal fire on the temperature
rise of the overburden, we can do a simple calculation: the simplified
equation for the combustion of coal:
COAL(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + CO(g) + H2O(g) + ash + H (2.53)
The heat of combustion of coal is of the order of 31 x 109 J/m3. The

thermal capacity of rock is about 1.5 x 106 J/m3 K (Janssen, 1991). In
this case, the heat of combustion of one cubic meter of coal is enough
to raise the temperature of 1000 m3 of rock by 19 Kelvin. These
temperature rises are seldom encountered above an underground coal
fire. For more correct figures, factors like the heat transport by the
exhaust gases, depth and/or cooling at the surface will be taken into
account.
The heat of combustion (H) of an underground fire dissipates into the

environment in several ways:
a) Conduction
b) Convection
c) Radiation
Conduction
Conduction is the descriptive term for heat that is transported through
solid-to-solid contact. The actual transport of heat is by the vibration of
molecules against their neighbours. In general, this is a relatively slow
process. The conductive heat transport plays an important role in the
transport of heat within the intact rock of the fire area.
Convective heat exchange
Convection is a term used for the physical transport of heat by the

movement of gases. It plays a role in the transport of heat from the hot
rock above a fire into the atmosphere. It is also the primary mechanism
77
Chapter 2
by which the exhaust gases transport away the heat of the combustion
from the core of the fire. Due to the chimney effect, the hot gases move
upward through the cracks and voids of the overburden into the
atmosphere. During the upward migration, the hot gases will exchange
some of their heat with the surrounding rock, thus contributing to the
thermal anomaly of the overburden.
Radiation
In the absence of solid matter, heat can be transported by radiation.

This can be apparent in the combustion chamber of the coal fire and at
the surface above the fire. The intensity of the radiation varies as a
function of wavelength and temperature.
2.5.1.1 Thermal expression of open fires

Open fires radiate in the range from about 300 nm (1 nm = 10-9m) until
far into the thermal infrared (>12500 nm). Most energy is radiated in
the thermal infrared. Open fires are seldom encountered in the field
(see subsections 2.3.3 and 2.3.4). The most common occurrences of
open fires are during the loading-out of a subsurface fire and in open-
cast mines. The heat generated from open fires is dissipated mainly in
the form of radiation and by the exhaust gases. The conductive heat
transport will only give a small rim of heated rock around the fire
because of the cooling by the atmosphere and the low thermal transport
into the poorly conducting subsurface around the fire. This rim is
unlikely to be more than a few meters wide.
2.5.1.2 Thermal expression of subsurface fires

The detectable thermal anomaly at the surface is transported to the
surface, through the overburden, by the exhaust gases as well as by
conduction. The conductive transport is rather slow; it may take
several weeks before a subsurface fire produces a detectable rise in
temperature at the surface. The heat transport by the exhaust gas is
fast; in the direct vicinity of the exhaust-gas outlet, an anomaly will
soon occur after the fire develops. From field experience, it is known
that subsurface coal fires spread at such a low speed that the
conductive heat transport is significant. Thorough knowledge of the
mechanisms of heat transport can give useful information about the
size, intensity and depth of the fire by examination of the anomaly. For
a good understanding of the thermal anomaly, the reader is advised to
refer to section 2.5.2 (The simulation of the thermal anomalies of
subsurface fires).
78
2.5.1.3 Thermal expression of coal-tailing fires

Tailings of coal mines are prone to catch fire. They can contain a
considerable amount of coal throughout the whole body and have a
good oxygen supply from all exposed sides. Tailing dumps can occupy
very large areas. Due to their nature, the expression of tailing fires can
be very prominent. The heat produced by the combustion process is
mainly transported by convection. The hot gases move easily through
the heap. As the specific surface area of the lumps of rock is very
large, all rocks within the exhaust-gas flow above the fire are well
heated. Because of the high permeability, the fire can occupy large
volumes. For these reasons, the thermal anomaly can be intense over a
large area. Be aware that when examining an anomaly, the tailings
directly next to the fire may well be misinterpreted as being an in-situ
fire and vice-versa.
Figure 2.28. Example of a subsurface fire next to a tailing fire

This picture shows subsurface as well as tailing fires. The example
shows us a thermal Landsat image. The fire has been detected and
coloured red. The white area in the middle is known to be an area of
hot tailings. The surface anomaly of the tailings is about 10 degrees
above the background. Although this seems quite low, this is about
double the common anomaly of a subsurface fire.
79
Chapter 2
2.5.2 The simulation of thermal anomalies produced by

subsurface fires
A temperature simulation model was set up in order to be able to

predict the anomaly produced by a subsurface coal fire. Of primary
interest were the amount of coal burning and the thickness of the
overburden.
2.5.2.1 General methodology

Calculation of coal fire temperature anomalies is traditionally done
using a mathematical function referred to as the ‘error function’
(Rybach, 1981). This function requires only a few input parameters
and also applies only to a simplified situation.
x
T ( x, t )  To erf ( ) (2.54)
4t
where
 is the thermal diffusivity,

To is Tsurface
erf stands for the error function:
y
2
 e dy
 y2
erf (y)  (2.55)
 0
Using the error function, the temperature distribution can be calculated

for a situation comparable to a point heated plate of rock of infinite
width. The input variables of this equation are limited to time, the
temperature at the depth of the fire, the thermal diffusivity and the
depth of the fire. The heat transfer is governed by a single constant and
can be adjusted empirically to account for different rock types, the
occurrence of convection etc.
To improve the prediction of the thermal anomaly, the heat transport

by the exhaust gases would have to be taken into account. No
mathematical solution was available for this. The problem was solved
using a numerical approach called the 'finite difference' method. This
method is based on the principle of dividing the 'complex' object into
sets of 'simple' basic elements. Within each element, the properties are
assumed to be homogeneous. By using a lot of elements, a complex
structure can be simulated by relatively simple calculations. The
disadvantage is that the number of calculations then increases
considerably.
80
Modelling requires an abstraction of reality. We, therefore, consider a

section of rock strata with an infinite width. The width is taken parallel
to the burning coal front. The modelling can now be done on a two
dimensional slice perpendicular to this front. The model made will be
based on the following schematisation:
Figure 2.29. Schematised fire area
On the right-hand side is a coal seam; the seam is on fire. The exhaust
gas is indicated by the plume of smoke. On the right-hand side the coal
has not yet burnt; the overburden is still intact. To the left of the fire,
the coal seam is partly vanished due to the fire; the overburden has
collapsed and now forms a disrupted mass of rock.
First, a numerical model that describes the conductive transport of heat

through an isotropic homogeneous medium without heat transport by
the exhaust gases will be discussed, and then a model that does
incorporate heat transport by the moving exhaust gases produced by
the fire.
2.5.2.2 A model with heat transport dominated by conduction

When the heat of a subsurface fire is transported by the conductivity of
the rock alone, it is assumed that no heat can escape with the exhaust
gases. The model was set up under the following main assumptions:
 Heat transport at the surface is by radiation and convection only.
 Heat transport underground is by conduction only.
 The rock is isotropic and homogeneous.
 The heat of the coal fire in the section is generated within a single
cell.
 The lateral extent of the fire is such that it can be considered very
large in relation to its depth.
81
Chapter 2
The boundaries of the model were set up as follows:

 The right boundary is far away from the fire and, therefore, has a
constant temperature.
 The bottom boundary is far away from the fire and therefor has a
 The last assumption implies a vertical axis of symmetry; this
allows calculations to be made for one side only. The axis of
symmetry is the left boundary.
 At the top boundary, there is convective heat exchange with the
surface.
The above model is illustrated by means of the following figure:
Figure 2.30. Scheme of elements used to simulate an underground coal

fire
The squares indicate the individual elements, running the situation a

few thousand elements were used to build up the model.
2.5.2.3 A model with heat transport dominated by conduction

and mass transport
The 'conductive' model gave useful results, see subsection 2.2.2.6
'Calculation results'. Similar results could have been obtained by
analytical methods (Rybach, 1981). When a fire is burning, part of the
heat produced is transported away along with the exhaust gases. This
form of heat transport is not incorporated in this analytical method. To
simulate an underground fire in more detail, the convective heat
82
transport by the exhaust gases was introduced. The gases move upward
through a zone of collapsed overburden, also referred to as the
'chimney'.
The 'exhaust gas' model was set up under the following main
restrictions and assumptions:
 Heat transport from surface to atmosphere is by convection and
radiation only.
 Heat transport underground is by conduction and convective mass
transport only.
 The rock is isotropic and homogeneous.
 No physical difference exists between the ‘burnt rock’ and the
‘intact rock’.
 The active coal fire is concentrated along a linear front.
 The lateral extent of the fire can be considered very large in
relation to its depth.
 For the transport of the exhaust gases, a ventilation shaft is present.
Using the above assumptions we can set the boundaries of the model:
 The right boundary is far away from the fire and, therefore, has a
 A vertical axis of symmetry is assumed; this allows that
calculations to be made for one side only. The axis of symmetry is
the left boundary.
 The bottom boundary is far away from the fire and, therefore, has a
 At the top boundary, there is convective heat exchange with the
atmosphere. Above the shaft, the heat transported by the exhaust
gases dissipates directly into the atmosphere.
The above is illustrated by means of the following picture:
83
Chapter 2
Figure 2.31. Structure of the model incorporating heat transport by

exhaust gases
2.5.2.4 Heat flow equations

The transport of heat in terms of conduction, convection and mass
transport will be mathematically described. Using these equations, we
can compose the models as described in the preceding paragraphs.
Table 2.12. List of frequently used variables

Variable Description Unit
 Coefficient for convective heat transfer at the [J/m2 K]
surface
 Thermal conductivity [J / m2 K]
 Dynamic viscosity [Ns / m2]
 Density [kg / m3]
 Kinematic viscosity [m2 / s]
 Porosity Dimensionless
 Temperature [K]
 Thermal diffusivity [m2 / s]
h Heat transfer coefficient [J / m2 K]
Q Amount of heat generated [J / s]
H Heat of combustion coal [J / kg]
Qcoal Amount of coal combusted [m3 / year]
84
Conductive heat transport
Fourier’s law for conductive heat transfer is:
 T
 q    d x 
d
 
(2.56)
In which:
T = temperature (K)
x = distance in the x-direction (m)
= coefficient for thermal conduction
q = heat flux (J / m2)
Considering an element of width dx and height dz:
Figure 2.32. Element
If we apply the principle of conservation of heat with conductive

transport, we get 'conduction plus production equals accumulation'.
This is written mathematically as:
 2   2  
 T d T  T 
 d     q   c p  d

2  
2  
d x  d z   d t 
(2.57)
In which:
q = heat production of the fire (Joules)

= density (kg/m3)
cp = specific heat (J/kg K)
As the system stabilises in time, the temperatures will become constant

within each element. As dT/dx=0, the right-hand side of equation 2.58
will become equal or almost equal to zero:
85
Chapter 2
 2   2 
d T  d T 
    q 0

2  
2 
d x  d z  (2.58)
Working out the first term of equation 2.59 for an element having sides
from x to x + dx, we get
     
 d T 
   d T 
   x  dx   x 
  d x   d x  
d x (2.59)
This can be done likewise for the z-term. To apply this in a finite
difference model, discretisation is needed. The 'differential' d will in
that case, change into the discrete . The locations of the elements will
be described by co-ordinates (i, j), the distinct representatives for (x,
z):
Figure 2.33. Indexes of the discrete elements
After interpolation, we now write equation 2.58 in its discrete form:

d T 2T i  T i 1
x   xi   xi 
d x 1
(2.60)
With
  
 x  i i 1
2 (2.61)
at x + dx the following relationship is valid:
86
d T 2Ti 1  Ti 
xdx   xi   xi 
d x 1
(2.62)
Now for the conductivity at x+dx:

  
 x dx   i  i 1
2 (2.63)
Substituting the terms in equations 2.60 until 2.63,
 2            
    d 2     i  i 1 T i 1 T i     i  i 1 T i T i 1 
'
T
    xi   xi 1 xi    xi   xi 1 xi 
c
 d x 
(2.64)
For the terms in z direction a similar elaboration is possible.
Convective heat transport
To describe the convective heat exchange at the surface, the following

relation can be used:
c   T j 1  T j  (2.66)
in which  is the coefficient of heat transfer, covering radiation as well

as convection from the Earth's surface. In the model,  is assumed
constant. A common value for  is about 20 W/m2 K. This assumption
is justified because the flux is mainly controlled by the overburden.
Taking different values for  does not have much influence on the size
of the heat flux from the surface.
For a description of the convective heat transfer in the ventilation shaft

at the left boundary of the model, the coefficient of heat transfer
depends on factors that vary in the ventilation shaft (i.e. the
temperature, velocity, density, viscosity and conductivity). For this
reason 'h', will be used instead of . The transport of heat from the gas
into the wall of the chimney is then described by:
wall  h j T wall  T chimney 

(2.67)
For an approximation of h, an empirical relation can be used that is

descriptive of heat transfer by forced convection through a packed bed,
87
Chapter 2
or from the wall into a packed bed (Janssen and Warmoeskerken,

1991):
0.5 0.33
Nu  1.8  Re Pr (2.68)
Mass transport
To describe the heat transport in the shaft, equations should be

introduced for the heat transport by the movement of the exhaust
gases. Conservation of heat is written using Fourier’s equation; terms
for heat transport by the exhaust gases are included:
 2   2     
 dT    d T     d T q   d T 
 2  2 c p vz   cp  
 d x   d z   d z   d t  (2.69)
As the system stabilises in time, the temperatures will become constant

or stationary in time. The right-hand side of the equation is, therefore
again, assumed to become equal to zero.
Knowing the conductive part of the heat transfer, we can take a look at
the term for the heat transport by the exhaust gases. The following
basic description is used:
 
 c p vz  dT
 
d z  (2.70)
The net heat transport (in minus out) is written as:

 
d T 
m   C p v z   C p v zT j 1   C p v zT j
 d z  (2.71)
where m stands for the heat flux by mass movement.
The results of the calculations are discussed in paragraph 2.5.2.6.
2.5.2.5 Numerical calculation procedures

For the modelling, a so-called 'Finite Difference method' was used.
First the general set-up is described, followed by an explanation of the
method used to solve the system of equations.
88
General set-up
This method uses several sets of elementary equations, each set valid
for a particular situation. Each situation can be seen as a construction
block or unit. Using different types of these blocks, complex situations
can be built (simulated) in a numerical calculation. The elementary
block of medium used is the same as that for the earlier conductivity
calculations.
Figure 2.34. Modelling elements
The lines give the borders of the elements; the dots indicate the points
in the element are representative of the calculated temperature. The
middle square is the most common building block in the model: a piece
of rock surrounded by other rock. For the exchange of heat at the
surface, a different type of element had to be used. This is because the
temperature calculated is valid for the middle of an element, whereas
we must know the temperature at the border of an element. Therefore,
the following solution is applied.
Figure 2.35. Atmosphere/overburden interface
The same approach is applied to the heat exchange in the shaft. Using
the elementary building blocks, we can now construct our model. The
abstract set-up of this coal fire model has already been pictured in
chapter 3. The elements are held together by their systems of
equations. The solution of these systems is described below.
89
Chapter 2
Solving the systems of equations
For each element, the equations should be considered. Writing them in

full and taking factors apart, this results in a system of equations for
each cell that can be written in the following format:
A T  Bi , j T i , j  C i , j T i 1, j  Di , j  0
i, j i 1, j
(2.72)
The i stands for the column number and the j for the row number. The
horizontal heat transport is incorporated in the factors A, B and C. The
variable Di, j contains the secondary values: the vertical heat fluxes
and the production of heat within the block.
For each row of cells, a set of linear equations can be created. On the
basis of the assumption that the right border of the model is so far from
the fire that its temperature is constant, the last element has a known
temperature. Di, j can be estimated if the temperatures of the rows
above and below are more or less known. Taking Di, j constant, the
system becomes solvable. The total system of equations for each row
can be solved by Gaussian elimination, which results in a complete set
of temperatures for one row. The solution for one row is thus implicitly
determined.
The total system is solved row by row, after which the total system is
solved column by column. Considering the row-by-row calculations,
the previously calculated (lower) row of temperatures serves as the
input values for the calculation in the z-direction (the Di, j term), thus
resulting in an explicit solution for the complete matrix. Because the
temperatures in the row above are not known, no direct solution can be
calculated. A definite solution for the whole model can be reached by
running the model a few times in succession: the solution will be
reached by iteration. If the temperatures become constant, the model
has reached equilibrium and the equations may be assumed to have
been solved. In general a few thousand iteration cycles are needed to
obtain a solution.
Modelling parameters
The model calculates heatflows, temperatures and their distribution.

Many parameters that could be varied were taken as constant, either
because the magnitude of their effect would be small relative to the
uncertainties in the model or because better values were not available.
Basic input values from the literature as well as values measured in the
field were used in the calculations. To check that the model is not
over-sensitive to certain parameters, a sensitivity analysis for the main
90
input parameters was performed. No over-sensitivity or instability

problems were detected.
It is important to now how and when these parameters can be changed.

In the following some of the most important variables are discussed.
Fire depth
This parameter represents the depth of the fire below the surface in
meters. It controls the total size, width and depth of the model because
the models's borders should be at sufficient distances from the fire to
meet the border criteria.
Overburden
The conductivity of the rock determines the heat flow in the intact rock
as a function of the temperature gradient. The density (kg/m3) and the
specific heat (kJ/kg) are needed to calculate the total amount of energy
contained in the rock. For these parameters typical values can be found
in the literature.
Table 2.13. Typical values of the physical properties of the overburden

Material Density Thermal conductivity Specific heat
(kg/m3) (W/m K) (kJ/kg K)
Shale 2400 0.8 – 2.1 1.8
Limestone 2600 1.7 – 3.3 0.62
Sandstone 2400 1.2 – 4.2 0.4 – 0.8
Water 1000 0.6 4.18
As indicated the values depend on the material. In the case of rock the
bulk properties of the overburden also have to be taken into account.
Important factors that influence these bulk properties are fracturing,
permeability and water content. It is difficult to obtain empirical values
for these.
Values of rock conductivity and heat capacity can also be obtained by

examining samples in a laboratory but these do not account for the
bulk properties (i.e. the presence of cracks, fissures or joints) of the
rock. This effect is the reason laboratory results are not very useable.
Boundary temperatures
The temperatures at the border are set to a zero level (a default of 273
K). Because we are only interested in the anomalous temperatures, it
was decided to take the same border temperature throughout the
91
Chapter 2
model. Later subtraction of this temperature will result in the purely

anomalous effect of the simulated fire.
2.5.2.6 Numerical calculation results

In this subsection, some of the simulation results are presented. The
difference between a model without and a model with heat transport by
exhaust gases is shown. Some calculations evaluating remote sensing
data are then discussed.
General discussion on the simulation results
Calculations were done to simulate the temperatures of a section

perpendicular to the strike of a subsurface fire. One of the assumptions
was that a vertical axis of symmetry exists through the fire, meaning
that only the right half of the fire section was simulated. To evaluate
whether some thermal anomaly phenomena of the coal fire might be
useful for evaluation, simulations were run for fires burning at
different rates and depths. Figure 2.36 shows the result of such a
simulation as presented by the software developed at EARS.
Figure 2.36. Simulation result for a fire burning 5m3 coal/year at 12m
depth
The other output of the software includes a text file containing
temperatures for each element used in the finite difference method, and
a text file containing information about the heat flow through the shaft
and the boundaries of the model. These data were used in the following
evaluation of the results.
The effect of including exhaust gases in the model
92
The effect of the incorporation of exhaust gases into the numerical

modelling of subsurface coal fires is illustrated by the following graph.
The graph shows the simulated thermal anomalies at the surface as
calculated by the numerical models, versus the distance from the fire.
The results are derived from the simulation of a subsurface coal fire
that is at a depth of 12m, and where the coal loss due to combustion is
5m3/year per meter width of the fire.
calculated surface temperature anomalies of a fire area
Temperature anomaly (K)
25
20 conductive convective
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
distance (m)
Figure 2.37. Conductive and exhaust-model results
The area under the curves is equivalent to the heat exchange at the
surface above the fire. Most remarkable is the higher maximum of the
'exhaust' model. This is caused by the hot exhaust gases that heat the
wall of the chimney. The hot exhaust gases will transfer heat faster into
the atmosphere then the overburden can by conduction. The heat
escaping through the chimney will not result in a thermal anomaly of
the surface, and is therefor not easy to recognise by remote sensing.
The surface under the curve is representative for the heat exchange at
the surface above a fire. The total thermal anomaly of the surface for
the 'exhaust' model is smaller to that of the 'conductive' model. This is
because the 'conductive' model can only dissipate its heat into the
atmosphere by heat exchange through conduction to the surface,
whereas the 'convective' model also has heat loss via the exhaust gases.
Correlation of coal loss, fire depth and thermal anomaly

Calculations were made of the surface thermal anomaly. Attempts
were made to establish relations between the surface thermal anomaly,
the depth of the fire and the amount of coal burnt. For this reason, plots
93
Chapter 2
were made of the thermal surface anomaly against fire depth and
amount of coal burnt.
From figure 2.39, it can be seen that the difference in total heat flow
through the surface is not very dependent on the depth of the fire. The
relation between the total heat flux and the amount of coal is more
clear. This relationship can be applied to estimates of the burning rate
of coal made using remote sensing (airborne and satellite thermal)
imagery.
Heat flow vs. Coal loss
3000
2500
2000
24m series
1500 48m series
1000
500
0
0 5 10
Coal loss [m3/yr/m]
Figure 2.38. Heat flow versus the amount of coal burning
To find a relation between the thermal anomaly and the depth of the
fire, simulations were made of a fixed amount of coal burning at
different depths. The simulations shown here in figure 2.39 were made
for 5 cubic meters of coal at depths of 12, 24 and 48 meters. It is clear
that the shape of the curve is related to the depth.
94
14
12 48m depth
24m depth
10
12m depth
Anomaly (K) 8
0
0 20 40 60 80
Distance [m]
Figure 2.39. Thermal anomaly against depth
Application of results
The relation between the coal losses and the total heat flux was applied
to estimate the coal losses made by means of satellite and airborne
thermal images. Another possible application of the numerical
simulation results is to estimate the depth of the fire. From figure 2.39
it is clear that a fire at a greater depth results in broader thermal
anomaly with a lower temperature maximum in the centre. The
estimation of depth might be done by curve matching, but this was not
considered feasible because the situation in the field is more complex
then assumed in the model. Therefor a less delicate approach was tried.
It is clear from figure 2.39 that the lateral differentiation in
temperatures for a shallow seated fire is stronger compared to that of a
deep fire. This effect can be described statistically with the standard
deviation of the temperature values in a frame around the pixel of
interest. This standard deviation showed a weak, but useful, relation to
the depth of the seat of a fire. This relation could be applied easily to
remote sensing data and is shown in figure 8.10, subsection 8.1.2.
As a two-dimensional temperature field of a section of a fire is

calculated, the theoretical amount of water needed to cool this section
below a certain temperature level can be calculated.
95
Chapter 2
96
Four-level data collection
Chapter 3
3 Four-level data collection

Put simply, four-level measurement refers to the simultaneous or near
simultaneous acquisition of data at four different levels. Data collected
at different levels have different scales, properties, benefits and
limitations. Often the selection of the level of data collection is guided
by practical considerations.
In this study the four levels selected for data collection are:
1. satellite
2. aircraft
3. surface measurements
4. subsurface measurements
Figure 3.1 is a representation of the concept of the four-level

measurements carried out in the Rujigou coalfield in northwest China.
Figure 3.1. Diagrammatic representation of the concept of four-level

measurement
97
Chapter 3
3.1 Satellite data collection
Satellite data constitute the highest or top-level data collected for the
coalfire studies. Both optical and thermal data were collected from
various available satellites.
Table 3.1 gives details of the satellite-borne optical and thermal data
acquired for the study area.
Table 3.1. Optical and thermal data acquired for the study area
Satellite Path/ Date Sensor Spatial Remarks
Row resolution
1 Landsat 130/33 Dec 2 1988 TM 30 m daytime
image
2 Landsat 226/211 Dec 18 1989 TM 120 m night-time
image
3 Landsat 226/211 May 28 1995 TM 120 m night-time
image
4 Landsat 130/33 May 28 1995 TM 30 m daytime
image
5 Landsat 130/33 Sep 06 1997 TM 30 m daytime
image
6 Landsat 130/33 Sep 22 1997 TM 30 m daytime
image
6 Landsat 130/33 Sep 22 1997 TM 120 m night-time
image
7 SPOT 260/271 Feb 02 1993 PAN 10 m
8 IRS 120/042 Dec 25 1996 PAN 5m highest

resolution
available
*TM: Thematic Mapper; *SPOT: ; *IRS: Indian Remote Sensing
Figure 3.2 shows 300 * 400 pixel subsets of images acquired in the
near-infrared band from the three satellites, viz. (a) Landsat, (b) SPOT
and (c) IRS. The difference in spatial resolution, and therefore in the
level of perceptible detail, is apparent from this figure.
Considering the available satellite-borne optical data, the Landsat TM

data proved to be useful for obtaining a broad perspective of the area,
for studying the regional structural trends and for extracting
information about the general land-cover of the area. The SPOT
panchromatic data provided details of the area and were particularly
useful in identifying settlement areas and urban structures. The IRS
data helped one zoom in and pick up further details about the area. In
the present study, the IRS image of the area was enhanced and hard
copy outputs were generated at a scale of 1:20,000. These served as the
base or reference map during the first field campaign.
98
The satellite-borne thermal data used for this study were acquired only
at one spatial resolution (c.f. Table 3.1). Mansor et al. in 1995
suggested the use of coarse resolution NOAA-AVHRR data (spatial
resolution = 1.1 km) for mapping the regional stretches of coalfires.
a b c
Figure 3.2. Satellite images of part of the Rujigou coalfield in
northwest China. All images are subsets of 300 * 400 pixels and were
acquired in the near-infrared bands: (a) Landsat TM image of Sep 22
1997, (b) SPOT image of Feb 02 1993 and (c) IRS image of Dec 25
1996. Inset in figure (a) shows areal coverage of figure (b) and inset in
figure (b) shows areal coverage of figure (c). Note the differences in
spatial resolution.
However, from our experience with NOAA data of the Xinjiang

coalfire area in northern China (van Genderen and Haiyan, 1997) and
from the conditions in Ningxia, we can confidently say that for the
Ningxia area, the resolution of the NOAA data is too coarse for the
detection of any regional thermal anomaly due only to coalfires. This
is because the coalfires are present in small pockets or stretches, and
the overall extent of the coalfires is rather too small to show up in
NOAA data.
The thermal infrared band, TM band 6, onboard Landsat has a spatial

resolution of 120 m and acquires data in the broad wavelength range of
10.4 to 12.5 m. For the Earth’s ambient temperature of 300 K, the
peak of emitted radiation occurs at 9.6 m (Gupta, 1991), and in such
conditions, TM6 is ideally suited for thermal measurements. Figure 3.3
shows that the TM band 6 is sensitive to rather low temperatures and
that it saturates at 68 °C.
99
Chapter 3
1000
100
Radiance (mW cm sr m )
1-4
-1
-1
10
-2
5
7
6
1.0
0.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
VNIR
SWIR TIR
Wavelength (m)
Figure 3.3. Wavelength dependence of thermal radiance in the visible,

near infrared, short-wave infrared and thermal infrared regions at
various temperatures, as related to the sensitivity of the Landsat TM
sensors (after Rothery et al., 1988)
100
°C
0°
C 500
C
0°C
0°
60
1500°C
400°C
80
100
2
3 4
Radiance (mW cm sr m )
- 1
1 °C
10 300
-1
-2
5
0°C
7 20
1.0 TM5 TM7
C
0°
15
0.1
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
VIS NIR SWIR
Wavelength (m)
Figure 3.4. Wavelength dependence of thermal radiance in the visible,

near infrared and short-wave infrared regions at various
temperatures, as related to the sensitivity of the Landsat TM sensors.
Note the temperature sensitivities of TM5 and TM7 (after Rothery et
al., 1988).
100
Surface thermal anomalies due to subsurface fires have low

temperature ranges and large spatial extents (Shilin et al., 1987),
making TM6 well suited for the study of these temperature anomalies.
It may also be mentioned at this stage that the high gains and coarse
resolution of TM6 are not suitable for the measurement of high
temperatures associated with very hot features such as surface fires.
With a rise in temperature of ground objects, there is an increase in the
intensity of the emitted radiation, with the peak emittance shifting
towards shorter wavelengths (Figure 3.4). Thus, at higher temperatures
(160 – 290° C), TM band 7, which operates in the short-wave infrared
(SWIR) with a wavelength of 2.08 – 2.35 μm, is useful. At still higher
temperatures, the TM band 5, which operates at even shorter
wavelengths (1.55 – 1.75 μm) can be put to use. TM7 and TM5
together have the capability to measure pixel-integrated temperatures
in the range 160 – 420 °C (Figure 3.4).
The method for analysis of the Landsat optical and thermal data is
discussed in detail in Chapter 6 and the interpretation results are
further presented in Chapter 7.
3.2 Airborne thermal data gathering
Airborne thermal data are gathered using a thermal scanner. The result
is a series of thermal images along the lines of flight. The use of
thermal airborne data is of great importance in the evaluation of coal
fires. This type of data is better in terms of precision, and spatial and
thermal resolution, compared to satellite data. To reach the same
thermal precision, only handheld thermal scanners provide an
alternative. These, however, do not provide the possibility of obtaining
an overview of the area. Thermal airborne data are useful for the
detection, intensity mapping of coal fires and for surveying the general
area; they can also be used for the georeferencing of thermal satellite
data. To optimise the usability of thermal airborne data, a thorough
consideration of the required flight parameters is necessary.
3.2.1 Requirements for airborne thermal data gathering
The primary aim of the airborne thermal survey is to make temperature

measurements of surface thermal anomalies caused by sub-surface coal
fires. When an airborne flight is scheduled, the aeroplane is usually
available for a few days. To be able to fly under the best available
circumstances, it is important to have good communication with the
operators of the aeroplane. Requirements should be stated concerning
the timing of the flight and the spectral, thermal and spatial resolution.
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Chapter 3
The results of the airborne campaign should be available in digital

form, together with the flight report covering the factors relevant to the
data interpretation.
Timing of the flight

The most important factors influencing this behaviour are solar heating
and the weather.
The influence of solar heating should be avoided. For this reason, data
should be gathered late during the night (see paragraph 2.4 - 'The daily
course of the surface temperature'). Data shortly after sunrise are
already influenced significantly by solar heating. The weather should
be dry, with low windspeed and no cloud cover.
For year-to-year comparisons of fire-pattern changes, the flight date

should preferably be in a specific period of the year under more-or-less
similar weather conditions. If one wants to use thermal infrared
airborne data for georeferencing the thermal satellite data, any airborne
set of reasonable quality might do; there is no need for recent
information as long as the landscape is not changing; this may be a
problem in an intensively mined area. If airborne data have to be
compared to satellite data, both should preferably be recorded at the
same moment.
Spatial effects
The area vertical under the plane is referred to as being situated at
'nadir', the flight line is the imaginary line connecting the 'nadir' points.
In general a scanner consists of a rotating sensor. As the aeroplane
moves forward the sensor rotates over the sections of interest within a
certain angle of view under the plane. The analogue data measured is
digitised and recorded. This results in a set of scanlines centred along
the flight line of the aeroplane.
Spatial resolution is the term used for the size of the area sampled
instantaneously by a single measurement. Spatial resolution should not
be confused with the sampling interval, which can be smaller
(oversampling). A lower spatial resolution results in thermal
measurements being taken over larger areas; this levels out the
temperature differences.
The spatial resolution for a subsurface coal fire survey should be small
enough to reveal the required details of the coal fires. Its value depends
on the height of the aeroplane (h), the instantaneous field of view
(FOV) of the scanner (), the swath angle () and the slope of the
surface.
102
Figure 3.5. Spatial resolution parameters
The spatial resolution (s.r.) can be estimated with following formula:
 h    h
s.r.     2  sin( )  rad2 (3.1)
 cos ( )  cos ( )
2
2
Note that the aspect and slope of the surface are not included. The
areas sampled by the sensor change shape as  changes. The area
sampled right under the plane (at nadir) is a square, at higher angles
the shape changes as depicted in figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 Distortion due to changing angle of view (a).
Distortion occurs also due to the movement of the plane in

combination with the uniform rotation of the sensor.
The result is a characteristic sigmoidal shape of the areas covered in
one scanline, see figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 The geometry of the scan lines
Other source of distortion are the result of the movements of the

aeroplane. Distortions occur due to drift, rolling, flight height
103
Chapter 3
differences, ground relief, speed differences etc. Correction for these is

difficult as the distortions change irregularly. Due to this effect the
geometry of the area covered can be different from the apparent
geometry of the non georeferenced data, see figures 3.8 and 3.9.
Figure 3.8 Actual flight line (left), raw data (right).
During the flight, it is the responsibility of the operating personnel of

the plane to exclude all disturbing features as much as possible; this
means that the speed of the plane should be constant, the speed should
be lower than the sampling rate multiplied by the desired spatial
resolution, the tilting of the plane should be kept to a minimum etc.
The minimal spatial resolution desired can be chosen on the basis of

field measurements, the resolution during the 1997 flight was 5m, this
seemed reasonable. The people operating the aeroplane should take the
responsibility for this requirement being met.
For the flight 1997 flight data no corrections were done for the
structural distortions as illustrated in figures 3.6 and 3.7. It was
decided to correct for the distortions by georeferencing relatively small
areas of interest as near to nadir as possible. This method requires a lot
of sample co-ordinates so the distortion can be calculated over the
area.
Thermal settings
For any airborne flight, the required range and resolution should be
indicated. It is important that to set these parameters carefully, they
have a high influence on the usability of the data. A correct choice of
thermal settings will result in a thermal range covering the area of
interest without over- or under-saturation of the sensor and a sufficient
resolution within the image.
The thermal range is the difference between the lower (T1) and upper
limit (T2) of the thermal measurements of the airborne survey. The
thermal data are recorded in whole digital numbers that represent
temperatures. The amount of digital numbers depends on the number
104
of bits by which the d/a converter transforms analogue sensor data to

the digital signal that is recorded. The 1997 airborne survey was
recorded with 8 bit data, this allows a range of 256 different digital
numbers to be recorded. The temperatures between the upper and
lower thermal limit were linear scaled between 0 and 255. This is
illustrated in figure 3.9. The setting of the upper and lower limit also
determines the step in temperature between two digital numbers, this is
referred to as the thermal resolution. If the temperature sampled is
under the lower thermal limit the sensor is under-saturated, and is
recorded with the digital number '0'. If the temperature sampled is
above the upper limit the sensor is over saturated and recorded as '255'.
Figure 3.9 Histogram of a fire area
The setting of T1 depends on the background temperature, in general

T1 should be about 10 degrees below the air temperature.
The setting of T2 depends on the highest anomalies of the fires that

should be recorded. Since we are interested in the integration of the
thermal anomaly of whole fire areas, T2 should be set in such way that
the loss of information due to the oversaturation of pixels does not
influence the result significant. In the field temperatures as high as 400
degrees were encountered directly next to the chimneys of shallow
fires. However, a lower setting is allowed for two reasons:
1) Due to the integrating effect of the scanner (spatial resolution)
the high temperatures are levelled.
2) The high temperatures occupy very little area as can be seen in
figure 2.37; Saturation of these few pixels will thus only have a
small effect on the integrated anomaly.
It is advised that a person with knowledge of thermal surveying of coal

fires is on board the aeroplane so that the setting of the equipment can
be controlled. The under- or over-saturation of pixels near the
subsurface fires will, although it cannot always be avoided, decrease
the quality and usage of the airborne data.
105
Chapter 3
Spectral properties
Figure 3.10. Raw flight line in grey tones (1997, 3 – 5 and 8 – 12 nm)
Often in a thermal airborne survey measurements are made in two

bands covering both the 3-5 nm and 8-12 nm range. The 8-12 nm band
is preferred for reason of atmospheric transmission and emissivity.
3.2.2 Data gathered during the 1997 fieldwork
During the 1997 fieldwork period, airborne thermal infrared scanning

data were collected in the 3-5 nm and the 8-12 nm atmospheric
windows both at night and daytime. The specifications of this flight are
shown in table 3.2. The 3-5 nm data was considered redundant. The 8-
12 nm band is preferred for reason of atmospheric transmission and
emissivity.
The 8-bit data-recording allowed for 256 temperature levels. The

thermal range of the night time survey was 140 degrees; this means
that the thermal resolution was about 0.5 degrees (140/256). Later
examination of the airborne data proved that these thermal settings
were a good choice as relatively little pixels showed over saturation
and the thermal resolution was acceptable.
From the airborne data in Figure 3.9, it can be seen that at the borders
of the image, the measured values are slightly higher compared to the
centre of the image, this is believed to be an atmospheric effect. The
data can be corrected for this effect relatively easy after calculating the
average lateral distortion of the scanlines over a whole flight line.
106
Table 3.2. Thermal scanning flight specifications

Day flight Night flight
Equipment RC-10 RC-10
No. of flight lines 7 7
Overlap 50 % 50 %
Time of start of flight 10.00 h. 3.30 h.
Window 3 – 5 and 8 – 12 nm 3 – 5 and 8 – 12 nm
Black body settings (8-12 nm) -6.75 , 20.48 -1.8 , 26.84
Thermal range 0 – 80 0 – 140
Thermal precision 0.1 K 0.1 K
Thermal sensitivity 0.01 K 0.01 K
Data type 8 bit BIP 8 bit BSQ
Spatial resolution 3m 3m
Altitude 3100 m 3300 m
Visibility Good (20 km) Good
3.3 Surface data collection
The third level of the data collection is carried out on the ground. This
is the classical method used for the mapping and monitoring coal-fire
related features and phenomena occurring at the land surface. Using a
more general approach, it can be said that surface data collection aims
to obtain information about geographic features and processes through
in-situ measurements and observations.
The information related to a geographic feature has four major

components (Aronoff, 1989):
 its geographic position
 its attributes
 its spatial relationships
 the time
It has been common practice in many field campaigns that the

geographic position of the measurements is not recorded using co-
ordinates but only by the names of the locations. In other cases, the
locations are only pinpointed on non-rectified aerial photographs or
satellite images. Even if maps are used, different scales might be used
for different purposes (e.g., a 1:50000 map for the geological
inventory, a 1:25000 map for land use mapping and 1:5000 maps for
coal fire monitoring). All these various referencing techniques result in
varying accuracies in the plotting of the measurement sites. It is not
easy to organise such a data set into a database. Therefore, special
attention has to be paid to proper georeferencing during surface data
collection!
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Chapter 3
In the Rujigou coalfield, a local co-ordinate system has been

introduced. All the data used in the recent project are georeferenced in
this co-ordinate system. For more details on co-ordinate systems, the
details of the Rujigou co-ordinate system, and the different ways of
georeferencing data, please refer to section 4.2.
The attributes are the data that answer the question, ‘What is it?’. In
fact, the attributes describe the features or phenomena in either a
qualitative or quantitative way. It is always important to record the
measurement units! Estimate and record the inaccuracy involved if
appropriate. Depending on the type of the measured or observed
parameters, several geographic data types are important in coal fire
fighting. These data types are discussed in more detail in the following
subsection.
During the field measurements, usually not much attention is paid

explicitly to the spatial relationships. It seems to be obvious, for
example, that the coal fires occur in the coal seams, or that a coal
seam, if it is not in an outcrop, is covered by cap-rocks. But in many
cases, information about the spatial relationships has to be built into
the database: e.g., coal seam #2 is above the overburden of coal seam
#3. Therefore, in the field records, it is always advisable to write a
description of the measurement site, explicitly mentioning the spatial
relation between the site and the surrounding geographical features.
This information helps in the reconstruction of the measurement site in
the geographical database.
Geographic information is referenced to a point or period in time. A

record of the time is needed for every measurement. The accuracy of
the time recording depends on the speed at which the measured or
observed parameters change. It is enough, for example, to record the
day of measurement in the case of geological sampling. Minute (or
even second) accuracy is needed when data are collected on
phenomena which change within the measurement period. For more
information about the role of time in the coal fire management and
information system, please refer to section 4.3.
Table 3.3 summarises the considerations that have to be made when

gathering field data on the four components of geographic information,
along with the solutions to the associated problems.
108
Table 3.3. The components of geographic information and the

associated aspects to be taken care of when making field
measurements
Geographic Aspect to consider Solution in the field
information
component
Geographic Accuracy of georeferencing Define by co-ordinates or pinpoint
position on a detailed map.
Record the name of the place, if
relevant.
Use GPS if this gives better accuracy
than the other methods.
Always give an estimate of the
positional accuracy in the field
record.
Attribute Accuracy of measurements Record the measurement units.
Estimate and record the inaccuracy.
Spatial Spatial relation of the Record the spatial relationships in
relationship measurement site to other the field (e.g. land subsidence over
related geographical the coal fire).
features
Time Accuracy of time recording Always record the time of the
related to the speed of measurement with the required
changes in the observed accuracy.
phenomenon
3.3.1 Topographic data

Topographic data usually provide the geometric backbone of the
geographical information. Photogrammetry, based on aerial
photographs from 1994, was used for the topographic mapping in the
Rujigou coalfield. The resulting maps have a scale of 1:5000 and a 5 m
contour interval. They use the Rujigou co-ordinate system (see Chapter
4).
Table 3.4 gives a list of the topographic features stored in the CoalMan
database. Only the most important ones have been digitised, but
CoalMan provides tools for the user to add new features when needed.
Figure 3.11. shows part of the topographic map displayed in ILWIS.
Due to the intensive mining in the area, serious changes might occur in
the surface objects, especially in and around the open-cast mines.
When topographical features have to be mapped or corrected on the
base map, an accuracy of 0.1 mm on the map (in the case of the 1:5000
map this is 0.5 m) has to be achieved. Only geodetic methods
(including geodetic GPS, see next section) provide this accuracy.
It is important to record the method of the map updating in the meta-

database of CoalMan.
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Chapter 3
Table 3.4. Topographic features in CoalMan

Topographic feature Map type Remark
Contour line Segment DEM is created
Paved road Segment
Dirt road Segment
Railway Segment
Power line Segment
Stream Segment
Rail Segment Small railway
Mine entrance Point
Marsh Polygon
Building Polygon
Figure 3.11. Part of the topographic map of the Rujigou coalfield (in
ILWIS format)
3.3.2 Positioning with GPS
Positioning with high accuracy is needed for several field

measurements and observations. For example, for photogrammetric
control points, the accuracy required is in the order of millimeters. In
measuring the locations of cracks for the monitoring of their
development, the positional accuracy needed is of the order of
decimeters. Since the airborne scanner data have a resolution of a few
meters, the reference points on the ground have to be located with an
accuracy of less than a meter. An ultimate solution for defining co-
ordinates in situ is to use a global positioning system (GPS). The
following description of the theoretical and practical background of
GPS is based on Dana (1998). For more details the reader is referred to
this source or to Kaplan (1996).
The Global Positioning System is funded and controlled by the US

Department of Defense. While there are many thousands of civil users
of GPS worldwide, the system was designed for, and is operated by,
110
the U.S. military. The Russian Republic also has a similar system
(GLONASS), but the American system is more widely used.
The system is based on 24 satellites (Figure 3.12), each orbiting the

Earth in 12 hours. The satellites are arranged in orbits with a 55-degree
inclination to a constellation. This provides the user on the Earth’s
surface with between five and eight visible satellites at the same time.
The satellites transmit special radio signals on 2 different frequencies
modulated by 2 different codes, namely the C/A code and the P code,
which are received by a field unit, the so-called receiver. A minimum
of four satellites is used by the receiver to compute the horizontal (X
and Y), the vertical (Z) co-ordinates and the time offset in the
receiver’s clock. This last quantity is needed for defining the exact
position using a special trilateration.
The global positioning system was developed for military purposes,

but civil users also use the Standard Positioning Services (SPS) free of
charge. The positioning accuracy in this service is intentionally
degraded by Dithering (altering the fundamental frequency), as well as
by Epsilon (introducing a positional error in the satellite orbit). This
intentional degradation is the ‘selective availability’, which is a bias.
As a result of the errors, the predictable accuracy with a single receiver
is the following:
 100 meter horizontal accuracy
 156 meter vertical accuracy
As well as the selective availability, other sources also cause bias

errors; these sources include the propagation error, trough atmosphere
(Ionospheric and Tropospheric refraction), the multipath, etc. Although
the detailed discussion of them is beyond the scope of this manual, it is
important to keep in mind that the range of inaccuracies caused by
these sources of error varies between 0.5 m and several tens of meters.
111
Chapter 3
Figure 3.12. GPS satellite
A special licence and special receivers are needed to achieve the

maximum possible accuracy with GPS, i.e., to be allowed to use the
Precise Positioning System (PPS) which uses the precise (P) code and
is not affected by intentional bias. This service is available to the US
military and allied users, as well as to selected users from the civilian
sector. The PPS Predictable Accuracy with a single receiver is the
following:
 22 meter horizontal accuracy
 27.7 meter vertical accuracy
Figure 3.13. Comparison of possible effects of different GPS

inaccuracies
Besides bias two more sources of error occur: noise and blunder. Noise
is related to the different modules of the GPS. Blunders are computer
or human errors, mistakes, breakdowns etc. Figure 3.13 illustrates the
possible effects of noise, bias and blunder.
112
Differential GPS (DGPS) techniques can increase the accuracy. The

idea behind all differential positioning is to correct bias errors at the
unknown location (rover station) with measured bias errors at a known
position. A reference receiver (base station) computes corrections for
each satellite signal. The base station transmits the corrections to the
rover station for real-time processing or stores them for post
processing (Figure 3.14).
Figure 3.14. Differential GPS
The XYZ position (geocentric co-ordinate system) is converted within

the receiver to geodetic latitude, longitude and height above the
ellipsoid (Figure 3.15). Latitude and longitude are usually provided in
the geodetic ellipsoid on which the GPS is based (WGS-84). Receivers
can often be set to convert to other ellipsoids required by users (Table
3.5). The geodetic ellipsoids are ellipsoids often described by their
semi-major axis (a) and semi-minor axis (b) or, instead of the latter,
the inverse flattening (a/{a-b}). The co-ordinates should then be
related to a datum in planimetry and the ellipsoidal height converted to
orthometric height (height above the geoid). Figure 3.16 illustrates the
relation between the topographic surface (the ellipsoid) and the actual
shape of the Earth (the geoid). This latter is approximated using the
mean sea level.
Previously, we assumed that the satellites were optimally distributed in

the sky and that the receiver was able to receive signal from all the
satellites above the horizon. Unfortunately, this is not always the case
in field circumstances. High mountains, steep cliffs or other obstacles
might hide the satellites from the receiver, as happened several times
during the fieldwork in the Rujigou coalfield. Poor satellite visibility
occurred particularly in open-cast mines, in the vicinity of the mined
walls.
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Chapter 3
The GPS receivers indicate a value, the so-called GDOP (Geometric

Dilution of Precision), which characterises the configuration of the
satellites in the sky during the measurement. A large GDOP value
(usually more than eight) implies unfavourable conditions: smaller
values suggest good conditions. Obstacles might result in an increase
in the GDOP.
Figure 3.15. Geodetic position of a point
Figure 3.16. Earth surfaces
Table 3.5. Selected ellipsoids available in ILWIS 2.2

Ellipsoid 1 / flattening
Semi-major axis [m]
Airy 1830 6377563.396 299.3249646
Bessel 1841 6377397.155 299.1528128
Clarke 1866 6308206.4 294.9786982
Clarke 1880 6378249.145 293.465
Everest (India 1830) 6377276.345 300.8017
International 1924 6378388.0 297.0
Krassovsky 1940 6378245.0 298.3
GRS 80 6378137.0 298.257222101
WGS 84 6378137.0 298.257223563
As was discussed at the beginning of this section, in several cases high

accuracy (e.g., better than 1 m) is needed for field measurements.
114
Using low-cost, hand-held GPS for such purposes will result in

unacceptable errors. Therefore, it is strongly advised that only high-
precision (geodetic) GPS should be used when high positional
accuracy is needed1. As a general rule, it can be stated that the average
error of the positioning has to be better by one order of magnitude than
the resolution of the remote sensing data or maps to be used with the
field measurements.
During the fieldwork in September 1997, the location of more than 130
points were measured with a geodetic GPS. Unfortunately, the exact
projection parameters for the Rujigou co-ordinate system are not
known and a mathematical 7-parameter transformation was used
instead. These parameters were calculated for the transformation of the
locations from the WGS 84 datum to the Rujigou co-ordinate system.
The mean square horizontal error calculated from the available control
points was 6 cm. This accuracy allows the use of the measured
locations of all the measurements and observations, together with the
remote sensing data, including even the highest resolution airborne
scanner data.
The measured locations will be part of the CoalMan's geographical

database.
3.3.3 Surface collection of thermal data
Thermal field data may be used for coal fire survey. Field
measurements can provide thermal data at low cost, small scale and
with flexible planning. Besides the direct examination of coal fires,
surface data may also have to be gathered for georeferencing and the
calibration of airborne / satellite images (ground truth data gathering).
Very useful data can be provided by a thermal infrared frame scanner.
In this section one can find descriptions of the equipment, the
methodology for data gathering and a short evaluation.
3.3.3.1 Equipment used for thermal measurements

Data gathering in the field was carried out using three different
methods:
1. contact thermometer
2. pointing thermometer
3. thermal infrared scanner
1
In the future the United States will add another civil frequency to the global positioning system. The
addition of a second frequency will greatly enhance the accuracy, reliability and robustness of civilian GPS
receivers by enabling them to make more effective corrections for the distorting effects of the Earth’s
atmosphere on the signals from space. GPS has always provided signals on two frequencies for military
users for this purpose. By introducing the second frequency civilians will have access to the same type of
capability. (Gore, 1998).
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Chapter 3
Each method has positive and negative aspects. Measurements were

made so that temperature changes under the influence of coal fires,
atmosphere and sun could be monitored. For surveys in the field, the
choice of equipment depends on the purpose of the measurements and
the circumstances under which they will be made. The decision to use
a certain type of equipment can be based on various factors, including
mobility and the ability to find hot targets etc. These are discussed in
the table below. In the field especially, the thermal infrared scanning
system proved to have a good potential for the surveying of coal fires.
Contact thermometer
This is a small and simple device. A reading can be obtained by
pressing a probe upon the surface. The result is obtained after
equilibrium is reached: this takes a few seconds. The recommended
measurement range of this equipment is approximately 250 – 1200
Kelvin.
Figure 3.17. Contact thermometer
The changes in temperature of rocks and coal under the influence of

heating by the sun have been measured. Conform calculations made
rock temperatures could reach 50 degrees centigrade for limestone and
up to 85 degrees in coal dust. Note that these measurements were made
in September, two-and-a-half months after the solar radiation is at its
maximum. The temperatures of heaps of burning tailing were also
measured. The temperatures ranged from ambient to 450 degrees
centigrade (in the Beisan area). As these are point measurements, it is
difficult to obtain an overview of temperatures in an entire area.
Pointing thermometer
This type of hand-held thermometer is operated by pointing the lens
towards the area of interest; with a push of a button, a reading of the
radiant temperature is obtained instantaneously. Measurements can be
116
made from small distances up to several meters. The measurement

provides the average radiant temperature of the area in the field of
view. The field of view is, in general, one or two degrees wide. These
thermometers were used to perform scan-line surveys (point-to-point
measurements along a certain linear route) as well as to monitor the
effect of the coal fire fighting measures. In the Rujigou area these
measurements were usually done along lines perpendicular to the
elongated of the fire areas.
Figure 3.18. Land/Minolta w-c 300 pointing thermometer
Taking a measurement at one point of a scan-line it is advised to

average readings of a grid of spots around the main target, as a single
measurement is not representative. Test measurements during the 1997
fieldwork campaign indicated significant differences for the
thermometers available (see figure 3.19).
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Measurement no.
Figure 3.19. Comparison of two pointing thermometers
During the test measurements, it appeared that the equipment needed

some time to present stable readings; this effect faded in time. It was
assumed that the equipment had to adjust to the ambient room
temperature. During field measurements, the equipment may need
some time to stabilise. When more then one pointing thermometers are
117
Chapter 3
used within one survey, inter-calibration of the different pointing

thermometers is desired.
Thermal infrared camera

Different types of thermal cameras are available. Modern thermal
cameras either use a frame scanning system or an array. The sensor has
to be cooled.
Figure 3.20. Two examples of thermal infrared cameras

The advantage of a camera is that an overview of the area is obtained
directly. This equipment is likely to be of great use in the locating of
new coal fires, the monitoring of known coal fires and the evaluation
of fire-fighting results. Points of concern are the high price of the
equipment and the proper training that the operator needs for optimal
usage of it.
Table 3.6 Comparison of different temperature measurement devices

(+ = good, – = bad)
Contact Pointing infrared Thermal Scanning
thermometer thermometer camera infrared
system
Mobility + + + +/–
Choice of targets – +/– + +
Representative – – + +
measurement
Reliable measurement + +/– + +
Data storage – – + +
Overview of area – – + +
Usability – +/– + +
Technical skill of – – +/– +
operator
Initial cost – +/– + +
During the 1997 fieldwork, a thermal infrared scanning system

(Thermal Inframetrics 704) was brought into the field. The equipment
consists of a thermal infrared scanning camera, a recorder and a
118
controller unit mounted on a two-wheel carriage. The system measures

the radiation in the 8 – 12 μm wavelength band. The radiation
measurements are converted to radiant temperatures. The direct result
of the measurements is a moving thermal image.
The images can be stored on disk. Pre-dawn measurements were made

of most fire areas in the Rujigou basin. To monitor the influence of the
daily solar cycle on the surface temperature above a coal fire, 24-hour
measurement campaigns were held. Two of these special surveys were
set up: one of the Beisan area and one of the Dafeng area.
3.3.3.2 General data collection procedures
In principle, data gathering procedures for surface measurements

follow the same basic rules as for thermal satellite and thermal
airborne data collection as discussed in subsections 3.1 and 3.3.1.
Favourable measurement circumstances on order of relative
importance are:
1. pre dawn (to minimise the influence of solar heating)
2. low windspeed (to minimise differential cooling)
3. clear sky (to maximise the fire and non-fire contrast)
4. autumn/spring (to minimise the influence of solar heating and to
avoid snow in winter)
Whether data are gathered for monitoring or the detection of coal fires,
it is important that one should be able to develop time-series. The
advantage of time-series is that they make it easier to detect changes in
thermal behaviour. Data should be gathered on a regular basis, stored
and processed in such a way that successive data can be compared.
This method facilitates the use of data in the detection as well as in the
monitoring of coal fires. For detection and monitoring, a set of
standard scenes should be chosen that can be viewed from a fixed
location. These locations should be selected on the basis of the
overview of the area of interest provided and the duration of their
existence (which may be a problem in a mining area).
For the conversion of temperatures to thermal heat fluxes, it is

necessary to give an estimate of the coefficient of heat exchange . To
estimate this, the windspeed, humidity and air temperature should be
recorded during the thermal measurements. Photographs of the
standard scenes should be taken to aid the thermal interpretation.
These photographs are only to be updated if the scene does, in fact,
changes considerably. Note that clear indication of where (to meter
accuracy) and in what direction (to degrees accuracy) the photographs
were taken should be available.
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Chapter 3
The method and means of gathering data depend on the aim of the
measurement:
1. detecting new fires
2. monitoring coal fires and/or coal fire fighting results
Detecting new fires
The location of new fires by surface thermal survey can be made by

examining the strong anomalies apparent in the data, as well as by
trying to find radiation increases in time. The areas under suspicion
should be located. The possible presence of a coal fire should be
verified by other existing information: the presence of coal in the
(sub)surface, mining activities, the presence of tailings etc. Then, a
detailed examination of those areas should be performed.
Monitoring coal fires and/or coal fire fighting results
The purpose of monitoring is to determine as exactly as possible the

changes in location, radiation and outline of a coal fire. To obtain a
high degree of accuracy, physical properties controlling the heat
exchange between the surface and the atmosphere should be more or
less the same if possible. To be able to correct for these effects, the
windspeed, humidity and air temperature should be recorded during
each thermal measurement.
3.3.3.3 Surface data collection for ground truthing airborne and

satellite data
Georeferencing and thermal calibration of satellite/ airborne data can
be enhanced or may even only be possible through the gathering of
field data.
 Georeferencing: data collection for georeferencing obviously
concentrates on the combination of sharp thermal features and
reliable co-ordinates. Objects that posses these properties are: road
junctions, corners of large, heated buildings, corners of agricultural
fields, lakes etc.
 Thermal calibration: first of all, the data for calibration need to be
gathered at the same time that the airborne/ satellite measurements
are made. Objects are required that have a multi-pixel,
homogeneous surface. In the case of a survey for airborne
calibration, often the same object as for the georeferencing can be
used. For thermal calibration of satellite data, lakes, sandy deserts
and agricultural areas should be searched for.
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3.3.4 Spectrometric data collection
The detection of coal fires can be done on the basis of various

concepts. In this section, the data collection for the spectral detection
of fire sites is discussed.
Spectral classification is based on differences in light reflectance

properties. The reflectance properties of the Earth's surface differ
according to chemical composition and structure and the occurrence of
vegetation. The heating of rock by coal fires also influences spectral
behaviour. This influence is apparent in active coal fire areas as well as
in 'paleo' coal fire areas. The spectral change can be used for
classification.
The spectral behaviour of a certain material is usually recorded in

terms of 'reflectivity' or 'reflection coefficient'. This is the amount of
radiation that is reflected as a factor of the incoming radiation and is a
function of the radiation wavelength. The function describing the
reflection over different wavelengths is often referred to as the 'spectral
signature'. In order to determine the reflectivity of a material, two
measurements are needed: the spectral response of a reference material
and the spectral response of the target material. The radiation source
can be the sun (field measurements) or a calibrated tungsten light (in
the laboratory). Dividing the response of the target by the response of
the reference results in the reflectivity. The conditions at the time of
measurement should be known for correct data evaluation. For field
measurements, the following should be recorded: the time, whether the
sky is clear or clouded and the object location with respect to the
equipment and the sun. It is important to have these records when
deciding to what extent measurements made under different
circumstances can be compared. As an aid for the later analysis,
photographs of the objects of interest should be taken. A lens with a
fixed focal length should be used, so that the object outline covers a
fixed percentage of the original film. The object can then be outlined
on the prints without much effort.
3.3.4.1 Equipment
A spectroradiometer measures the intensity of radiation at specific
wavelengths. In general the measurements cover the 300 – 2500 nm
range, which is similar to that covered by most satellites in the non-
thermal range. During the 1997 fieldwork, a GER 2600
spectroradiometer was used which covered the full visible (VIS) to
near infrared (NIR) spectrum from 300 to 2500 nm. For reference, a
calibrated 50% reflectance plate was used. A 50% reflectance plate
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Chapter 3
was preferred above the o100% reflectance because 50% is more close
to the reflections of most naturally occurring rock strata. The
specifications of the field spectroradiometer used are:
Instrument GER 2600

Manufacturer Geophysical & Environmental Research corporation
Spectral range 300 – 2500nm
Si-array 300 – 1050nm, 1.5 nm bandwidth
PbS-array 1050 – 2500nm, 11.5 nm bandwidth
FOV 10 degrees
Reference 50% reflectance Spectralon, 10 sqaure inch
Figure 3.17. GER 2600 spectroradiometer
3.3.4.2 General data gathering procedures
Objects
In this case, the choice of objects is discussed in relation to the use of

spectrometry as a pre-satellite reconnaissance survey for the detection
and possible classification of burnt rock. Objects should be chosen so
that the property of interest, the spectral effects of heating, can be
examined. The objects should be similar in nature, but may or may not
show the effects of heating by coal fires. When dealing with a pre-
satellite reconnaissance survey, it is advisable also to take readings of
common landscape features. These data will be useful for surface
classification.
Timing
If the data are used to evaluate the possibilities for remote sensing, the
reflectance spectra should be obtained under the same illumination
conditions (sun angle, weather, atmosphere) as during the remote
122
sensing data gathering. The best time for data gathering would,
therefore, be during the remote sensing data capture.
Illumination
The spectral measurements in the field should preferably be made

under solar illumination. The sun angle and atmospheric conditions
will affect the overall spectral characteristics of the incoming light.
Diffuse skylight can contribute as much as 5 – 10% of the illumination,
and may even be stronger at the shorter wavelengths. Other
illumination sources will be light scattered by clouds, the persons
doing the measurement, and other large objects (e.g., trees). It is
advisable to keep these influences as small as possible: do not wear
bright clothes when doing measurements, do not take a reading next to
an illuminated wall etc. Regarding the interference from clouds, it is
preferable to take readings only when at least a 15-degree circle
around the sun is cloud free; the radiation emitted from the clouds may
corrupt the data gathered (Clark, 1998). Changes in illumination
should be avoided; the time lapse between the object and reference
measurements should be small compared to the time in which the
illumination changes. On a cloud-free midsummer's day around noon,
this time-lapse may be several minutes; whereas, on a cloudy and
windy autumn afternoon this time-lapse should be, at most, a few
seconds.
The amount of incident radiation is directly related to the slope and

aspect of the object. This can be compensated for partly by tilting the
reference plate so that it has the same slope and aspect as the object.
3.3.4.3 Data gathered during the 1997 fieldwork

The purpose of the spectrometric survey undertaken during the 1997
fieldwork in the Rujigou basin was to understand how the burning
process affects the spectral signature of the rock. The data gathered
were also used for examination of the feasibility of a classification into
different lithologies.
To investigate the spectral effects of the burning process measurements
were made of common lithology both in burnt and not-burnt state. The
targets were put into groups discriminated on the basis of the main
lithology and their burnt state (i.e., burnt or not burnt). Some
measurements were made on sequences of rock which with increasing
degree of burning.
The spectra were grouped into lithologies as they occur in the Rujigou
area:
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Chapter 3
1. coal
2. sandstone
3. banded sandstone/ shale
The data were visually evaluated as to the possibility of classification

being made based on the Landsat bands. The results of this evaluation
of the data can be found in paragraph 6.3.
Data
In figure 3.22 the spectrum of the sunlight is given as measured at
ground level in the Rujigou area. Indicated are the wavelength bands
that are covered by the Landsat TM-5 satellite. The spectrum was
obtained by making a measurement of the reference plate.
sun spectrum with landsat bands
300000
250000
radiance [10^-10 W/cm2/nm]
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
350 850 1350 1850 2350
wavelength [nm]
Figure 3.22. Sun spectrum with indicated wavelength sensitivity of

Landsat bands 1,2,3,4,5,7 (grey, left to right)
In the following some typical spectra as measured during the 1997

field campaign are shown. The measurements are displayed as
reflectance curves i.e. the radiance measured on the object is divided
by the radiance as measured from the reference plate.
Reflectances of common lithology
60
50
Reflectance [%]
sandstone
40
shale
30 ss/sh
20 coal
Landsat bands
10
0
350 850 1350 1850 2350
wavelength [nm]
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Figure 3.23 Reflectance of common appearing lithologies
In figure 3.23. some representative measurements on the most common

types of lithology of the Rujigou coal basin are displayed. The other
measurements made will be available in the data base of CoalMan.
Coal shows a low reflectance over the whole spectrum. This complies
with the general black appearance of coal in the visual (400-800 nm)
part of the spectrum. The relative flat and high appearance of the
sandstone results in a more white expression in the visual range. From
these data it was expected that a classification into the main lithologies
should be possible by using Landsat data.
The differences in reflectance due to the burning process were also

investigated. For this reason spectra were gathered of normal, not
burnt, as well as of burnt rock occurrences.
Reflectances of sandstone
60
50
Reflectance [%]
40
Landsat bands
30 sandstone
burnt sandstone
20
10
0
350 850 1350 1850 2350
wavelength [nm]
Figure 3.20 Reflectance of not burnt and a burnt sandstone
Both in the field and from the reflectance curves of the shale and the
sandstone it is clear that the relative reflectance level in the red (~700-
800 nm) is stronger for the burnt varieties.
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Chapter 3
Figure 3.21 reflectance of not burnt and of a burnt shale
The burning effect in the far infrareds does show as an overall increase
in the level of the reflectance. A more dedicated investigation of the
spectral behaviour of burnt rock is discussed in more detail in
paragraph 6.3.
3.4 Subsurface data collection
The fourth level of data collection is carried out in the subsurface.

These data include temperature measurements from monitoring
boreholes and data collected from the (underground) mines. Many of
the mining data are used, among others, for constructing a geological
model. Therefore, these data do not necessarily have to be acquired
simultaneously with the data from the other three levels.
3.4.1 Borehole temperature measurements
Many boreholes have to be drilled in order to provide the evidence of

the presence of coal fires on satellite or airborne thermal images, to
study the subsurface temperature distribution of the coal fires, and to
monitor the changing state of the coal fires. Most coal fires are located
in coal seam 2. In order to reduce the difficulties in drilling boreholes
in the fire areas, the lower boundary of this coal seam was chosen to be
the final depth of the borehole. When the drilling is in a fire area the
bottom of the borehole should be in the lower boundary of the burning
coal seam.
Bore hole specifications
 the diameter of the borehole should be 108 mm

 in general, one borehole should be positioned on each 100 m2
Drilling procedures
 safety precautions should be taken to protect the operators from

injury by hot gasses, methane explosions, CO poisoning etc
 confirm that the boreholes get down to the designated depth
 a cap should be put on the top of the pipe in order to stop the
airflow through the monitoring hole
 insert a casing of 100-mm diameter. The casing should be
perforated with many small holes
126
Requirements for the measuring equipment
 the range of measurement should be between –20 and 1000 oC

 it must be possible to make temperature measurements at different
depths
 the accuracy of the temperature measurements should be within 1
o
C
 the equipment should be reliable and easy to operate
Temperature monitoring procedure

 temperature measurements should be taken once every 10 days
 check the instrument and make it ready to function
 screw the sealing cap of the monitoring hole and insert the
temperature probe
 when the probe has reached the desired depth, seal the inlet of the
borehole with special mud (easy to seal, and no oxidation of the
measuring equipment)
 after the instrument is stable, write down the measurement results
 take the temperature probe out of the borehole, let it cool down and
make another measurement (at a different depth)
 replace the cap of the monitoring hole after the measurement is
done
Field evidence suggests that measurements at different levels in the

borehole often give similar results. It is assumed that this is the result
of the levelling-out of temperature by heat transport in the casing and
by the convection of the gases in the borehole. Using an improved
borehole design can solve this problem. Temperature probes will have
to be installed at the desired levels, after which the borehole should be
grouted.
3.4.2 Mining data
Mining activities are generally considered to be an important factor in

the initiation and progress of coal fires (Banerjee, 1982). This is
supported by the observation that in the Rujigou area many coal fires
started after mining was intensified in the 1960’s.
Mining data include:

 geological conditions (e.g. depth and thickness of the strata, strike
and dip of coal seams)
 coal extraction methods (room and pillar or longwall)
 access methods (slope, shaft or drift)
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Chapter 3
 mining plans (both present and future)

 seam gas emissions (notably CH4 and CO)
 ventilation methods
 safety regulations (e.g. fire prevention, gas monitoring)
To date, only a limited amount of mining data is available from the
Rujigou area. Yet, the monitoring system has been set-up in such a
way that future data can be incorporated in a relatively easy way.
3.4.2.1 Geological information
A geological model of the coal basin provides the backbone for an

accurate determination of the position of a coal fire, its direction of
progress and for the calculation of the (potential) coal loss.
More than 225 data points (outcrops and boreholes), representing all
seven coal seams, were made available by the mines in the Rujigou
area. These data points are, however, irregularly distributed over the
area and the individual coal seams. Consequently, the models, as
derived from these data, have a low accuracy in terms of (calculated)
thickness and depth. It was, therefore, decided to allow end-users to
modify and update the table in the monitoring system, as new
information becomes available.
3.4.2.2 Mining techniques and mining plans

As a result of coal mining much oxygen pathways are created either by
means of (ventilated) tunnel systems or by means of fissures and
cracks in the overburden. These latter are created as a result of coal
mining related surface subsidence. Another factor, which promotes the
initiation of coal fires, is the fact that much fresh (reactive) coal will be
exposed to the air as unmined coal or as coal dust.
In room-and-pillar mines, coal is removed from selected areas called

rooms. Pillars of unmined coal are left between the rooms to support
the roof. Depending on the size of rooms and pillars, the amount of
coal removed from the production areas will range from 40 to 70
percent. A disadvantage of most room-and-pillar methods is that much
coal is left behind in the pillars. The larger privately owned mines in
the Rujigou area use an extraction method similar to the room and
pillar method. The small private mines generally consist of only one
tunnel from which the coal is excavated.
High-extraction mining methods are subdivided into high-extraction

retreat and longwall. In these methods, much of the coal is removed
128
within well-defined areas of the mine. Subsidence of the surface above

these areas is low; however, subsidence may continue for several years
after mining. High-extraction retreat mining is a form of room-and-
pillar mining that extracts most of the coal. Rooms and pillars are
developed in the panels, and the pillars are then systematically
removed and extraction ranges from 70 to 90 percent.
Because of the large thickness of the coal seams in the Rujigou area a
so-called top slicing longwall method is used in the underground
mines. The mining of the coal seam starts at the top and proceeds in
slices downward while the overburden above the mining area is caved
after each slice is removed.
Knowledge on mined-out areas, operational and working plans,

position, direction, dip, and length of the private mining tunnels (both
active and abandoned) are all essential factors for coal fire fighting and
prevention. Since the position of the mining tunnels is unknown,
accidental connections to other underground mining areas may occur.
This may create potential hazardous situations for spontaneous
combustion. Information on the mining plans is also required for the
assessment of potential subsidence areas. To date, no such information
is as yet available, which hampers a good evaluation of the relationship
between coal fire occurrences and mining and the evaluation of
potential new coal fire areas.
If, however, mining plans and ventilation designs become available

they can be implemented in the monitoring system as digitised maps.
3.4.2.3 Safety regulations
For all state-owned underground mines a large set of safety regulations

applies. A, revised, version of the Safety Regulations has been
published by the Ministry of Energy in 1992. For the present coal fire
project at least two chapters of the Safety Regulations are relevant.
Chapter 3 contains several articles on ventilation, gasses, coal dust and
safety monitoring. Chapter 5 contains articles on the prevention and
extinction of mine fires, including the prevention of underground
spontaneous combustion. However, to what extent these regulations
are actually implemented in the Rujigou area is as yet unknown. A
discussion on the relevant safety regulations for the mining activities in
the Rujigou coalfield is part of the fire-fighting and prevention plans.
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Chapter 3
130
GIS: The integrated working environment
Chapter 4
4 GIS: The integrated working environment

Fire-fighting and management in a coalfield are complex operations in
which the decision-makers of the fire-fighting team face the problem
of choosing the optimum methods. Their task is to minimise the
damage caused by the coal fires with the highest possible efficiency.
They need a large number of data about, for example, the status of the
fires, the geology, the endangered sites, the effects of the fires and the
fire-fighting resources. The data themselves are not enough; they have
to be converted into useful information by objective analysis methods.
Well-established information flow has been helping the fire-fighters in

the Rujigou coalfield. The classical methods of information
management have been used: regular field observations (with
occasional complementary field campaigns), reporting on paper, paper
archiving in the office, analysis based on the archive (in the office). A
PC-based information system, the Coal Fire Management and
Monitoring System (CoalMan) was developed in the present project to
improve the archiving and analysis of the data. In this sense, this
system is a manifestation of the methods and tools developed in the
recent project.
The primary user of CoalMan is the Fire-Fighting Team of Ningxia

Autonomous Region. The system is set up in the central office of the
team in Yinchuan and provides basic information for the team's
decision-makers to get information about the state of the coal fires and
for the planning of activities.
CoalMan is a monitoring and information system which uses up-to-

date geographic information system (GIS) and database management
system (DBMS) technology, and includes special programmes for the
analysis of the data.
What is a GIS? The United States Geological Survey provides the most
adequate definition (USGS, 1997):
“In the strictest sense, a GIS is a computer system capable of

assembling, storing, manipulating, and displaying geographically
referenced information, i.e. data identified according to their
locations. Practitioners also regard the total GIS as including
operating personnel and the data that go into the system.”
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Chapter 4
What is a DBMS? The Association for Geographic Information gives

the following definition (AGI, 1998):
“A collection of software for organising the information in a database.

Typically a DBMS contains routines for data input, verification,
storage, retrieval and combination.”
The following sections provide an overview of these techniques and

tools. The term ‘GIS’ is used in its widest context and includes
hardware and software, the data and the data management. In the case
of the Rujigou coalfield, all the data used have a geographical aspect.
The analysis also makes heavy use of the spatial aspects of the
information, and so CoalMan will be referred to as a GIS.
4.1 Components of geographical information systems
Geographical information systems are complex tools for data storage,

management and analysis (Figure 4.1). Usually, they are tailored for
the needs of specific users. There are numerous off-the-shelf software
packages available, but these usually do not satisfy the specific needs
of the users since they contain only the tools for manipulating
georeferenced and some generic data. The users’ own data have to be
added as well as the user-specific routines.
Subsection 4.1.1 discusses the software components of a GIS. This

discussion focuses on the general aspects, since the actual realisation
of the software components depends on – among other factors – the
structure of the data. Data structures will be discussed in Section 4.2,
focusing on their realisation in CoalMan. Subsection 4.1.2 gives an
overview about the major hardware components of a GIS. Those
components which are supported by CoalMan are listed.
The off-the-shelf software Integrated Land and Water Information

System (ILWIS, a product of ITC) is used in CoalMan. It is beyond the
scope of this manual to give a detailed introduction to this package. It
is assumed that the operator of CoalMan has a basic knowledge of how
to use ILWIS. A special user interface was developed for CoalMan,
which integrates ILWIS with the tabular database and the software
tools developed for fire-fighting purposes.
Unfortunately, there is no established terminology in the field of GIS;

the different academic circles and practically every major software
vendor created their own technicus terminus. Throughout this manual
the terminology of ILWIS will be used, and to make orientation easier
132
in the jungle of GIS expressions, several terms are explained in the

Glossary at the end of this manual.
Map and Tabular Data Input Remote Sensing Input
Data from maps Field data Image A Image B
Tabular data Data from other

Image C Image D
digital databases
Geographic
Information System
Other
geo-
Map and Attribute Data Management Image graphic
Processing infor-
mation
Collection input and systems
Image
Storage and enchancemen
Manipulation and Image

classification, External
image fusion analitical
Output and packages
Output
Reports Photographic Data to other digital

products data bases
Maps Statistics Data input

to models
Figure 4.1. General structure of a geographical information system

with image processing tools
4.1.1 Software components
Users operate the programmes via the user interface. Usually it is not
important for them to know the details hidden by the user interface, but
in the case of a complex software like a GIS, it is good to know how
the main parts of the software work.
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Chapter 4
External data sources
Data entering
Map digitizing File conversion Scanning
via keyboard
Temporary storage
Digital tables
Text files Raster

images
Raster
maps Vector
maps
Verification,
restructuring
GIS database
Text files Meta-database
Raster
maps Digital tables
Vector Raster
maps images
Figure 4.2. Input data flow. In the first step, data are entered into a
temporary storage. After verification, the data are then entered into
the GIS database (and registered in the meta-database)
The main parts of a GIS software are the following:

 User interface. Most of the modern systems work with graphical
user interfaces, where the user operates the system with the help of
buttons, icons and other graphical tools. A GIS uses graphical
manipulations (e.g. map editing) heavily, so every GIS is equipped
with a graphical user interface. Usually a command line or another
command editing facility is present too, because in some cases it is
more convenient to enter commands than to manipulate complex
graphical tools.
134
 Data input. A wide range of data (existing maps, field

observations, imagery in analogue or digital form etc.) has to be
entered in a GIS. Besides converting the data into the proper digital
format, the input module provides tools for structuring and
verifying the data (Figure 4.2). In the case of a complex database, a
meta-database is implemented which contains information about
the stored geographical data, and the input module includes tools
for registering the new data in the meta-database.
 Data management. Software components that serve the
maintenance of the database are the data management tools. They
check the integrity of the database and help to copy, to delete, to
backup and to retrieve data. If the database is larger than the
storage capacity of the computer, software tools are needed to
archive some data, i.e. to move some data from the database on to
an external storage medium.
 Data visualisation and output. The data visualisation and output
software displays the user interface and the data on the computer
screen and sends them to a hardcopy device (e.g. printer or film
writer).
 Data analysis. In the broadest terms, the data analysis software
converts data into new data/information. Two groups can be
identified: analysis tools for the spatial data (i.e., maps and images)
and analysis tools for the non-spatial data (i.e., tables).
4.1.2 Hardware components
The main hardware components of a GIS are the following:

 central processing unit, or in broader terms the computer
 display device – monitor
 internal storage medium – internal hard disk(s)
 external storage media – hard disk, tape, CD and others with their
drives
 input peripherals – digitiser, scanner, digital camera, keyboard etc
 hardcopy peripherals – printer, film-writer, plotter etc
CoalMan is designed to run under the Windows 95 or Windows 98

operating systems. In these environments, the peripheral drivers are
included. The application software does not have to contain specific
drivers, and so every piece of hardware which is supported by the
operating system, can be used. Therefore, it is easy to add new
hardware to CoalMan if needed. The suggested hardware configuration
for CoalMan is the following:
 Pentium PC with Windows 95 or Windows 98 operating system
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Chapter 4
 17 inch monitor
 minimum 1 GB hard disk space for the software
 minimum 2 GB hard disk space for the data
 CD-ROM reader and writer
 digitising tablet (preferably greater than A3)
 A4 black-and-white printer (for text and simple map-printing)
 A4 colour printer for small-format map-printing
 large format colour printer for map-printing
 A3 scanner for map- and photo-scanning
digitising tablet
scanner
colour printer
Large format printer
B&W printer
Pentium PC with
Windows 95/98
Figure 4.3. The suggested hardware configuration of CoalMan
For security reasons, it is advisable to install a continuous power

device that can protect the computers from abrupt changes in the
voltage and from power cuts.
4.2 Spatial aspects of data
In geographical databases the spatial aspects of the data are

considered. In other words, besides the questions about the qualitative
or quantitative characteristics of the data such as ‘What is it?,’ or ‘How
many items are available?’, questions about locations such as ‘Where
is it?’, or ‘How far is A from B?’ can also be answered by the system
too (Figure 4.4).
Spatial data structures contain information about location through co-

ordinates. The co-ordinates can describe two or three dimensions and,
with special data structures, time can be directly considered as the
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fourth dimension. Spatial data structures are often referred to as

geocoded data. Most commercial GISs use two-dimensional data
structures, as does ILWIS. Thus, the basic data structure in CoalMan is
two-dimensional. Since in mining and coal fire-fighting three-
dimensional information is needed about the fires, CoalMan uses a
series of layers to simulate the third dimension. Subsection 4.4.1 gives
more details on this technique.
There are several ways of structuring spatial data and their attributes in
a computer environment. The logical framework of structuring is
called the data-model, which describes the logical organisation of the
data components and the manner in which relationships among
components are defined. Two major data-models can be defined in a 2-
D GIS: the vector model and the raster model. These are described in
the following subsections.
Where is it? What is it?
Code Landuse
B
A Agriculture
A
B Forest
C
C Grassland
Geographic data in a GIS:

Combination of spatial and attribute data
Figure 4.4. GIS integrates spatial and non-spatial (attribute) data
4.2.1 The vector data-model
The vector data-model uses the following primitives: points, segments

and polygons (Figure 4.5).
p
Point
N1 S N2 Segment
p1 p2 Node
Breakpoint
S1
P Polygon
S2
Figure 4.5. Vector data primitives
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Chapter 4
Real world
Vector data model Raster data model

Data (representation) model
Y co-ordinate
X co-ordinate
Co-ordinate list
Generalised scheme of realisation in computer
P.No. X Y Attribute Row Col.

. . .
.
1 75 194 .. .
. .
2 45 207 Background 3 10
3 51 207
House 3 11
4 51 214 House 3 12
5 45 214 Background 3 13
6 35 180 Road 3 14
Background 3 15
. . .
. . .
Point-like feature . . .
Georeferencing
Segments X = f (Row, Col.)

Y = f (Row, Col.)
Starting Ending Break points Name S.No.
P.No. P.No.
2 2 3-5 House contour S1
6 15 7 - 14 Road S2
16 16 17 - 33 Lake shore S3
Polygons (areas)
Name Boundary S.No.
P1 House S1
P2 Lake S3
Figure 4.6. Schematic representation of the vector data-model with

topology and the raster data-model
Every point is described by a co-ordinate pair (X, Y) and an attribute.

The segments consist of points. The end-points are called nodes and
the points between the nodes are the breakpoints. Thus, an attribute
and a series of co-ordinate pairs describe the segments.
The most complex primitive in the vector data-model is the polygon. It

has an attribute and one or more segments border it. In this way, the
primitives of the vector model are related to each other.
138
Relationships among the primitives are defined by the topology. The

simplest topology is the so called ‘spaghetti file’ where no spatial
relationships are determined between segments, so polygons are not
formed. In more sophisticated topologies, the segments are connected
to each other and the polygons are identified as surfaces surrounded by
segments (Figure 4.5). Consequently, the vector data-model explicitly
describes the lines and implicitly describes the surfaces.
Features which cannot be represented in their planar extent, e.g. point

measurements of precipitation, groundwater head and drilling sites, are
represented by points. Linear phenomena whose widths cannot be
represented in their planar extent (such as boundaries or small streams)
are represented by segments.
Polygons describe homogeneous geographical features that can be

represented in their planar extent (e.g., geological units). In fact, there
are two other ways of representing surfaces in the vector data-model.
These methods refer to the third dimension and so they are described
in detail in subsection 4.4.1:
 Contour lines, which are, in fact, segments connecting points with
identical values on a physical or imaginary 3-D surface (e.g.,
contour lines on the topographic map or isohyets on a precipitation
map).
 Triangular networks, which approximate a 3-D surface with
triangles.
4.2.2 The raster data-model
The raster data-model, or regular tessellation, stores attributes for the

whole surface of the map explicitly in a regular order. Lines are
expressed implicitly as boundaries between two surfaces, or as a
sequence of cells.
Square pixels are the most frequently used basic elements.

Theoretically, other regular geometrical shapes can also form the basis
of a regular tessellation, but they raise more practical data handling
problems and so they are not used widely. ILWIS uses square pixels.
The location of a pixel is identified in the raster by the row and column
numbers. In GIS applications, the raster has to be referenced to the
geographical or to a cartographical co-ordinate system. Transformation
equations (polynomials of various orders) are used for the
georeferencing. The most frequently used transformation parameter
determination method is based on tie points: the user identifies points
with known geographic or cartographic co-ordinates on the raster (e.g.,
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Chapter 4
a satellite image) and these known co-ordinates are used to calculate

the parameters of the transformation equation.
Table 4.1. Comparison of vector and raster data-models (after

Aronoff, 1989)
4.2.2.1 Vector model 4.2.2.2 Raster model
Advantages: Advantages:
 More compact data structure  Simpler data structure.
than the raster model.  Overlay operations are easily
(Occupies less space in the and efficiently implemented.
computer.)  High spatial variability is
 Efficient encoding of topology, efficiently implemented.
and as a result, more efficient  Efficient manipulation and
implementation of special processing of images.
operations that require
topological information, such as
network analysis.
 Better suited to supporting
graphics that closely
approximate hand drawn maps.
 Easier change of scale (within
reasonable limits).
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
 More complex data structure  Less compact data structure.
than the raster. (Data compression techniques
 Overlay operations are more can often overcome this
difficult to implement. problem).
 The representation of high  Topological relationships are
spatial variability is inefficient. more difficult to represent.
 Manipulation and processing of  Line representations are less
digital images cannot efficiently aesthetically pleasing because
be done. they tend to have a blocky
appearance. High resolution
(large number of cells) can
partly overcome this problem.
 Less flexibility in scale
changing (blocky appearance).
A special case of the raster model is the quadtree. In fact, this is a

compression method, but some GISs use the quadtree as their basic
data structure. It provides a more compact representation by using a
variable-sized grid cell. Large grid cells are used in homogeneous
areas and finer division in areas with more detail. The quadtree will
only work well if the data set represented by the raster shows a
considerable degree of homogeneity. Since this data-model is not used
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in CoalMan, for more details on quadtrees the reader is referred to

Aronoff (1989) or McGuire et al. (1991).
Both data-models have advantages and disadvantages (Table 4.1). The

raster data structure is less compact than the vector, but it can be more
easily used in overlaying. When remote sensing imagery is an
important source of input data, the raster model is the only suitable
model for the processing. The results of the raster analysis might be
converted into vector format if needed.
The modelling and analysis part of ILWIS uses mostly raster

operations. Since the coal fire analysis tools implemented in CoalMan
take satellite images as their input, they are also based on the raster
data-model.
4.2.3 Resolution and pixel size
Resolution and pixel size – these are frequently used terms in GIS, but
they are not always used correctly. Resolution is frequently misused to
express the fullness of detail of a map. It is also related – incorrectly –
to the pixel size of a raster map. But what do these terms really mean?
Generally speaking, resolution is a measure of the ability to detect

quantities (AGI, 1998). High resolution implies a high degree of
discrimination but has no implication as to accuracy (see Subsection
4.2.4). Resolution is most meaningful in the case of remote sensing
data because it can be related to the physical parameters of the
detector.
The most important types of resolution are the following:

 Spatial resolution. This refers to the area on the ground that an
imaging system, such as a satellite sensor, can distinguish. There
are many measures of spatial resolution, the most common include
the Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV), which is that area on the
ground that is viewed by the instrument from a given altitude at
any given time (AGI, 1998).
In a wider context, spatial resolution can be used for maps too, as

the smallest ground feature differentiable in its planar extent. This
is not necessarily equivalent to the raster size of a digital map! In
the case of digital maps created from printed ones, the resolution is
more closely related to the scale of the source map.
 Spectral resolution refers to the width of the spectral bands that a
satellite imaging system can detect. Often satellite imaging systems
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Chapter 4
are multi-spectral, meaning that they can detect in several discrete

bands It is the width of these bands that spectral resolution refers
too. The narrower the bands, the greater the spectral resolution
(AGI, 1998).
 Radiometric resolution, or radiometric sensitivity refers to the
number of digital levels used to express the data collected by the
sensor. In general, the greater the number of levels, the greater the
detail of information. The number of levels is normally expressed
as the number of binary digits needed to store the value of the
maximum level; for example, a radiometric resolution of 1 bit
would be 2 levels, 2 bit would be 4 levels and 8 bit would be 256
levels. The number of levels is often referred to as the Digital
Number, or DN value (AGI, 1998).
The analogy with the radiometric resolution of a digital map

containing values (a so-called value map) is the combination of the
represented value range (the range between the minimum and
maximum value) and the representation precision (the number of
significant digits in the value). ILWIS can handle values in maps and
tables as fixed-point real numbers (using 1 byte, 2 bytes or 4 bytes for
storing the values), or as floating-point real numbers (using 8 bytes for
storing the values). If values are stored on 8 bytes then they can have
up to 15 significant digits.
Table 4.2. Some types of raster data stored in the CoalMan database
and their resolutions
Data type Resolution/pixel size

DEM 5m
Airborne scanner data 3–5m
IRS-1C image 5.6 m resampled to 5 m
SPOT image 10 m
Landsat TM bands 1–5 and 7 30 m
Landsat TM band 6 120 m
There are data of very different spatial resolution stored in the

CoalMan database (Table 4.2). If these data are combined in an
analysis, then the data of the coarsest resolution will define the
resolution of the final result. Let us take an example of a coal fire map,
which is the result of the analysis using the Landsat TM band 6 (120 m
resolution). If this is overlaid on the elevation model with 5 m
resolution, then the coal fire mapping will still be of 120 m resolution,
in spite of the 5 m pixel size to which it has to be resampled to display
it on the elevation data. A coal fire map of higher resolution needs
source data, i.e. thermal images, of higher resolution: e.g., the airborne
scanner data can be used.
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4.2.4 Quality of information and quality control
The success of GIS-based information management depends strongly

on the quality of the data and data processing. It is impossible to make
good decisions if the data and information on which they depend are
not true.
Assessment of quality is a complex issue. Complex, because it

comprises accuracy, precision, representativity, adequacy and some
other factors. Besides its complexity, quality cannot be represented
with absolute units because quality depends on the field of application
too. A locational error of 10 m results in a 2 mm displacement on a
1:5000 map and so is not acceptable, whilst the same error does not
cause recognisable displacement, and so is acceptable, on a 1:100 000
map or a Landsat TM thermal image pixel size of 120 m.
Quality assurance starts with the quality control of the input data. In
the following paragraphs, we describe the most important parameters
used in quality control.
Accuracy is the closeness of observations, computations or estimates to

the value accepted as being true. Accuracy relates to the exactness of
the result and is distinguished from precision (see below), which
relates to the exactness of the operation by which the result was
obtained (AGI, 1998).
The definition contains the ‘true value’, which is in most cases not
known for all the features in the database. Only a statistical approach
can help to overcome this difficulty. In this approach, accuracy is the
likelihood that a prediction will be correct. Based on a sample data set,
the histogram of the differences between the ‘true value’ and the
predicted value are calculated. If the errors do not have a systematic
component and are of the same continuous population, then their
distribution is assumed to be normal. Using this assumption two
important parameters can be determined: the root mean square (RMS)
error, which is the expected value (or mean) of the distribution; and
the accuracy, which is the maximum error at the selected level of
confidence (Figure 4.7). In the figure, the x-axis of the normal
distribution curves is divided into units of standard deviation - termed
z-values. The standard deviation is denoted by SD.
Direct calculation of the RMS error from the sample set:
1
RMS error  
n n
( pn  p' n ) 2
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Chapter 4
where
n = number of sample points
pn = true value
p’n = predicted value
Figure 4.7. Illustration of accuracy with probabilistic approach

(Aronoff, 1989)
In GIS, two major accuracy types can be identified: the positional

accuracy and the accuracy of the attribute data (accuracy of content).
144
Positional accuracy is the degree to which objects on a map are

positioned at their true horizontal and vertical ground locations, i.e.,
relative to a co-ordinate system and a datum.
On maps, the required accuracy is usually defined as the maximum
acceptable error. Positional accuracy, in this sense, is similar to map
accuracy as defined in cartography: a measure of the maximum errors
permitted in horizontal positions and elevations shown on maps
(GRANITNet, 1998). Surveying standards define the different
positional accuracy requirements as a function of the scale of the
topographic maps. The horizontal accuracy and the elevation accuracy
are usually treated separately.
The accuracy of content shows whether the attributes of the geographic

features are correct or free of bias. In the case of class attributes, the
(qualitative) accuracy refers to whether the feature belongs to a certain
class or not. There is a finite number of classes, and every object has to
belong to one. Consequently these classes are not independent from
each other; an error in one class designation creates an error in the
class with which it was confused (Aronoff, 1989). A confusion matrix
shows the number of correctly and incorrectly classified features (in
the case of satellite images pixels).
There are no general accuracy standards available for geographical

information systems, although it is a controversial issue in GIS since
only maps with high positional accuracy can be overlaid. For example,
difficulties occur in coal fire monitoring if the satellite images in the
analysed time series are not registered with sub-pixel accuracy. Erratic
discrepancies occur on the boundaries of the fire areas, so it is not
possible to detect the movement of the fires accurately. For more
information on referencing, see Section 5.2.
The accuracy requirement depends on the content of the map/data. For

the topographic map of scale 1:5000, a positional accuracy of 0.5 m
(0.1 mm on the printed map) is a general requirement. If a Landsat TM
thermal image (band 6) is registered with a sub-pixel accuracy of
confidence level 95%, it means that 95% of the pixels do not have an
error greater than 120 m. A coal fire map derived from the satellite
image has the same accuracy. These are limitations to be considered
when the coal fire map is overlaid on an elevation model which was
calculated from the contour lines of the topographic map.
Precision is a term that is sometimes confused with accuracy.

Precision does not reflect the quality of the data, but it is the exactness
with which a value is expressed, whether the value is right or wrong.
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Chapter 4
In this sense, on satellite images, precision is related to the radiometric

resolution. As discussed in subsection 4.2.3, the precision depends on
how the number is stored in the computer. Table 4.3 shows a selected
list of storage formats (computer word length) and the corresponding
precision of the value representation and digital range.
Table 4.3. Relation between value representation and digital range

and precision (after Burrough, 1986)
Number of bits Value Number of Approximate decimal
representation type significant range
digits (decimal)
8 (1byte) integer 3 0 – 255
16 (2 bytes) integer 5 -32768 – +32767
32 (4 bytes) integer 9 -2*109 – +2*109
64 (8 bytes) integer 18 -9*1018 – +9*1018
80 bit (10 byte) packed decimal 18 -99…99 – +99…99
(18 digits)
32 (4 bytes) short real 6–7 8.43*10-37 – 3.37*1038
(single precision) (both negative and
positive values and 0)
64 (8 bytes) long real 15–16 4.19*10-307 –
(double precision) 1.67*10308
(both negative and
positive values and 0)
Representativity: It is important that the selected samples represent the

target population; e.g., the surface temperature measurements should
be taken at sites where the coal fires are the most important heat
sources and no other, perhaps unknown, sources have an effect. Thus,
the evaluation of the representativity implies the need for detailed
information on the sample sites and sampling methods. It is not
possible to exclude with high confidence the non-representative
samples from the set with post-processing.
Adequacy expresses whether the data used in an analysis is relevant for

the description or modelling of that particular phenomenon and is
accurate and precise enough.
Testing quality in a GIS is an expensive procedure. Since there are no

general keys and tools for this procedure, it has to be built into every
individual data entry and evaluation process. The error introduced with
the data entry then propagates through the whole analysis.
A simple method for tracing the data quality is to record the method
used for the compilation of a new map from the data and the name of
146
the compiler. Personalising the data entry and analysis steps in this
way assigns clear responsibility to the operators of the system.
CoalMan contains a meta-database in which the book-keeping
concerning the creators and modifiers of the data objects is done. The
data-definition files of the geographical data in ILWIS (the GIS
running under CoalMan) record the expressions used for creating the
data objects. Using these tools, the history of the data is recorded and it
is possible to assess the quality of the results.
4.3 Attribute data and data dependencies in CoalMan
Attribute data are – in general – tables linked to geographical features.

The most important ways of arranging data in a database are the
following:
 The hierarchical data-model, in which the data (tables) are
organised in a tree structure (Figure 4.8). The relations between
data elements are encoded in the database. This is not a flexible
structure. The major disadvantages of the hierarchical model are
that the data relationships are difficult to modify, and queries are
restricted to traversing the existing hierarchy.
 The network data-model, in which the relations are not only
defined along a tree structure (Figure 4.9). The relations between
data elements are still encoded in the database. This provides high-
speed retrieval but the data relationships are difficult to modify.
 The relational data-model, which does not contain a hierarchy of
the data (Figure 4.10). The relations are stored in separate files.
The tables can be linked with a join operation using an attribute
(field) that they share in common. The advantages of the relational
database model are that it is flexible and less redundancy is
involved than in the other models.
CoalMan integrates a database in Microsoft Access format (the

background tabular database), which uses the relational data-model,
and an object-oriented geographical database in ILWIS format. A
meta-database (also in Microsoft Access format) provides additional
information about the location of the data files, both in the background
tabular database and the geographical database (Figure 4.10). The
meta-database stores the history of the data too.
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Chapter 4
Figure 4.8. Hierarchical data-model (Aronoff, 1989)
Figure 4.9. Network data-model (Aronoff, 1989)
Figure 4.10. Example of the relationships between tables in the meta-

database of CoalMan. The tables are the same as in Figure 4.11. The
sign  stands for ‘many’. A many-to-one relation means that many
records in the left-hand table can be related to one record in the right-
hand table
148
Figure 4.11. Example of tables in the meta-database of CoalMan. In a

relational database, the relations are not built into the data-set
4.3.1 Data handling in the background tabular database
A background tabular database is needed for the secure storage of the

basic tabular data. This database contains all those tabular data which
need flexible data management and presentation. Only the Master User
is allowed to edit data in this part of the CoalMan database.
The following data types are stored in the background tabular

database:
 borehole data
 coal properties
 surface temperature measurements
 fire-fighting data etc
These data represent a continuously growing information base.

Therefore, specially designed forms help the user to enter new data
into the database. Automatic procedures select and convert the data
into the proper format to link these data with the geographic database
stored in ILWIS format.
4.3.2 Object-oriented approach and data dependency in ILWIS
ILWIS uses an object-oriented approach to data. The basic idea is that

a data object is linked with service objects which describe the
characteristics of the data and with some special objects which help the
analysis of the data. The concept is described in detail in the ILWIS
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Chapter 4
manuals; here we present only the most important aspects that are
relevant in understanding the concepts of CoalMan.
The data objects are the different maps, tables and remote sensing
materials which are worked with. Maps can be displayed and edited in
a map window; tables in a table window. The user performs
calculations and operations on data objects.
Data objects are:

 Raster maps, which contain the information according to the raster
data-model, i.e., in pixels. Remote sensing data, such as satellite
images or scanned aerial photographs, are stored as raster maps.
 Point maps, which contain the simplest data primitives of the
vector data-model: points. A typical example is the map of
observation points.
 Segment maps, which contain line features. Streams, roads and
contour lines are examples of such features stored in the CoalMan
database.
 Polygon maps, which represent area features using the vector data-
model. Polygon maps represent mostly an intermediate map type in
CoalMan, being a step between the data entry in vector format and
the analysis in raster format.
 Map lists, which contain a set of raster maps. Map lists are
‘containers’ of related maps, e.g. the different bands of a satellite
image. They are useful in analysis, where more maps are needed as
input for a procedure.
 Tables, which contain the attribute data of maps. The tables consist
of columns, which are considered to be independent data objects.
 Columns, which form tables.
Service objects are used by data objects; they contain additional

information that data objects need besides the data itself. Service
objects can be selected to serve one or more data objects. The
definition file of the data object contains information about the service
objects used by that particular data.
Service objects are:

 Domains, which describe the type of data stored in the data object
(map, table or column): value, class, identifier or image. The
attribute tables are linked to maps via the domain.
 Representations, which contain the information needed to display
the map data on the screen or in printed form. They contain
information about colour, line type etc.
 Co-ordinate systems, which describe the cartographic projection
and the co-ordinate types and ranges.
150
 Georeferences, which describe how the raster map is referenced in

the co-ordinate system. They contain the parameters of the
transformation and the number of rows and columns in the raster.
Special objects serve the analysis of the data, contain procedures to be

carried out on the data, and other tools and additional information.
Some special objects are linked explicitly to data objects; others are
used by operations.
Special objects are:

 Map views, which contain all the information needed to display a
map with selected layers and annotation.
 Histograms, which stores the statistics of maps. Histogram can be
calculated of raster, point, segment and polygon maps.
 Sample sets, which contain the information needed for supervised
classification of a satellite image. They contain the statistics of the
sample set, the reference to the image to be classified, the reference
to the image that is used as a background for the sampling, and the
domain that contains the classes to which the pixels of the image
are to be assigned by the classification.
 Two-dimensional tables, which are used to combine or reclassify
two raster maps. They define a value for each possible combination
of input identifiers or classes.
 Matrices, which contain the results of a principal components
operation (a variance-covariance matrix) or a factor analysis
operation (a correlation matrix).
 Filters, which are used in the filtering operation. The basic filter
types are: rank order filter, majority filter, binary filter, pattern
filter and standard deviation filter.
 Functions, which can be used for map or table calculations as well
as command line calculations.
 Scripts, which contain ILWIS commands and expressions ordered
in a list. Scripts are in fact user-created programmes that carry out
specific GIS or remote sensing analysis tasks.
 Texts, which can be displayed on maps as a part of annotations.
Annotations have to be mentioned here, although they are not

independent special objects. An annotation is stored as a part of a map-
view and contains text, the legend, boxes, the scale bar, the North
arrow, grid lines, the graticule, and bitmaps or pictures from disk.
151
Chapter 4
4.3.3 The meta-database
The meta-database contains information about the available data. The

main function of the database is to document the data history and to
audit the consistency of the database.
Meta-data describe the locations and characteristics of the data stored

in the CoalMan database. As well as information on the physical
whereabouts of the data, information on the quality and history of the
data is stored in the meta-database too.
The user gets access to the original/analysis result data by searching

and allocating them in the meta-database. When the user selects a data
object in the meta-database, a request is then sent from CoalMan to
that particular part of the software which is needed to carry out the
required operation. CoalMan searches the meta-database whenever a
user request is made to access any of the data objects (Figure 4.12).
DATA SOURCE
Data BACKUP DATABASE …

pre-processing DATABASE OF
and archiving ORIGINAL DATA
Regular backup /
Restore in case of BACKGROUND
database failure TABULAR
DATABASE
PROCEDURES
& MODELS
…
META-
DATABASE DATABASE OF
ANALYSIS RESULTS
Analysis Archiving
DATA ARCHIVE SYMBOLS:

Report preparation
…
data in ILWIS format
data in
MAPS, MS Access
GRAPHS & format
REPORTS
Figure 4.12. Information flow in CoalMan. All the data searches,

requests and analyses are carried out via the meta-database. The
upgradable tabular data are stored in the background tabular
database; the basic maps and imagery are stored in the database of
original data, whilst the analysis results are stored separately.
152
When new data are appended or new analysis results are created, the
meta-database has to be updated. This is done partly automatically.
Users with proper access rights (the Master Users) can check the data
to be entered into the CoalMan database and registered in the meta-
database. Tools for the maintenance of the meta-database are referred
to in the following as meta-database management functions.
Another important function of the meta-database is to provide

information on the integrity of the CoalMan database. The integrity
check is done by CoalMan by comparing the information stored in the
meta-database with the data actually available. In the case of a
discrepancy, the system sends a warning to the user and starts the
appropriate meta-database management functions. Tools for the
integrity control are referred to in the following as the database
integrity control function.
The access to the meta-database is controlled by a password, and is

provided only from CoalMan.
4.4 Three-dimensionality and temporal aspects
CoalMan is based on a two-dimensional data structure, but it is

possible to represent three-dimensional aspects of the data too.
The third spatial dimension, i.e. the vertical dimension is stored as an

attribute of the maps. The approach to time is different: every data or
data set represents a snapshot taken in a specific moment or period of
time. Thus, a surface temperature value represents the temperature in
the moment of the measurement, or a land cover map represents the
land cover of the season in which the map was made.
4.4.1 Representation of the vertical dimension
Both the vector and the raster data-models are suitable for representing
the vertical dimension.
The representation of the topographic surface is called Digital

Elevation Model (DEM). The data are arranged in a DEM to allow
operations on the surfaces, e.g. determination of the elevation at any
point of the model, calculation of slope steepness, delineation of
watersheds. Digital elevation models are often referred to in the
literature as digital terrain models (DTM). Although DEM and DTM
are often used as synonyms, theoretically it is more accurate to make a
differentiation between them. In this manual the term DEM is used to
data sets, which contain only elevation data (e.g. a raster map with
153
Chapter 4
elevation values). The term DTM is used to data sets, in which

elevation data is linked with other information (e.g. a DEM is linked
with land form or land cover data).
The vector implementation of 3-D surfaces is the triangulated irregular

network (TIN). This is described here for the sake of completeness. It
is not used in the recent version of ILWIS, the background GIS of
CoalMan, but it is planned to include it in a later version.
In a TIN a system of triangles represent the surface. Points with known

elevations are linked to form the network of triangles (Figure 4.13).
The elevation of any unknown point is defined using the known
elevations of the corresponding triangle. For the best representation of
the surface it is possible to use the characteristic break lines (form
lines) in the construction of the TIN.
In a raster DEM an elevation value is linked to each raster cell

representing the elevation in the centre of the cell (Figure 4.14). The
surface is considered to be continuous between the neighbouring raster
cell centres, or it can be assumed that the elevation is the same at every
point of the cell. In the first case the elevation of any selected point is
calculated by interpolation from the neighbouring cell centres. In the
latter case the elevation of any selected point is read out as the value of
the nearest cell centre. In displaying the raster maps ILWIS uses either
the first or the second approach.
Figure 4.13. Triangulated irregular network (Meijerink et al., 1994).

The thin lines represent edges of the triangles and the thicker lines
represent selected edges: the form lines
154
Figure 4.14. A part of a raster DEM (DEM of Ningxia with 5 m pixels)
a
surface
b
c
Figure 4.15. Vertical section of an overfolding surface. Three different

elevation values (a, b and c) belong to the same horizontal location
along the vertical line
In both data-models only a single elevation value can be attributed to

each point or raster cell. This allows the representation of one single 3-
D surface, which does not contain overfolding (Figure 4.15).
In ILWIS the vertical dimension is represented as attribute of a map.

Vector maps can contain elevation information, but ILWIS does not
use TIN for the representation of elevation models. In other words
elevation information is stored at specific points (Figure 4.16) or along
specific lines (Figure 4.17), but it is not possible to read out the
elevation for other locations directly from vector maps in ILWIS. To
reconstruct the surface interpolation is needed between the points or
segments with known elevation. Interpolation is not only used in the
creation digital elevation models, but also in mapping other,
continuous spatial variables, e.g. rainfall, air temperature and
groundwater. When the input variables are of value type, the resulting
map can be always displayed as a surface.
155
Chapter 4
Figure 4.16. A part of a point map of elevation data from the CoalMan
database (top of coal seam 7). The elevations are stored as an attribute
of the sample site map
Figure 4.17. Segment map representing elevation data (contour lines

of the Rujigou area).
156
It is beyond the scope of this manual to describe all the details of the
interpolation methods, but some major aspects are given below.
The point maps represent a (usually irregular) sampling of the surface.

The point interpolation returns values for a regular grid (for a raster
map). There are the following interpolation methods available in
ILWIS:
 Nearest point (also called as nearest neighbour or Thiessen), which
returns the value of the nearest point with known elevation. This
method is practically not used for the calculation of elevation
models.
 Moving average, which basically calculates a weighted average
value from the neighbouring known elevation values within a
selected search radius (also called ‘limiting distance’) using the
moving window technique. There are several methods available for
the determination of the weights and weighting methods. A large
number of these interpolation methods return the original elevation
value for the location with the known elevation. A few of them
(e.g. Kriging with nugget effect) not always.
 Trend surface, which fits a mathematical surface (a polynomial of
the 1st – 6th order) on the whole set of points. The fitting is
performed by a least squares fit. When the data set includes a trend,
it is advisable in the first step to fit a trend surface on it, then
subtract this surface from the data. In the second step an
interpolation with another method (e.g. moving average) can be
carried out on the residuals.
 Moving surface, which works like the trend surface, but it fits the
surface on the data a within a search radius using the moving
window technique.
Elevation models can be created from contour lines, which are

basically stored in segment maps. The segment interpolation operation
is one command in ILWIS, but in fact it is carried out in the
background in two steps:
 In the firs step ILWIS rasterises the segment map with a user
defined georeference. The result is a raster map, which contains
elevation values in the pixels of the contour lines, and ‘unknown’
values for the rest.
 In the next step distances calculated for every pixel with
‘unknown’ values to the two closest contour line pixels. These
distances are used then in the calculation of the elevation as a
weighting factor, i.e. in a weighted average calculation the
elevation of the closer contour line will have a larger weight and
the elevation of the further contour line will have a lower weight.
The resulting DEM will be a raster map.
157
Chapter 4
The simplest way of displaying an elevation model is by using a grey

scale representation for the raster map (Figure 4.18). Usually the
lowest parts are marked with the darkest shades of grey, and the
highest parts with the lightest shades. No modifications are made on
the DEM this way, it is only a display method.
The relief is more plastically expressed with shadow filtering of the

DEM. The result of this operation results in a new map, which gives
the impression if the sun would illuminate the surface from the
direction of the upper left corner of the image with a 45 degrees
incidence angle (Figure 4.19).
It is useful to display the elevation model as a ‘bird view’ (Figure

4.20). ILWIS provides to for the adjustment of the view parameters,
like the location of the viewpoint, the rotation angle of the DEM, etc.
Visually this is perhaps the best representation of the relief. A single
display or even animations can be built for the study of the relation
between the coal fires and the surface morphology. In fact this
technique is used in several other fields too, like in flight simulators or
for the navigation of unmanned aircrafts.
Figure 4.18. A part of the DEM of the Rujigou area displayed with a
grey scale representation. Parts with lower elevation are darker, the
higher parts are lighter
158
Figure 4.19. A part of the shaded DEM of the Rujigou area. The same
part as displayed in Figure 4.18.
Figure 4.20. Bird view of the DEM of the Rujigou area. A shaded
DEM and the location of the coal fires are wrapped on the elevation
model for this display
159
Chapter 4
4.4.2 Time-referencing and time series
Besides the spatial dimensions, time is the 4th independent variable. In

fact it is a bit different from the other dimensions, since it is
unidirectional.
Time has to be discretised as any other variables in a GIS. This is done

by a series of snapshots about the phenomena (e.g. the distribution of
the coal fires in the area) taken in different moments/periods. If the
snapshots are measurements taken in one location, time can be
represented as the horizontal axis of a chart. The vertical axis
represents the parameter (e.g., temperature) measured at the selected
location (Figure 4.21).
Beisan - Bore hole 1

70
Te
mp 60
era 50
tur
e 40
[C] 30
20
10
0 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1-
Ma Apr Ma Ju Jul Au Se Oct No De
r- -97 y- n- -97 g- p- -97 v- c-
97 97 97 97 97 97 97
Date
At the surface At 1m depth
Figure 4.21. Representation of time as the horizontal axis of a chart
The snapshots can be two-dimensional. In this case a series of maps

represent the snapshots of a selected phenomenon.
One possibility to represent time graphically is to calculate the

difference between two (or more) selected maps. The resulting map
shows the change of the phenomenon from one date to the other(s).
Another possibility to represent time is to use the maps (snapshots) in
an animation on the computer screen. Animations are the best to
highlight the development of the examined phenomenon.
For the fire fighters the distribution of the coal fires is one of the most
interesting piece of information. Basically it is assumed that satellite
160
images are used to generate one coal fire map per year2, but maps from
other origin might also be stored in the database of analysis results. In
the meta-database the reference date (acquisition date) is stored, so the
user can select maps for the analysis on this basis.
Time series analysis is the tool to describe the temporal characteristics

of dynamic processes. CoalMan concentrates on the time series
analysis of map data. It is possible to display selected maps
representing the coal fire situation on different dates (fire history) and
to calculate the differences between any of them.
Classical statistical methods like trend analysis or time-frequency

analysis can be carried out on tabular data created as an output of the
coal fire detection and evaluation tools in CoalMan. Statistical tools
are available in spreadsheet programmes (e.g. Microsoft Excel).
2
The exact time lag between the images depends on several
unpredictable factors, like weather, availability of the team for
reference field measurements, etc.
161
Chapter 4
162
Data pre-processing
Chapter 5
5 Data pre-processing
Before the actual processing of remote sensing data can be carried out
the image will have to be properly (geo)referenced, transformed to a
map, corrected for atmospheric influences and data errors and noise.
These procedures are referred to as data pre-processing and are
described in this chapter.
5.1 Positioning using GPS
As we saw in Chapter 4, the accuracy of positioning has to match the

requirements of the analysis. In case of mapping on a large scale, e.g.,
topographic mapping of the Rujigou coalfield on a scale of 1:5000, the
required positional accuracy is in the range of centimetres. The most
convenient method of positioning is using the global positioning
system (GPS), but even using this method, the centimetre accuracy can
be achieved only with the proper equipment and with the proper data
processing method.
Small civil SPS receivers, which can be purchased for less than $200
are not suitable for high accuracy positioning, even if some can accept
differential corrections. Those receivers are suitable for high accuracy,
which can store files for post-processing, which can act in differential
mode as reference receivers (computing and providing correction data)
and as carrier phase tracking receivers. At least two pieces of such
equipment are required.
This section of the manual deals with how to use the data processing
component of GPS and how to analyse its results. It also includes
suggestions on how to proceed in case of difficulties with data
processing. It is assumed that the measurements were taken with at
least two high-accuracy receivers: one based on a fixed point and the
other used as the rover. Although in the GPS terminology the
discussed methods are often referred to as data processing or post-
processing, we discuss them here in this chapter, since from the GIS
point of view the GPS is an input device.
5.1.1 Suggested method of working
It is always the best to select one reference point as the starting point
and then compute the network out from this point in a logical manner
(Figure 5.1). The basic procedure is:
163
Chapter 5
 Derive co-ordinates of the first Reference Station in WGS 84 to an

accuracy of 10 m or so.
 Process the baselines to any other stations you intend to use as
Reference Stations in future processing runs.
 Process the baselines between the Reference and the Rover
Station
Figure 5.1. GPS points. The ‘Reference’ point is the starting point for
the computation (Leica, 1996)
The steps are discussed on a general level. Every GPS equipment has
its own processing software, but all of them are able to provide tools to
follow the below-described methods.
5.1.1.1 Derivation of co-ordinates for the Reference Station

For the computation of every baseline the following rule applies: The
co-ordinates of one point (the reference) are held fixed and the co-
ordinates of the other points (rovers) are computed relative to it.
In order to avoid that the results are influenced by systematic errors,

the co-ordinates for the fixed point of the baseline have to be known to
within about 20 meters in the WGS 84 co-ordinate system. To avoid
scale errors, the WGS 84 co-ordinates for the fixed point should be
known to within about 10 meters. Thus the accuracy of the co-
ordinates of the reference point determine the best possible accuracy of
the further measurements. This means that for any precise GPS survey
the absolute co-ordinates of one site in the network have to be known
in WGS 84 to about 10 meters. WGS 84 co-ordinates for one site will
164
Data pre-processing
often be available or can be easily derived by setting the reference

station at a point known in the local co-ordinate system. Then, using
approximate transformation parameters (usually obtainable from the
local Survey Department or University), it is possible to transform the
grid co-ordinates back into WGS 84 co-ordinates. If WGS 84 co-
ordinates for one site are not known or cannot be derived, the ‘Single
Point Position computation’ can be used. Remember, however, that
Selective Availability (SA) is usually switched on. The only way to
overcome SA is to observe for sufficient time for the effects of SA to
be averaged out in the Single Point Position computation.
In practice, this is not a problem since the reference receiver usually

observes for several hours as the rover moves from point to point. In
such a case, the computed Single Point Position for the reference
receiver is relatively free from the effects of SA.
If a Single Point Position is computed from only a few minutes of

observations, the effects of Selective Availability will not be averaged
out. The result could be wrong by 100m or more due to SA.
The minimum observation for the computation of a reliable Single

Point Position is probably about 1 hour with four or more satellites and
a good GDOP. The longer the observation time, the better the Single
Point Position will be.
5.1.1.2 Processing the Baselines

Compute and build up the network in a logical manner in order to
ensure that you always have good WGS 84 co-ordinates for the starting
point (reference) of every baseline.
In a following step the network can be extended using the same

reference point or a new one, e.g. Point 2 on Figure 5.2.
In case of complex measurement networks it is advisable to make more

measurements on some selected check points, like in Figure 5.4.
If you have the possibility to process using two reference stations (i.e.
to measure with three receivers), you should first process the line from
the initial reference station (the one with good WGS 84 co-ordinates)
to the secondary reference station. Store the results to fix the secondary
reference station. Then select the rover stations and compute the
baselines using both the initial reference station and the secondary
reference station. Build up the network in this way.
165
Chapter 5
Figure 5.2. Computation of base lines for every rover position:

Points 1 – 4 (Leica, 1996)
Figure 5. 3. Extension of the measurement network
Figure 5.4. Point 4 is used as a reference point for Points 8–11. The
location of Point 8 has been already measured earlier using Point 2 as
a reference so this second measurement serves as a check (Leica,
1996)
166
Data pre-processing
5.1.2 Mathematical transformation
In several cases the transformation formulae between the local grid and
the WGS 84 co-ordinates, or their parameters are not known, so a so-
called mathematical transformation has to be used. The mathematical
approach creates transformation parameters based on an affine
transformation model that uses a collocation approach to estimate the
systematic part of the noise. Basically this means that the WGS 84 co-
ordinates measured by the GPS are squeezed or stretched to fit the
local grid. The local grid is constructed using the local grid co-
ordinates of known tie points.
Position and height are treated separately and as such are independent
of each other. This means that the measured position points do not
necessarily have to be the same points for which height is known and
that errors in local height measurement will not be propagated into the
position transformation component.
The mathematical approach has certain advantages over a traditional
3D Helmert (classical) approach in that parameters can be calculated
without knowledge of the map projection or local ellipsoid.
Additionally, heights and position are transformed independently of
each other. Thus the following advantages occur:
 Inaccurate local heights will not degrade the position
transformation.
 The local co-ordinates do not have to contain the height
information. The height information may be obtained from
different points.
The main disadvantage of the mathematical approach is that it is

restricted in the area over which it can be applied. This is mainly due
to the fact that there is no provision for scale factor in the projection.
In practical terms, the area over which this transformation approach
can be applied is about 10 – 15 km.
The mathematical approach will tend to distort the results of the GPS
measurements to fit the existing local grid measurements. This may be
an advantage or disadvantage as the GPS co-ordinates are generally
found to be of higher accuracy than the existing grid co-ordinates. This
means that the accuracy of the GPS co-ordinates may be slightly
compromised when using this method.
Since the transformation parameters between the local grid of the
Rujigou Coalfied and the WGS 84 co-ordinate system were not known,
the seven-parameter mathematical transformation was used for fitting
the GPS measurements into the local grid:
167
Chapter 5
X   x '   x0 
Y    R
  
 ,  , 
 y '   y 
   0
(5.1)
 Z   z '   z 0 
where
X, Y, Z – local grid co-ordinates

x’, y’, z’ – WGS 84 co-ordinates
 – scale factor
[R, , ] – rotation matrix
x0 , y0 , z0 – shift parameters
Five tie points were measured during the fieldwork in 1997 in the
Rujigou coalfield. The parameters of the transformation were
calculated from them using the least squares method. The results of the
calculation for the Rujigou area are shown in Table 5.1. The achieved
accuracy is about 7 centimetres. Note that the parameters calculated
from Table 5.1 can be used only locally, within a neighbourhood of
maximum-10–15km.
Table 5.1. Results of the transformation of WGS 84 co-ordinates of

measured points into the local co-ordinate system in the Rujigou
coalfield
Y X Z
4mine 4330923.96 600262.66 1753.9
B_roof 4330567.82 600105.47 1735.912
C_compressor 4330288.43 599981.62 1733.34
D_hill 4330467.16 600150.15 1731.92
SZ1 4325533.809 594408.322 2107.205
y' x' z'
4mine 4761399.2554 -1379664.0759 4002508.825
B_roof 4761645.4049 -1379566.9684 4002222.7454
C_compressor 4761847.1295 -1379492.8696 4002005.5417
D_hill 4761691.7565 -1379625.5902 4002141.6772
SZ1 4766528.4212 -1374982.4951 3998603.541
5.2 Geometric correction and registration
The geometric fidelity of remote sensing imagery is of prime

importance for producing scaled maps, for multitemporal and
multisensor data fusion, for integrating the remote sensing data into a
geographical information system, and for proper interpretation of
information for the specific purpose, in this case for the study of
coalfire areas in northwest China.
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Data pre-processing
The transformation of a remotely sensed image so that it has the scale

and geometric properties of a map is called geometric correction.
Registration is a related technique and involves the fitting of the co-
ordinate system of one image to that of a second image of the same
area. In other words, registration is the process of superimposing
images, maps or data sets over one another with geometric precision or
congruence.
There are several geometric distortions that can occur in a remote

sensing image. These can be classified into systematic and non-
systematic distortions. The causes and correction of these distortions
are reviewed in several digital image processing books (Mather 1987,
Gupta 1991, Sabins 1997). Here, only the procedure adopted in this
study for registering the images of the Ningxia area are discussed.
As is clear from the above definitions, in a set of registered images the
data derived from the same ground element in different sensor
coverages are exactly superimposed on one other (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5. Concept of image registration. The image data at each unit
cell are in superposition and geometric congruence
Multispectral images taken from the same sensor and platform can be
registered to each other comparatively easily. The problem arises when
the images to be registered are from different sensors, platforms,
altitudes or look directions. In such cases, distortions, variations in
scale, and the effects of geometry, parallax, shadow, platform
instability etc. lead to mismatch.
Digital image registration basically uses the technique of co-ordinate

transformation. Control points (tie points) in the two images are
identified (Figure 5.6) and co-ordinates in the two images define the
transformation parameters. Typically, a set of two equations, such as
the one given below, called affine projections is used to link the two
co-ordinate systems:
X’ = a0 + a1x + a2y + a3xy
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Chapter 5
Y’ = b0 + b1x + b2y + b3xy
where X’ and Y’ are the co-ordinates in the new system, and x, y those
in the old system. There are eight unknown constants (a0, a1, a2, a3, b0,
b1, b2, b3). These can be computed by using four control points.
Four control points, however, may not be sufficient for a large image.
In such a case a net of quadrilaterals is drawn using several control
points over the entire scene, and a transformation equation for each
quadrilateral is computed.
Figure 5.6. Diagrammatic representation of tie-point selection.

Clearly identifiable corresponding tie-points or control points are
selected on both slave and master images for image registration
Figure 5.7. Diagrammatic representation of image transformation.

The slave image is transformed to the geometry of the master image
using the parameters for transformations calculated from the
coordinate data
These affine projections are used for transposing pixels lying within
the quadrilateral. The image to be registered - the slave image - is
registered to the selected map (absolute registration), or to an image
170
Data pre-processing
known as the master image (relative registration) using the parameters

for affine projections which were calculated from the co-ordinate data
(Figure 5.7).
A nearest-neighbour interpolation is performed to give new pixel

values to the registered output image (Figure 5.8). Instead of nearest-
neighbour interpolation, linear, bilinear or bicubic interpolation can
also be performed. However, nearest neighbour interpolation is
preferred in our study because it helps to retain the original pixel
values in the output image. The other interpolation techniques
mentioned may give a better visual impression but are computationally
more intensive, tend to smooth the image, and subdue some locally
interesting features which have high spatial frequency.
Figure 5.8. Diagrammatic representation of result of interpolation, the

final stage in image registration. Interpolation is performed to give
new pixel values to the registered output image
In our study, both absolute and relative registration was performed. For
the absolute registration, the 1:5000 topographic maps of the area
served as the base map. The topographic maps with a contour interval
of two meters were manually digitised (Figure 5.9). The important
roads, railway lines and streams were also digitised to facilitate the
selection of ground control points (GCPs).
171
Chapter 5
Figure 5.9. Manually digitised contour lines of part of the Ningxia

area. The contour lines have been digitised from 1:5000 topographic
maps of the area and have a contour interval of 2 meters
All satellite images acquired in the daytime were registered directly to
this base map. Great care was taken in selecting the GCPs and efforts
were made to keep the root mean square (RMS) error to a minimum in
order to achieve the best fit and reach the desired subpixel accuracy of
registration. Figure 5.10 (a) shows the Landsat TM standard false
colour image of 28th May 1995 for the Ningxia area, and the same
after absolute registration (Figure 5.10 (b)). The original image has a
30-meter pixel size, while the registered image has a pixel size of 5
meters. For convenience, both the images have been reduced here to fit
the width of the page.
For the registration of this image, 14 GCPs were selected. The RMS
error was 6.008 meters in the x-direction and 4.848 meters in the y-
direction. For a spatial resolution of 30 meter (the spatial resolution of
the TM optical bands), this RMS error is in the sub-pixel range and is
acceptable for all practical purposes.
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Data pre-processing
a) b)
Figure 5.10. (a) Landsat TM false colour composite image of 28th May
1995 for the Ningxia area; (b) the same image after registration to the
base map (absolute registration)
For the study of the coalfires, we also used the night-time thermal
images from Landsat TM band 6 (c.f. Chapter 3 – Table 3.1). These
images are acquired during the ascending pass of the Landsat satellite,
which is around 10.00 p.m. for the Ningxia area. At this hour, only the
TM band 6 operating in the thermal infrared wavelengths acquires
data. These contain mostly the emitted radiation from the surface and
have a negligible reflection component. Therefore, these data give a
very different visual impression compared to data acquired in the
daytime in the visible and short wavelength ranges.
The thermal data have a coarse spatial resolution of 120 meters as well
as a different geometry, which makes it difficult to register them
directly to the base map (5-meter spatial resolution in the digital form).
To handle these images, a two-step registration, or a double
transformation method, is adopted.
In the two-step method, first a relative registration was performed
where the night-time Landsat TM band 6 image was registered to the
daytime Landsat TM image of 28th May 1995, which serves as the
master image, again taking care to reach subpixel accuracy. The
registered night-time image, which now has the geometry of the 1995
daytime TM image, serves as an intermediate product, which is again
subjected to an absolute registration to the base map, using the
parameters of transformation that have already been established. The
disadvantage of this double transformation is that the errors from the
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Chapter 5
first step are propagated to the next step and the overall accuracy of the
transformation is decreased. However, as it is practically impossible to
directly select comparable control points on the night-time image and
the digitised base map with sufficient confidence, this two-step
approach is the best operational alternative.
Figure 5.11 (a). Original uncorrected (not geocoded) night-time TM

band 6 image dated 18th December 1989 of the Ningxia area. The
image has been stretched to occupy the full dynamic range. The bright
white spots in the upper-left part of the image are the coalfires. Note
the geometry of this image
Figure 5.11 (b). Night-time TM band 6 image dated 18th December

1989 of the Ningxia area (shown in Figure 5.2.7 (a)), now registered
to the geometry of the day-time TM image of 28th May 1995 (relative
registration). This registered image has also been stretched to occupy
the full dynamic range. Compare the orientation of the coalfire areas
(bright white spots) in this image with Figure 5.11(a)
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Data pre-processing
Figure 5.11 (c). Night-time TM band 6 image dated 28 May 1995 of

the Ningxia area, registered to the geometry of the day-time TM image
of 28 May 1995 (relative registration). This registered image has also
been stretched to occupy the full dynamic range
Figure 5.11(d). Night-time TM band 6 image dated 22nd September

1997 of the Ningxia area, registered to the geometry of the day-time
TM image of 28th May 1995 (relative registration). This registered
image has also been stretched to occupy the full dynamic range.
Figures 5.11 (b),(c) and (d) have been used to study temporal changes
in fires
Figure 5.11 (a) shows the original night-time Landsat TM band 6

image of 18th December, 1989 and the same after registering it to the
daytime 1995 image (Figure 5.11 (b)). The registered 1995 and 1997
night-time images are shown in Figures 5.11 (c) and 5.11 (d). Table
5.2 provides the details of the transformations for the night-time
images.
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Chapter 5
5.3 Atmospheric correction
Atmospheric correction is an image processing technique which results

in the removal or reduction of atmospheric influences from the satellite
or airborne imaging data.
The effect of the (cloud free) atmosphere on radiation is considerably

different at optical and thermal wavelength. In the optical range it is
particularly the scattering of radiation that causes the attenuation of
radiation. In the thermal range absorbtion of radiation by water vapour,
carbon dioxide and ozone plays the main role. There are only two
wavelength bands where the atmosphere shows a fair transmissivity for
thermal radiation: the 3-5 and the 8-14 micrometer window.
Atmospheric models exist, that describe the transmission of thermal

infrared radiation through the cloud free atmosphere. They allow the
calculation of the apparent surface temperature from the actual surface
temperature. However such models require detailed information on the
atmospheric temperature and composition (water vapour, carbon
dioxide and ozone) as a function of height. Although for carbon
dioxide and ozone standard profiles could be assumed, atmospheric
water content is variable and usually not known or not readily
available. For this reason a more empirical approach is often followed.
For empirical methods the following consideration is important. The

thermal radiation, emitted by the ground surface at temperature T0, is
partly absorbed in the atmosphere but at the same time the atmosphere
emits thermal radiation at its own temperature, say TA. For this reason
the atmospheric effect is approximately proportional to the difference
between the surface temperature and the air temperature in the
boundary layer. If T0 is the actual surface temperature and T0' the
planetary surface temperature (i.e. as observed through the
atmosphere), than atmospheric correction may be written as
T0-T0' = c (T0-TA) (5.1)
Where c is a correction factor that mainly depends on the atmospheric

humidity. We will assume the air temperature and the correction factor
to be constant throughout the thermal satellite image. From equation
(x.1) follows, that the actual surface temperature differences are related
to planetary surface temperature differences by:
T0' = (1-c) T0 (5.2)
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Data pre-processing
The correction coefficient c may now be determined empirically if an

actual surface temperature contrast can be determined in the field and
if the corresponding planetary surface temperature difference can be
determined from the thermal satellite image.
For the dates that LANDSAT thermal images are available to the
project, however, suitable measured surface temperature data are not
available. As an alternative, however, we may estimate the actual
surface temperatures. This approach will be more accurate if the
temperature difference is large.
We have found strong thermal contrasts in the LANDSAT thermal
imagery in the flat area south east of the Helan mountains. The
following surface types were found
1. dry sand dunes

2. "dry" irrigated land
3. "wet" irrigated land
For these three surface types the following input data were determined
by careful estimation on the basis of earlier experience and literature.
Table 5.2. Input data for three surface types east of the Helan
dry sand dry irrigated wet irrigated
dunes
Aerodynamic roughness 0.001 0.001 0.001
Emissivity 0.85 0.95 0.95
Albedo 0.4 0.1 0.1
Thermal inertia 500 1500 25000
Evaporation resistance 12800 0 0
The following additional input data were used, which more or less
approximate the conditions prevailing during the LANDSAT data
capture on ?? September 1997. It is noted here, that the precise choice
of the air and ground temperature has very little influence on the
surface temperature contrasts
Table 5.3. Approximate conditions during Landsat overpass

Latitude 40 N
Day 270
Windspeed 2 m/s
Boundary layer air temperature 280 K
Ground temperature (0.5 m depth) 280 K
The course of the surface temperatures as simulated by the digital

simulation model are shown in figure 5.13. Corresponding temperature
contrasts are shown in figure 5.14. From this figure we may read the
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Chapter 5
simulated actual surface temperature contrasts at the daytime

LANDSAT overpass (10.30 hrs solar time). The results are presented
in the following table, together with the planetary temperature
contrasts derived from the corresponding LANDSAT image.
Table 5.4. Simulated actual surface temperature contrast

Surf. temp contrast (T0) Plan. Temp. contrast (T0')
Sand dunes - dry 10 K
irrigated
Sand dunes - wet 25 K 33-34 counts = 17.1 K
irrigated
It follows from this comparison that the correction factor c is 0.316. To

find the actual surface temperature differences from those measured in
the LANDSAT thermal imagery, the following formula could be used:
T0 = 1.46 * T0' (5.3)
Strictly this formula applies only to the morning thermal image.

However, as an order of magnitude correction it may also be applied to
the night-time image taken 12 hours later. An important consequence
is that the heat losses and coal burning rates estimated from surface
temperature anomalies caused by coal fires (see next section) also have
to be multiplied by 1.46!
40
30
20 sand dunes
dry irrigated
10 wet irrigated
-10
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time (hrs)
Figure 5.13. Simulated surface temperatures of some reference areas

south east of the Helan Mountains
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Data pre-processing
30
20
10
sand-dry irr.
0 sand-wet irr.
-10
-20
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time (hrs)
Figure 5.14. Simulated surface temperature contrast between some

reference areas south east of the Helan Mountains. Daytime
LANDSAT overpass is at 10.30 hrs.
5.4 Cosmetic surgery of RS data
Cosmetic surgery of remote sensing data relates to rectification

procedures used to compensate for data errors and noise. Together with
atmospheric correction alone, these procedures can be considered to
constitute radiometric corrections. Considered together with
atmospheric and geometric corrections, these can be classified as
image restoration operations. The objective is to make the image
resemble the original scene, and to make the image look cleaner and
better.
Defects in the data may be in the form of periodic or random missing

lines (line dropouts), line striping, random noise, or spike noise. These
defects can be identified visually and digitally. In this manual we
discuss only the problems relevant to the available data sets or the data
sets which may be acquired in future. Standard image processing
techniques are used to rectify these errors.
5.4.1 Periodic line dropouts
Periodic line dropouts occur due to recording problems when one of

the detectors of the sensor in question is either missing or stops
functioning. The Landsat Thematic Mapper, for example, has 16
detectors in all its bands except the thermal band. A loss of one of the
detectors would result in every sixteenth scan line being a string of
zeros that would plot as a black line on the image.
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Chapter 5
The first step in the restoration process is to calculate the average DN

value per scan line for the entire scene. The average DN value for each
scan line is then compared with this scene average. Any scan line
deviating from the average by more than a designated threshold value
is identified as defective. The next step is to replace the defective lines.
For each pixel in a defective line, an average DN is calculated using
DNs for the corresponding pixel in the preceding and succeeding scan
lines. The average DN is then substituted for the defective pixel. The
resulting image is a major improvement, although every sixteenth scan
line consists of artificial data. This restoration program is equally
effective for random line dropouts that do not follow a systematic
pattern.
Fortunately, we did not face the problem of line dropouts with any of
our data sets acquired so far for the Ningxia area.
5.4.2 Line striping
Line striping is far more common than line dropouts are. Line striping
often occurs due to non-identical detector response. Although the
detectors for all satellite sensors are carefully calibrated and matched
before the launch of the satellite, with time the response of some
detectors may drift to higher or lower levels. As a result, every scan
line recorded by that detector is brighter or darker than the other lines.
It is important to realise that valid data are present in the defective
lines, but these must be corrected to match the overall scene.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.15 (a). Raw night-time TM band 6 image of 18th December
1989 showing pronounced striping. (b) The same image after running
a destriping program. The improvement in the appearance of the
images is clearly visible
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Data pre-processing
This defect can be corrected for by several procedures, such as the use
of the method of look-up tables, on-board calibration methods or by
statistical histogram matching. However, only statistical histogram
matching is discussed here, as this was the technique adopted to
correct the data of the study area. Separate histograms corresponding
to each detector unit are constructed and matched. Taking one response
as standard, the gain (rate of increase of DN) and offset (relative shift
of mean) for all other detector units are suitably adjusted and new DN
values computed and assigned. This yields a destriped image where all
DN values conform to the reference level and scale.
Figure 5.15 (a) shows a striped image of the study area and 5.15 (b)
shows the same after running a destriping operation.
5.4.3 Random Noise or Spike Noise
The periodic line dropouts and striping are forms of non-random noise
that may be recognised and restored by simple means. Random noise,
on the other hand, requires a more sophisticated restoration method
such as digital filtering.
Random noise or spike noise may be due to bit errors during

transmission of data or to a temporary disturbance. Here, individual
pixels acquire DN values that are much higher or lower than the
surrounding pixels. In the image, these pixels produce bright and dark
spots that mar the image. These spots also interfere with information
extraction procedures.
A spike noise can be detected by mutually comparing neighbouring

pixel values. If neighbouring pixel values differ by more than a
specific threshold margin, it is designated as a spike noise and the DN
is replaced by an interpolated DN value.
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Processing of data
Chapter 6
6 Processing of data
Processing of data includes application of various Digital Image
Processing (DIP) functions and geographic information system (GIS)
functions to the extraction of features of interest from digital data.
Most image data require dedicated image processing strategies to
enhance features of interest (for details on DIP and DIP for geologic
applications, see Hord, 1980; Moik, 1980; Siegel and Gillespie, 1980;
Richards et al., 1982; Jensen 1986; Drury, 1987; Mather, 1987; Gupta,
1991; Sabins, 1996). Processing alters the appearance of an image in
such a way that information content in the image is more readily
interpreted in terms of the particular need. Some image processing
tools and techniques that have been used at various stages are briefly
discussed.
6.1 Statistical study of remote sensing data
The statistical study of remote sensing data is the primary step after
data extraction and pre-processing. The first visual inspection of the
image and a study of the image statistics give a fair idea of what
further image processing techniques should be applied to obtain
maximum information from the image. Nearly all image processing
software packages have programs/tools for calculating standard
statistical parameters for an image, such as the minimum and
maximum DN values, the mean and standard deviation of the DNs, and
also for plotting histograms of the digital values against their
frequency of occurrence. These parameters may be computed for the
entire image or any selected subset of it.
In this study, the statistical parameters were used for the following
purposes:
 to serve as a guide for atmospheric corrections
 to serve as a guide for setting threshold boundaries
 to serve as a guide for data enhancement
 to identify subsurface fire areas from thermal images
 to identify surface fires from short wave infrared images
 to serve as a guide for data normalisation for the comparison of
images from different dates and sensors
Figure 6.1 shows an image of the Ningxia area and the statistical
parameters as calculated using ILWIS.
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Chapter 6
Image statistics provided:
No of rows: 476
No of columns: 300
Minimum: 23
Maximum: 115
Mean: 71.53
Median: 72
Predominant: 73 (4470 pixels)
4000
Number of pixels
3000
2000
1000
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Image value (DN value)
Figure 6.1. Landsat TM band 4 image of the Ningxia area for 28th
May 1995 with the relevant statistical parameters and histogram of the
same image
6.2 Single image enhancement
Enhancement refers to the modification of an image that alters its

impact on the viewer. Generally, enhancement distorts the original
digital values. It is therefore important that the image enhancement is
done only after all the pre-processing and image restoration processes
have been completed, otherwise the defects and errors in the original
image would be further enhanced and propagated in the processed
images.
Enhancement can be performed on a single black-and-white image, or

colour enhancements can be performed on colour images generated
from one or many black-and-white images. In this section, only the
enhancements that were applied to single black-and-white images of
the Ningxia area are discussed. Contrast enhancements and edge
enhancements are among the most widely used enhancement
processes.
6.2.1 Contrast enhancements

Most of the digital images do not occupy the full dynamic range of the
display system of 256 values. The details of such low-contrast images
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Processing of data
are scarcely visible. To highlight different details in an image, different

contrast-stretching techniques can be applied.
(a)
4000 4000
Number of pixels
Number of pixels
3000 3000
2000 2000
1000 1000
0 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Image value (DN value) Image value (DN value)
(c) (d)
Figure 6.2. Effect of linear contrast stretching (a) Unstretched TM
band 4 image of 28 May 1995; (b) Image (a) linearly stretched to
occupy the full dynamic range of 256 grey values; (c) histogram of
unstretched image (a); (d) histogram of stretched image (b).
The linear contrast stretch greatly improves the contrast of most of the
original brightness values, but there is a loss of contrast at the extreme
high and low ends of the DN values. If the features of interest lie
within these extreme digital values, they can be selectively stretched at
the expense of the remaining DN values. Different limits may be
optimum and can be determined by inspection of the original
histograms.
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Chapter 6
The simplest contrast enhancement is called a linear contrast stretch.

A DN value at the lower end of the original histogram is assigned to
extreme black, and a value at the higher end is assigned to extreme
white. The remaining pixel values are distributed linearly between
these extremes, as shown in the enhanced image and histogram (Figure
6.4). Note that the coal outcrop, communication network and water
bodies show up much better on the contrast-stretched image. For
colour images, the individual bands were stretched before being
combined in colour.
Non-linear contrast enhancement such as histogram equalisation is

also an effective tool for contrast enhancement. Here, the original
histogram is redistributed so that the new image has a uniform density
of pixels; i.e., each DN value becomes equally frequent in the output
image. Figure 6.3 shows the result of a histogram equalisation stretch
as applied to the same subset as in Figure 6.2. (a). The resultant
histogram is also shown for comparison.
4000
Number of pixels
3000
2000
1000
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Image value (DN value)
Figure 6.3. Result of histogram equalisation stretch applied to the

same Landsat image shown in figure 6.2 (a), along with the resultant
histogram. Compare this histogram with the histograms shown in
Figures 6.2 (c) and (d)
6.2.2 Edge enhancement
Edge enhancement is basically an image sharpening process whereby

the borders of objects are enhanced. In a digital image, local changes
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Processing of data
(or edges) correspond to high-frequency variations (variations that

occur from pixel to pixel), and regional changes correspond to low-
frequency variations. Through edge enhancement operations, the high-
frequency variations become more pronounced.
Typically, edge enhancement involves applying a high-pass filter to

the image. Several high-pass filters for edge enhancement are available
in standard image processing software packages. These packages also
have the provision for designing user-defined filter kernels. For the
details of the available filters and their effects the user is referred to the
reference manuals and online help of the related software package.
Figure 6.4 shows the effect of applying edge enhancement to the
Landsat TM band 4 image shown in figure 6.1 (a).
Figure 6.4. Edge-enhanced, linearly-stretched Landsat TM band 4

image of the Ningxia area. This enhanced image is much sharper in
terms of high frequency variations compared to the original image
shown in figure 6.1 (a)
Another kind of filtering operation is image smoothing using low-pass
filters. Image smoothing is not a direct image enhancement tool,
although it does tend to remove speckles on the image to give the
output image a smoother appearance. In this way, some features of
interest are indirectly enhanced. As the chief aim of image smoothing
is to enhance low-frequency spatial information, it is the reverse of
edge enhancement. If local variability and random noise are removed,
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Chapter 6
then the overall pattern becomes more clearly apparent and the general
trends in the data can be easily studied.
6.2.3 Colour viewing, colour enhancement and transformations

Colour viewing is a highly effective and workable method for the
presentation of multispectral images. Colour enhancement, colour
space transform and its applications have been investigated by several
workers (Buchanan, 1979; Buchanan and Pendergrass, 1980; Haydn et
al., 1985; Gillespie et al., 1986, 1987; Tian-Yuan Shih, 1995). It leads
to feature enhancement and facilitates image interpretation for three
main reasons. First, the human eye can discern thousands of colour
shades and intensities compared to the only two dozen shades of grey
discussed until now. Secondly, black-and-white images carry
information in terms of only one variable, i.e. tone, whereas a colour-
space consists of three variables – hue, saturation and brightness.
Thirdly, we often deal with multiple images, for which colour-space
offers a powerful medium.
RGB-Coding: In RGB-coding, each colour appears in its primary

spectral components of red, green and blue. Figure 6.5 shows the
concept of RGB colour-coding and the RGB colour cube. Images in
the RGB colour model consist of three independent image planes, one
for each primary colour. The three black-and-white images are
displayed or coded in the three primary colours to produce a colour
image. Variation in DN values at various pixels in the three images
collectively leads to variation in output colours.
The choice of which band to display in which colour is somewhat

arbitrary. In cases where the bands correspond to spectral bands, red,
green and blue are simply assigned to the red, green and blue channels,
respectively. When the objective is to present the maximum
information, the band with the highest information content is coded in
blue and the band with the lowest information content in red.
In a false colour composite (FCC), three different images are coded in

the three primary colours, viz. red, green and blue. In this way, each
image is given a particular false colour. Any image can be coded in
any colour. When the near infrared (NIR), red and green images are
coded in R, G and B, respectively, the output image is a Standard FCC,
in which vegetation appears in shades of red (refer to Figure 3.6 in
Chapter 3).
IHS-Coding: This method is ideally suited for image enhancement
because of two principal facts. First, the intensity component, I, is
decoupled from the colour information in the image. Secondly, the hue
and saturation components are intimately related to the way in which
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Processing of data
human beings perceive colour (Gonzalez and Woods, 1992).

Cyan (0,1,1) White (1,1,1)
B
Blue (0,0,1) Magenta (1,0,1)

G
Green Yellow
(0,1,0) (1,1,0)
Black Red R
(0,0,0) (1,0,0)
Figure 6.5. RGB colour model
The characteristics generally used to distinguish one colour from

another are intensity, hue and saturation. Intensity is a measure of the
total energy reflected from the object, regardless of wavelength. Hue is
an attribute associated with the dominant wavelength in light
containing a range of wavelengths. Thus, hue represents the dominant
colour as perceived by an observer. When we call an object red, orange
or yellow we are specifying its hue. Saturation refers to relative purity
or to the amount of white light mixed with the hue. The pure spectrum
of colours is fully saturated.
In IHS-coding, the colour space is conceived as a cylinder where hue

(H) is represented by the polar angle, saturation (S) by the radius, and
intensity (I) by the vertical distance along the cylinder axis (Figure 6.5
(a)). Each image in the triplet is coded in one of the three colour
parameters, viz. intensity, hue and saturation (Figure 6.5 (b)). The
scheme is highly flexible and a large range of colours can be
introduced in any colour display using the IHS-coding scheme. In IHS-
coding, it is useful to have the image of high spatial resolution as the
intensity image, as this becomes the base image and all other images
can easily be registered to this.
For the transformation from RGB to IHS and conversely from IHS to
RGB, several algorithms are available (http://www.mhri.edu.au/~pdb/
colour/ conversion.html). The reference manuals of image processing
software packages also describe the conversion algorithms used in
their particular cases. The algorithm given by Edwards and Davis
(1994) is discussed here. Blue has been chosen as the reference point
for the IHS coordinate system. The following equations relate a pixel’s
RGB DNs to IHS values in cylindrical coordinates along the
achromatic axis:
I = (DNR + DNG + DNB )
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Chapter 6
(DN G - DN R ) 3
H = tan-1
(2 DN B - DN G - DN R )
1
 1
2
 1
2
 1 
2 2
S =  DN B     DN G     DN R   
 3  3  3 
Conversely, the following equations relate a pixel's IHS values to RGB

DNs:
I S cos (H ) S sin (H )
R = - -
3 6 2
I S cos (H ) S sin (H )
G = - +
3 6 2
I S 6 cos (H )
B = +
3 3
Hue changes
Intensity (I)
Image III
G Saturation changes
)
(H C
ue
I
H
e
ag
Im
I TE
WH Intensity changes
(S)
on I
B
rati I
Satu age
Im
R
M
(a) (b)
Figure 6.5. (a) The HIS-colour model. The colour space is conceived
as a cylinder where hue (H) is represented by the polar angle,
saturation (S) by the radius and intensity (I) by the vertical distance on
the cylinder axis. (b) Bars representing the visual effect of independent
changes in hue, saturation and intensity. Hue is represented for full
saturation and intensity; saturation is shown for the pure blue colour,
and intensity for the vertical cylinder axis (grey scale)
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Processing of data
a) b)
Figure 6.6 (a) A false colour composite of the Ningxia area with TM
band 7, TM band 5 and TM band 3 coded in red, green and blue,
respectively; (b) the same FCC’s after an IHS transformation
Figure 6.6 (a) shows an RGB composite of the Ningxia area. Figure
6.6 (b) shows the same image after an IHS transformation. As is clear
from this figure, the HIS-transformed images contain more colour
information as compared to the normal false colour composites. The
colours that result after an IHS transformation has been performed may
not always be very meaningful for a particular application and may not
always be simple to interpret. The chief advantage of the IHS
transformation is in data fusion, where images of different spatial and
spectral resolution are combined. In such cases, the hue and saturation
are taken from the multispectral images of lower spatial resolution, and
a higher-resolution panchromatic image is taken from an intensity
image. The HIS-fused product then has the spatial resolution of the
higher-resolution image, while still preserving the spectral
characteristics of the multispectral images.
Principal Component (PC) Transform or Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) is a very powerful technique for the analysis of
correlated multidimensional data (Davis, 1986; Chavez and Kwarteng,
1989). In most cases, a high reflectance in one waveband is matched
by similarly high reflectance in the others. In such cases, there is a
high degree of redundancy among the data. The transformation of the
raw remote sensing data using PCA can result in new principal
component images that are often more interpretable than the original
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Chapter 6
data (Jensen, 1986). The PCA builds up a new set of axes which are
orthogonal to each other, i.e. non-correlated (Figure 6.7). The entire
data set can be represented in terms of these new axes.
The first principal component axis expresses a maximum portion of the

variance in the data set. Subsequent axes account for successively
smaller portions of the remaining variance. The first principal
component is generally the weighted average of all the data, and
approximates an image of the albedo and topography in the range
covered by the remote sensing systems. The higher-order components
express deviations of various kinds from the average.
The use of Principal Component Analysis is mainly in data

compression, image enhancement for classification, and in temporal
change detection. As mentioned earlier, the higher order PCs represent
a deviation from the average, and, therefore, in multi-temporal images,
the differences with time can be well observed in the higher order PCs.
Figure 6.8 shows a false colour composite of the image of the Ningxia
area generated using the three principal components PC1, PC2 and
PC3 in red, green and blue, respectively.
t
rs
Fi
Principal Component Axes
Se
co
nd
DNb
DNa
Figure 6.7. Concept of Principal Component Analysis (after Gupta,

1991).
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Processing of data
Figure 6.8. A false colour composite of the image of the Ningxia area
generated using the three principal components PC1, PC2 and PC3 in
red, green and blue, respectively
6.3 Spectral analysis of surface features
Spectral classification is based on differences in light reflectance

properties. The sun emits electromagnetic radiation; the photons of the
radiation that reach the surface of molecules of a material are either
reflected or absorbed. The relative magnitudes of the effects depend on
the materials, the angle of incidence, the grain shape and size, and the
wavelength.
A spectrometer measures the intensity of radiation in different

wavelengths. A spectrometer is sensitive in a wider band of
wavelengths than the human eye is. Important absorption features may
be apparent due to the presence of -OH, H2O, Fe2O3 and other
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Chapter 6
constituents. These absorption's are important because they show up in

narrow bands in the spectral curve and may, therefore, be
deterministic. For further information on this subject one is referred to
Clark (1998).
The spectral properties of the rocks in the Rujigou may change due to
baking by the coal fires. The influence of burning in the visual
spectrum is clear: the rock turns red to yellowish. This change can also
be detected by spectroradiometer. Metamorphic rock of that has
changed due to heating by coal fires is sometimes referred to as
micrite. Micrite can have different degrees of metamorphism
depending on the duration and degree of heating of the rock.
The primary goal of the spectral investigation was to find the most
suitable spectral satellite bands for classification of rock into burnt and
not burnt. In addition, it was investigated whether classification into
different lithologies and/or degrees of thermal metamorphism might be
feasible.
6.3.1 Methods and procedures for spectral analysis
The spectral data were derived from the Landsat satellite and made by
spectroradiometer. The spectral information was combined with the
ground truth from geological maps and field surveys. The investigation
of possible methods for an ‘object classification of rock’ was done by
band ratioing (sub-section 6.3.2 'Description and analyses of typical
spectra measured') and by supervised and un-supervised classification
(sub-sections 6.3.3 'Analysis of Landsat data' and 7.1.2 'Classification
using Landsat data').
Field data were gathered using a GER 2600 spectroradiometer with a

50% spectralon reference plate, see section 3.3.4 'Spectrometric data
collection' for detail. Landsat images were used to obtain spectral data
by satellite. The Landsat images of 1995 were used because they were
the most recent available at that time and because they were likely to
match good with the geological map made in 1994.
Areas where coal fires may be apparent can be linked to some features
that can be detected by spectral examination:
 the occurrence of coal
 the occurrence of rock associated with coal
 the occurrence of micrite (baked rock)
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Processing of data
Note that the occurrence of coal, coal-related strata, or micrite is only

an indication that fires may be apparent: coal at the surface will not
necessarily be on fire and, from the occurrence of paleo-fires sites, it is
clear that these occurrences are not indicative of an active fire.
6.3.2 Description and analyses of measured spectra
The spectra were grouped according to lithology and the state of

burning. Measurements were made on samples, on natural slopes and
of mining faces, as well as on naturally weathered surfaces. The
objects were chosen on the basis of the lithology of the rock, state of
weathering and the state of burning. Measurements were also made on
handpieces of rock with an increasing degree of burning. The curves
were evaluated by visual examination.
The spectral research focussed on the detection and classification of

burnt rock. For this reason, measurements were carried out on rocks
representing the lithologies commonly present at the surface, in
weathered or fresh, and not-burnt or burnt states. Measurements were
also made on selected samples of sandstone and shale with an
increasing degree of burning. The results of the analysis are given
within the following subsections.
6.3.2.1 Evaluation of spectral field measurements of common

lithology
Measurements were made on exposure of common lithology as
encountered in the field. The spectra are shown in figure 3.19,
paragraph 3.3.4.3. The spectral reflection decreases over the whole
range as the organic content of the rock increases. From the curves it is
clear that the different lithologies can be classified easily.
6.3.2.2 Evaluation of spectral field measurements of selected

samples
The outcrops in the Rujigou area consist mainly of sandstone, shale
and coal. Measurements were made on sequences of these lithologies
specially selected in order of degree of burning. The selection of
samples was done visually.
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Chapter 6
Figure 6.10 Sandstone and shale, arranged in degree of burning

Figure 6.10 shows two sequences of rock; the upper are sandstones, the
lower shales. The handpiece in the middle is a lump of coal. The pieces
are arranged from well baked (left) to un-baked (right).
Sandstone sequences
The spectral reflectance of the sandstones in Figure 6.10 are displayed

in Figure 6.11. The degree of burning increases with the curve
number. An evaluation of the curves shows that no specific features
give a fully deterministic criterion for the classification into burnt/ not-
burnt. The classification of these sandstone on the basis of the degree
of burning is even more difficult. From the curves it can be deduced
that the level of reflectance is not deterministic. The sharp increase in
the 400 – 800 nm range may be a criterion for classification. The
difference between the reflectance in the 400 – 500 nm range and the
maximum at 700 nm seems also important: the higher the difference,
the higher the degree of burning. To apply this feature as a
classification criterion of Landsat data, the ratioing of Landsat band 3
over band 2 and 4 may be used as an indicator of the degree of
burning.
Sandstone reflectances
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00 (5)not burnt sandstone
(4)
50.00
(3)
40.00
(2)
30.00
(1) burnt sandstone
20.00
10.00
0.00
350 1350 2350
wavelength [nm]
Figure 6.11. Samples sequence sandstone burnt to non-burnt, 400 –

2500 nm.
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Processing of data
An interesting feature is the absorption between 800 and 950 nm. As

the maximum of the curves is situated at the beginning of band 4 and
the local minimum at the end of band 4 some possibly interesting
information cannot be detected by Landsat.
Shale samples
The spectra measured on shale showed a more clear relation with the
degree of burning.
shale reflectances
40.00
35.00
30.00
reflectance [%]
25.00 (9) shale

20.00 (8)
15.00 (7)
10.00 (6) burnt shale
5.00
0.00
350 850 1350 1850 2350
w avelength [nm ]
Figure 6.12. Samples of the shale sequence from burnt to non-burnt,

400 – 2500 nm
The degree of burning decreases with the curve numbers. A

remarkable feature is the increase in the 1500 – 1800 range relative to
the stable level in the 500 – 600 nm range. The increase in the 400 –
800 nm range is similar to that of the sandstone sequences. The most
distinctive feature is the gradient of the curves in the 400 – 800 nm
range. Less steep indicates less burnt. For classification of spectral
Landsat data, an algorithm like (band 5 / band 2) may be applied to
shale.
Although classification seems to be well possible from the figure, the

actual classification will be problematic since shale outcrops in the
Rujigou area present in the sub-pixel areas. Shale is only present in the
banded shale/sandstone formations. These bands have a thickness of
only a few meters. The resolution of Landsat is 30 m. This means that
within one pixel covering this formation, several layers of sandstone
and shale are included. The relative occurrence of shale versus
sandstone is variable. As the effect of the burning is relatively stronger
for the shale, the spectral effect of the burning will change as the
relative occurrence of the strata changes. It was therefor expected that
a classification into degree of burning by using Landsat for the
sandstone/shale occurrences will be difficult.
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Chapter 6
6.3.2.3 Spectral effect of heating

Interesting was that an increase in temperature could be detected by
the spectroradiometer. Beyond 2000 nm a steep increase of radiance
was observed near an open fire. This is in accordance with the
observation in section 3.1 stating that Landsat TM5 band 7 (2080 –
2350 nm) can be used for obtaining locations of open fires. See figure
3.4.
Hot sandstone
50.00
40.00
reflectance (%)
30.00
Hot sandstone
20.00
10.00
0.00
350.0 850.0 1350.0 1850.0 2350.0
w avelength [nm ]
figure 6.13 Spectrum of sandstone near to a coal fire exhaust.
This was already proven for the Xi'an coal fires (van Genderen Haiyan,
1997). In the Rujigou area the fires are less prominent, this
characteristic was not found. In the future high resolution satellites
may provide more useful data.
6.3.2.4 Conclusions and recommendations

For the sandstone sequences the best differentiation of classes can
probably be found by using a band 4 to band 1 ratio. Because the
selected objects for field-data gathering were well-defined examples,
the large-scale application of this knowledge may prove more difficult.
The classification of other lithological units other then sandstone will
be more difficult to classify into degrees of burning.
From the spectral data gathered with the GER spectroradiometer, it can
be concluded that the following classes can probably be recognised on
basis of Landsat spectral data:
1. The main lithologies, sandstone, banded sandstone/shale and
coal.
2. The degree of burning of the sandstone.
6.3.3 Analysis of Landsat data
Classification is a standard GIS-phrase. The purpose is to subdivide

areas into different classes based on spatial information. In this case
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Processing of data
classification is based on the differential spectral behaviour of the

surface. First, an analysis of the Landsat data was carried with respect
to the possibilities for classification. After that, several classification
procedures were tried and evaluated.
The Landsat spectra were evaluated with the geological map as ground
truth. From the Landsat images sample areas were taken, using
outlines of burnt rock, derived from the geological map. In this way,
sample areas were obtained for the following lithological classes:
 sandstone; burnt and not burnt
 layered sandstone/shale; burnt and not burnt.
 coal
The shale in the Rujigou area occurs only in relatively thin layers that
alternate with the sandstone beds. The spectral properties of shale
cannot directly be examined using Landsat data because the thickness
of the individual shale layers is far less than the resolution of the
Landsat data. The degree of weathering could not be incorporated,
either for reasons of scale or because of the absence of ground truth.
The Landsat data cover six bands within the 400 – 2500 nm range.
Within the GIS, areas of interest were indicated. The spectral
information was taken from the corresponding parts of the Landsat
images. The values of the images were then imported to a spreadsheet
(MSExcel) for examination. All possible combinations of two spectral
bands were then plotted against each other: i.e., band 1 versus band 2,
1 versus 3, 1 versus 4, 1 versus 5, 1 versus 7, 2 versus 3, 2 versus 4
etc., amounting to 15 plots also referred to as feature spaces.
The best separation of 'burnt' and 'not burnt' point clouds was found in
the feature space of Landsat band 4 versus band 1. This is shown in
Figure 6.12. The graphs for burnt and not burnt of the same lithology
were combined in different colours to evaluate whether any
characteristic spectral behaviour is suitable for classification. No such
features could be detected for most combinations. In Figure 6.12 the
blue dots represent the normally occurring sandstone; red is the micrite
variety. The fact that sandstone gives the best result, complies with the
spectral research in the previous section. Already here we can see the
large overlap between the two classes.
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Chapter 6
Figure 6.14. The feature space plot of sandstone
For each cloud of points a linear regression was calculated in order to

develop mathematical classification algorithms for use in ILWIS.
Where the linearisations separate it may be possible to distinguish the
burnt from the non burnt rock.
Plotting the root mean square lines for the two areas, we get the graph
of Figure 6.15.
Figure 6.15. Regression lines of the feature plot of sandstone of Figure

6.14
From figure 6.15 we can conclude what will be the use of this
combination of bands. Where the lines for burnt and not burnt rock are
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Processing of data
clearly separated, it should be possible to classify the Landsat pixels

into burnt/not burnt sandstone. This is only possible for the lower
range of reflections, for the higher values the lines are not separated.
The above was the best example of all 'two-band' combinations of the
lithological classes examined. Testing the algorithms was done using
ILWIS (see section 6.3).
The regression lines can be written in equation form as
Band 4 = a * Band1+ b
This means the 'response in band 4' equals 'a' times the 'response in
band 1' plus a certain constant 'b'. The number r2 indicates the quality
of the linearisation, the linearisation is better if r2 becomes more close
to 1.
Tables 6.1 and 6.2 present the first order linearisations for fresh and
burnt rock for sandstone respectively banded sandstone/shale.
Table 6.1. Comparison of linearisations of fresh and burnt sandstone

feature space point clouds
Burnt sandstone Fresh sandstone
Band a b r2 a b r2 Classification
combi- feasibility
nation
1:02 0.71 -20.66 0.84 0.73 -21.78 0.95 Very Low
1:03 1.32 -61.12 0.83 1.36 -64.07 0.95 Very Low
1:04 0.93 -28.24 0.63 0.56 19.46 0.70 Moderate
1:05 2.18 -97.82 0.70 2.03 -76.39 0.89 Very Low
1:07 1.39 -65.73 0.68 1.58 -84.65 0.91 Very Low
2:03 1.80 -19.09 0.93 1.85 -22.12 0.98 Very Low

2:04 1.33 -2.24 0.78 0.78 36.01 0.75 Moderate
2:05 2.93 -25.92 0.77 2.75 -12.99 0.91 Very Low
2:07 1.88 -19.78 0.75 2.21 -35.22 0.92 Low
3:04 0.71 14.16 0.78 0.42 45.71 0.75 Low

3:05 1.63 4.78 0.83 1.48 20.34 0.92 Very Low
3:07 1.04 0.37 0.80 1.15 -9.41 0.93 Very Low
4:05 1.90 3.77 0.73 2.82 -80.14 0.77 Moderate

4:07 1.15 4.61 0.64 2.09 -78.43 0.71 Moderate
5:07 0.61 1.81 0.88 0.76 -21.68 0.96 Very Low
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Chapter 6
Table 6.2. Comparison of fresh and burnt banded shale/sandstone

Burnt sandstone/shale Fresh sandstone/shale
sequence sequence
Band A b r2 a b r2 Classification
combi- feasibility
nation
1:02 0.73 -23.60 0.85 0.72 -22.42 0.87 Very Low
1:03 1.34 -64.84 0.82 1.35 -63.86 0.86 Very Low
1:04 1.19 -59.54 0.69 1.10 -47.52 0.79 Very Low
1:05 2.45 -133.01 0.66 2.35 -121.71 0.75 Very Low
1:07 1.45 -76.28 0.68 1.49 -81.68 0.79 Very Low
2:03 1.82 -19.76 0.94 1.82 -19.67 0.95 Very Low

2:04 1.68 -23.09 0.86 1.52 -12.55 0.89 Very Low
2:05 3.31 -50.07 0.75 3.23 -47.24 0.85 Very Low
2:07 1.88 -22.70 0.71 2.02 -32.60 0.86 Low
3:04 0.92 -4.46 0.91 0.82 4.57 0.92 Low

3:05 1.84 -15.61 0.81 1.76 -11.50 0.89 Very Low
3:07 1.02 -1.43 0.74 1.09 -9.78 0.89 Very Low
4:05 1.90 0.58 0.81 2.07 -16.12 0.90 Low

4:07 1.02 9.99 0.68 1.26 -11.02 0.87 Low
5:07 0.55 8.18 0.88 0.59 0.74 0.92 Very Low
From the tables above it was concluded that the sandstone would give
the best result for a classification by band ratioing.
6.3.4 Conclusions and recommendations
The best separation of burnt and not burnt rock classes, using Landsat
5 data, is possible in the case of sandstone. It will be more difficult for
the other types of rock to be classified according to their degree of
burning. The classification can best be based on band 1 versus band 4.
This is supported by the measured field spectra, as well as by the
analysis of the Landsat data described in subsection 7.1.2.
6.4 Image and data fusion
Image and data fusion, here referred to in a general way as data fusion,
is an established technique for the combination of data sets from
different sources. The fusion of two images, for example, can provide
information which cannot be obtained when the images are processed
individually.
For this study, multi-sensor, multi-temporal and multi-resolution image

data were available from satellite and airborne surveys (refer to
Chapter 3). Thus, data fusion constituted a very important part of this
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Processing of data
study. Fused images provide increased interpretation capabilities and

more reliable results, since data with different characteristics are
combined. The various definitions, issues, techniques, benefits,
limitations and applications of data fusion are well documented (Pohl
and van Genderen, 1998; Gens et al. 1998; ITC Tutorial, 1997). Here,
only the three levels of data fusion are briefly discussed, and the
application and advantages of data fusion in the present context are
highlighted.
The techniques used for image and data fusion can be categorised into
three different levels depending on the stage at which the data sets are
fused:
1. pixel-based fusion
2. feature-based fusion
3. decision-based fusion
The first step in all the fusion methods is the pre-processing of the data
to ensure that no radiometric errors occur on the images, that they are
co-registered and also properly enhanced. The subsequent steps differ
according to the level of fusion. Figures 6.16, 6.17 and 6.18 show the
sequence of processing and the stage at which the actual fusion is
performed for pixel- feature- and decision-based fusion, respectively.
After fusion, the result may be further enhanced using, in part, the
same techniques as in the pre-processing.
Pixel-based fusion is by far the most popular type of image fusion. In

pixel-based fusion, the images are co-registered immediately after
initial processing. This registration should be performed with sub-pixel
accuracy in order to achieve accurate data fusion results. In the next
step, the co-registered images are fused on a per-pixel basis. The
relevant features are then extracted and classified. The classified
results are interpreted and the final output, generally a map, is
generated.
The techniques of pixel-based fusion can be divided into two

categories: colour-related techniques and numerical methods (Figure
6.17). The colour-related techniques make use of either the RGB or the
IHS colour space. These have already been discussed in detail in
Section 6.3. In this study, data fusion was carried out using the colour
related techniques. The numerical methods involve either statistical
methods or arithmetic operations. For details of the numerical
methods, the user is again referred to the article by Pohl and van
Genderen (1998) and the ITC Tutorial (1997).
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Chapter 6
Image A Image B ... Image N
Initial Initial Initial

Processing Processing Processing
Enhanced
images A, B, ..., N
Co-
registration
Co-registered images
Pixel-Based
Fusion
Fused images
Feature
Extraction
Extracted features
Feature
Classification
Classified features
User
Decision/
Interpretation
Final map
Figure 6.16. The sequence of processing and the stage at which the
actual fusion is performed in pixel-based fusion
Figure 6.17. The techniques of pixel-based fusion

Feature-based fusion involves the extraction of all relevant features for
each image separately. The features may be geometric (edges, lines,
arcs, circles, cones, areas etc.), structural (relative and absolute
orientation, juxtaposition of planes etc.), statistical (number of
surfaces, area, perimeter, mean, variance, entropy etc.) or spectral
(colour coefficients, effective black-body temperature, spectral peaks,
spectral signatures etc.). Once the features are extracted, they are co-
registered and the fusion is then performed at the feature level (Figure
6.18). The features are then classified in the fused product and the
result is interpreted in order to that conclusions may be drawn and the
necessary decisions made.
204
Processing of data

Enhanced
images A, B, ..., N
Feature Feature Feature
Extraction Extraction Extraction
Extracted features of
images A, B, ..., N
Co-
registration
Co-registered features
Feature-
Based
Fusion
Fused features
Feature
Classification
Classified features
User
Decision/
Interpretation
Final map
actual fusion is performed in feature-based fusion
Feature selection and extraction can be based either on physical

analysis or cluster analysis. The features can then be fused using
parametric templates, the attribute method or other similar techniques.
As only the attribute method was used in our study, an explanation of
only this technique is discussed here.
The attribute method is based on measurements from different sensors
providing independent attributes of the target. These signature
parameters are combined in an n-dimensional measurement vector. In
order to classify each composite measurement, these attributes need to
be defined at an earlier stage. This definition is the basis of
classification into one of the m possible target classes. The final output
is the classification decision for each target.
In decision-based fusion, after the initial processing, all the relevant

features are extracted and classified separately. The classified features
are co-registered and the fusion is then performed at the decision level
(Figure 6.19). The fusion comes at a late stage and is followed only by
interpretation and output generation.
There are several decision-based fusion techniques (Figure 6.20) and
to go into the details of these techniques would be beyond the scope of
this manual.
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Chapter 6

Enhanced
images A, B, ..., N
Extraction Extraction Extraction
Extracted features of
images A, B, ..., N
Classification Classification Classification
Classified features of
images A, B, ..., N
Co-
registration
Co-registered features
Decision-
Based
Fusion
Fused and classified features
User
Decision/
Interpretation
Final map
actual fusion is performed in decision-based fusion
Figure 6.20. Decision-based fusion techniques
In this study, image fusion was used at several stages for different
purposes. For example, optical images were combined with thermal
images to produce maps of fire location (discussion and results
presented in Section 7.1). In another classical example, images from
optical, thermal and microwave regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum were combined so that an integrated study of the subsidence
and its relation to the coalfire areas in the Rujigou coalfield could be
carried out. This is discussed in detail in section 7.8.
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Inventory techniques
Chapter 7
7 Inventory techniques
In this chapter, various inventory techniques are discussed. The
inventories are all dedicated to the evaluation of coal fires and are
grouped on basis of their four data-gathering levels.
1. satellite level: thermal, spectral and radar-interferometric inventory

2. airborne level: thermal and colour infrared inventory
3. ground level: thermal and spectral inventory
4. subsurface level: thermal inventory
7.1 Inventory using satellite data
This section contains a descriptive overview of the concept of

compiling an inventory of coal fires by satellite. The advantage of
using satellite date for large-scale coal fire studies is that the satellite
data provide a good synoptic picture of the problem; this saves time, is
cost-effective and makes the whole approach robust.
Coal fires can be detected by satellite sensors on the basis of the

following features discussed in this section:
1. inventory of thermal anomalies

2. inventory of spectral change due to the baking of the rock
7.1.1 Inventory of the thermal anomalies in the Landsat data
In the case of subsurface coal fires, conduction as well as convective

mass transport dissipate the heat. As a result, the overburden is heated
locally. The area and intensity of this thermal anomaly will vary with
the amount of coal burning and with the depth at which the fire is
active. One of the means by which these areas can be detected is the
Landsat TM satellite: the night-time thermal infrared images from
Landsat TM band 6 can be examined. The use of night-time data
reduces the influence of solar radiation on the detected surface
temperatures. Because of the influence of the atmosphere, an
‘atmospheric correction’ is needed for a quantitative inventory. The
image may also have to be destriped to remove structural errors due to
sensor degradation. The raw digital numbers, provided by the satellite
ground station, are converted to the radiant temperatures of the surface.
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Chapter 7
After this pre-processing, the data can be evaluated with respect to the
presence of coal fires.
The application of a threshold is a standard procedure in raster based

image processing. For the inventory of thermal images, a threshold
based on the whole image is a rather rough criterion. This is illustrated
in Figure 7.3.
The threshold clearly shows the 'hot areas'. Many of these 'hot areas'
exist due to normal heating by the sun. Consequently, many of the
areas indicated are false alarms (i.e. all those outlined in the lower
right-hand corner). The result is unacceptable for fire indication; this
method either introduces an overload of false alarms or misses the
majority of fires.
Figure 7.1. The results of using two different thresholds. Left: satellite
image (1995); centre: hot areas detected by a threshold of 74; right:
those detected using a threshold of 75
The example in figure 7.3 has shown that coal fires cannot be
classified as such using a over all threshold, to try and produce a better
result, a further refinement to the above method was applied.
The coalfires are relatively small, high temperature heat sources at

different thermal levels. It was expected that the thermal anomaly
caused by a coal fire is characterised by a high lateral thermal gradient
in combination with relatively high thermal values. These descriptive
terms have to be translated into useable criteria:
208
1 Gradient evaluation
The thermal gradient should be high. The thermal gradient can be
determined by calculating the first derivative of a number of
adjacent pixel values in the image. It can be considered relatively
high if it greater than a certain value. This value has to be
determined by trial-and-error in combination with ground truth.
2 Thresholding
The thermal values should be relatively high. The temperatures
should be above a certain threshold. The threshold should be
determined by evaluation of the histogram of the temperatures in a
small environment around the areas with a high lateral thermal
gradient.
7.1.1.1 Gradient evaluation

The first step performed when analysing an image for the occurrence
of coal fires is the search for areas with high lateral thermal gradients.
These are a characteristic feature at the border of coal fires. The best
result is expected if the first derivative is calculated perpendicular to
the strike of the fire. In practice this is not useful as the strike of the
fire differentiates. In the case of the Rujigou coalfield, the best results
were obtained by determining the first derivative in the scanning
direction. The result of this procedure is shown in Figure 7.1. High
gradient values are shown in white, low values in black. The whitish
areas within the image indicate the existence of coal fires. All pixels
with a high thermal value that are situated near pixels with a high
thermal gradient are likely to be coal fire anomalies. Note that the area
in the lower right-hand corner which does show a high thermal value is
not indicated as a possible fire area by this method. From ground truth,
we know that this area should indeed not be indicated as a possible fire
area as there are no coal-bearing strata present. The high temperatures
exist here due to the favourable slope and aspect of the mountain for
heating by the sun.
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Chapter 7
Figure 7.2. Landsat band 6, 1995 (left) and its first derivative in the x-
direction (right)
7.1.1.2 Thresholding
The second step is to check whether or not the areas with a high lateral
temperature gradient indeed contain a fire, and to outline these fires.
The fires can be isolated from the non-fire areas by thresholding. The
threshold can be determined by examination of the histogram of small
areas where high thermal gradients occur. If we were consider such an
area around we would get a histogram similar to that of Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3. Histogram of an area where a coal fire is apparent
The histogram is characterised by two maxima. The first maximum, on

the left-hand side, is the most common pixel value in the image. This
value is taken as the background temperature. The second maximum,
on the right, is typical for the existence of coal fires. The threshold
210
level discriminating between 'fire' and 'not fire' is located between the
first and second maximum.
It is assumed that the areas indicated by the high lateral temperature
gradient do indeed contain a fire if the area contains pixels with a high
lateral temperature gradient have a temperature beyond the threshold
temperature. The fire pixels can then be isolated from the non-fire
pixels by application of the threshold. The results are presented in
Figure 7.4. The procedure followed to achieve the fire outlines in this
way is referred to as gradient thresholding.
Figure 7.4. Results of the two different methods of fire detection. Left:
1989 Landsat thermal image; centre: fires detected by an 'over all
threshold'; right: those detected by the 'gradient threshold' method
On the left, we see the original satellite data used as the input. In the
middle image, the fires indicated were detected by thresholding over
the whole image with one threshold level. The image on the right
displays fires as outlined by thresholds that were based on small
windows around the areas with high lateral temperature gradients. The
colours in the image denote the magnitude of the anomaly for the
specific pixels. The magnitude is obtained by subtracting the local
background value from the thermal value of the pixels. Again, note the
overestimation of the number and size of the fire areas in the centre
image compared to the image on the right.
It is clear that the gradient thresholding procedure results are much

better; more true fires are indicated as well and fewer false-alarms
occur. The integration of the tools described in the above text is a
major improvement. The integrated methodology for outlining fires
and determining their magnitude is explained in full detail in section
8.1 'Integrated analysis of coal fires'.
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Chapter 7
7.1.2 Inventory of spectral satellite data
The change in the colour of the rock is clear from field examination.
Due to the rise in temperature, the rock changes appearance and
acquires its typical yellowish-to-reddish colour. This change is
maintained after the rock has cooled, see Figure 6.10.
This type of metamorphic rock is referred to as micrite. A spectral field

survey was set up to measure and quantify the effects that might also
be detected by satellite and used for classification. An analysis of the
Landsat data was also performed with respect to the possibilities for
classification (see section 6.4). The input data for the classification is
derived from the Landsat satellite bands 1 to 5 and 7.
Several classification procedures were then tried and evaluated.

Supervised and unsupervised classification denote special
classification procedures that have (supervised) or do not have user
input (unsupervised).
The procedures used were:

1. classification of Landsat data, supervised
2. classification of Landsat data unsupervised
3. classification of Landsat data based on spectral investigation
7.1.2.1 Supervised classification

For the classification of rock as burnt or unburnt, it is necessary to
eliminate disturbing or complicating factors. For this reason, first a
classification into the main lithologies was made. From the field, we
know that the following groups of lithologies are dominant in the area:
sandstone, banded sandstone/shale, and coal. After this basic
classification, a separate classification into burnt/unburnt was tried.
Sandstone was chosen because, from the spectral examination of
section 6.4, we know this was likely to give the best result. The
supervised classification was, thus, performed in two steps:
1) classification into main lithology
2) classification into burnt/unburnt sandstone
The classification into sandstone, sandstone/shale sequence and coal

gave a reasonably good result. Coal was identified very well; however,
the occurrence of coal dust in the area is problematic. A lot of the areas
near coal outcrops were identified as being coal because of this effect.
The shadow zones (in the northwest of the image) were also
misinterpreted as being coal. The sandstone and the sandstone/shale
212
units were clearly separated; in the case of the sandstone/shale

sequence, individual slabs of sandstone were sometimes identified as
being sandstone. Water or river bedding: the separation into these
classes seemed to be easy; in reality, a lot of the river bedding was also
classified as coal and vice-versa. It was decided to skip the river
bedding as a separate class. If necessary, one can get this information
from the digital elevation model, or from the digitised geological map.
After the basic classification by lithology, a classification into burnt

and unburnt sandstone was attempted. This was done by taking the
sandstone from the former classification apart from the other classes
and performing a supervised classification. On the resulting sandstone
map, areas were indicated that should be classified as being either
burnt or unburnt. This information was derived from the geological
map. The result of this classification was not satisfying. Even the areas
indicated as unburnt samples were 'de-classified' as 'burnt'.
Figure 7.5. Supervised classification into main lithologies
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Chapter 7
Figure 7.6. Supervised classification of sandstone into burnt/unburnt
7.1.2.2 Unsupervised classification

Unsupervised classification can be done in different ways in Ilwis. The
operator can choose between a classification based on either 2, 3 or 4
bands: the choice of the number of clusters is free. In this case, 3- and
4-band classification was carried out with either 3, 4 or 5 clusters.
First, the principal components were determined; a unsupervised
classification was then performed. The best result is shown here: a
five-band three cluster classification.
214
Figure 7.7. Unsupervised classification: manual classification into

main lithologies
7.1.2.3 Classification based on spectral measurements

The spectral data research has been described in section 3.3.4. This
research was used to define different algorithms for classification. The
procedure was applied to the most promising combination of bands
and lithology. The testing of the algorithms was done under ILWIS.
First, a classification for sandstone was performed. This is described in
section 6.4. The algorithm was tested on the sandstone as detected by
classification. The result should have been a map displaying burnt
sandstone as against unburnt sandstone. The outcome of the testing of
the algorithms was doubtful. Figure 7.8 shows the result of the
procedure.
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Chapter 7
Figure 7.8. Classified sandstone with outlines of burnt rock
In fact, some of the sandstone was classified correctly as burnt rock

(red colour). In the north-western part, however, we see that a
complete layer of the sandstone is classified as burnt. The original
geological map received from the Coal Fire Department indicated that
the rock outlined in black is composed of burnt rock. When we
consider the geological map as ground truth, we see that
misclassifications often occur. Since sandstone gave the best
separation of classes the other lithologies would give even worse
classification results. Classification algorithms for the other lithologies
were, therefor, not evaluated.
7.1.2.4 Conclusions and recommendations

So far, no clear indicator for the presence of burnt rock using satellite
data has been found. The only remote sensing classification method
that proved useful (van Genderen, 1997) was the conventional,
laborious, examination of colour-infrared photography, as was done
for the Xi'an fire areas. The classification of spectral measurements by
the application of algorithms gave almost no useful results. Using the
supervised classification method it proved possible to extract the main
lithological classes from the Landsat data with a reasonable degree of
accuracy. Further classification of lithological sub-units into burnt or
unburnt did not produce a very useful result. The classification of rock
into burnt or unburnt using satellite data was, therefore, not considered
216
applicable using data with the spectral and spatial resolution currently
available. In the near future, Landsat 7 will start to operate. Due to the
higher resolution of this system, it is expected that the classification
results can be improved.
7.2 Inventory using airborne data
This section gives a general overview of the concept of the compilation

of an inventory of coal fires using airborne data. Coal fires can be
detected by airborne survey on the basis of the following
characteristics:
1. the thermal anomaly that occurs due to the heating process
2. the change in colour which results from the baking of the rock
above the fire
3. subsidence resulting from the burning-out of coal
Each detection method is discussed in a separate section. Using

CoalMan, it is possible to combine the different methods.
7.2.1 Inventory of thermal anomalies of airborne data
In a similar way to the use of thermal satellite data, one can use
airborne thermal scanning data for the examination of coal fires.
Airborne measurements in the thermal infrared can be converted to
temperatures if the settings of the blackbodies are known. Because of
the influence of the atmosphere, an ‘atmospheric correction’ might be
needed (see section 5.3, 'Atmospheric correction'); however, due to the
relatively small distance between the sensor and the ground surface,
this may be neglected. The methods and procedures for the
examination of thermal airborne and thermal satellite data are very
similar; therefore, reference is made to subsection 7.1.1. The advantage
of airborne over satellite data are the higher resolution and the
possibility of choosing the blackbody settings. Disadvantages can
include the time needed for surveying a coal fire area, the large amount
of data, and the amount of pre-processing that has to be done. Due to
changes in weather, the thermal images from different times may not
be directly comparable.
The software that was developed for the evaluation of satellite data can
also be used for the airborne data – see sections 7.1.1, 'Inventory of
thermal anomalies of Landsat data' and 8.1 'Determination of coal fire
extension'. In the latter section, some results of the airborne data
inventory are included.
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Chapter 7
7.3 Inventory using measurements at ground level
This section gives a general overview of the concept of the making of

an inventory of coal fires using measurements at ground level. The
data acquired at the surface may be used for qualitative purposes: their
use in a quantitative inventory is limited.
Coal fires can be detected and monitored by surface survey on the

basis of the following characteristics:
 the thermal anomaly
 the change in colour of the rock
These methods will be discussed in the following subsections.
7.3.1 Inventory of thermal anomalies at ground level
Fires may be detected, and their size may be estimated, on the basis of
the thermal anomaly that occurs due to the heating by the coal fire. The
following data sources are discussed here: a portable thermal scanner
(inframetrics), a pointing thermometer and a contact thermometer.
As for all thermal measurements, the aim is to detect the anomalous

heat exchange between the surface and the atmosphere. For this
reason, one should make additional measurements of the temperature,
wind speed and humidity.
The development of an inventory of coal fires using a portable thermal

scanner is promising. Applications may include the location of new
fires, the monitoring of fire behaviour, the evaluation of coal-fire
fighting results, the location of gas inlets and outlets, the outlining of
heated areas and ground truth gathering for airborne or satellite survey.
During the 1997 fieldwork, EARS gathered thermal scanner data.
Figure 7.9. Photograph taken on top of the Dafeng fire
218
Figure 7.10. Thermal image of the area in Figure 7.10
In the image, the rough outlines of hot areas can be detected. The
image was made a few hours after sunrise. Using the standard
software, thermal profiles were made along the indicated line (see
Figure 7.11).
45
40
35
30
15.ooh
25
18.00h
20 7.10h
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance (pixels)
Figure 7.11. Temperature profiles at the Dafeng coalfire for different

times, made along the line indicated in Figure 7.10
The anomalous warm area cannot easily be recognised in the day-time,

but can clearly be recognised in the 7.10h series made just before
sunrise. From this profile, it is clear that the differential heating of the
surface after sunrise has a disturbing effect on the thermal anomaly.
Only on the 7.10h profile it can be seen that the anomaly is apparent
between pixels 60 and 180. On the other profiles only the strong
anomalies appearing between pixels 70 – 90 and 100 – 110 may be
recognised. Note that the thermal anomalies are superimposed on top
of the normal thermal background. It is clear that for a proper
determination of the background temperature the 7.10h series can best
be used.
219
Chapter 7
The possibilities for making an inventory of coal fires using the

measurements made by the contact and pointing thermometers are very
limited. These measurements can best be used for collecting ground
truth data.
The usability of the measurements made by the various pieces of

equipment is summarised in Table 7.1. The usability indications range
from '–' which indicates bad, to '+ +', indicating good usability.
Table 7.1. Utility of equipment versus inventory task

Purpose of inventory Contact Pointing Portable
thermomet thermometer thermal
er scanner
Location of new fires – – +
Evaluation of coal fire- – +/– +
fighting results
Location of gas inlets and – – +
outlets
Outline of heated area – +/– +/–
Ground truthing + + ++
Conclusions and recommendations
A handheld thermal scanner is a valuable tool in the evaluation of coal

fire areas. Further research might be done on the use of a thermal
scanner for: a) locating new fires, b) location gas inlets and outlets, and
c) the evaluation of coal fire-fighting results. Measurements made
using a portable thermal scanner may be an improvement on those
obtained using the pointing thermometer for the monitoring of the coal
fire-fighting results and for the investigation of coal fire behaviour.
7.3.2 Inventory of spectral properties of rock
The spectral changes that affects rocks as a result of the underground

coal fires can clearly be detected by visual inspection. Examination of
spectral measurements can also lead to detection. The spectral change
can continue for a long time after the fire has decayed (Zhang, 1998).
This phenomenon cannot, therefore, be used directly for outlining fire
areas. For this purpose, additional information (such as anomalous
temperature data) is needed.
The rock's spectral changes can be detected by visual inspection as

well as by examination of spectroradiometer measurements. The
spectroradiometric data can be used as a more objective extension of
220
the visual inspection. The visual inspection takes account of a

combination of factors (the absence of vegetation, the occurrence of
subsidence cracks, mining activities, the presence of nearby fires, and
the observer's experience). It may, therefore, be more reliable than
other techniques as long as only a few classes are distinguished. The
use of spectral measurements is not suitable for direct classification
and should not be used for this purpose.
7.4 Inventory using borehole date
Borehole date can directly show the state of combustion of the coal
seam in which the hole was drilled. By combining all the available
borehole data with other detection methods, fire-fighting workers can
recognise the state of the whole fire area and guide the fire-fighting
work.
To study the spatial distribution of the temperature in the coal fire area,
the local fire-fighting workers attempted to set up a mathematical
model; they were not successful. In this project, we will use four-level
data to solve this technical problem and others. The analysis and use of
borehole data is basic work.
When we outline the border of a coal fire using an airborne or satellite

image, we can only make a rough estimate. To delineate the border of
the fire accurately, and to determine the state of the fire, we need to do
some fieldwork. Using borehole data in combination with some results
of research on coal oxidation processes and field experience, we can
classify the fire areas.
The borehole data are subdivided into four ranges. Borehole

temperatures in a normal area are indicated by To, and the temperature
of a borehole in a fire area by T.
The four ranges are:

1. anomalous temperature area – T > To + 10 C
2. common high temperature area – To + 50 C < T < To + 130 C
3. high temperature area – To + 130 C < T < To + 300 C
4. burning area – T > To + 300 C
The area where the reference value is larger than the value
corresponding to T > To + 10 C may be considered a fire area. The
standard values may be changed as these are chosen subjectively.
Using this classification, a map with fire contours can be produced.

This is important for the planning of fire-fighting operations. After
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Chapter 7
setting up a spatial model of the temperature distribution in the coal

fire area, generally a certain difference remains when this is compared
with the temperature distribution in a calculated model. To reduce
these differences, we may correct the model using borehole data.
7.5 Inventory of subsidence caused by coal fires
Many environmental problems, such as fissures, rock falls, debris

slides, debris flows and subsidences are related to coal mining. In an
active mining region, underground coal mining often induces
subsidence. As this is a widespread problem, subsidence has been
investigated in many countries, as was reviewed Chen (1996). The
most important publications in this field are Kumer et al.(1983);
Karfakis and Topus (1988); Hao and Ma (1990); CMS (1991);
Coulthard et al. (1991); Liao (1993); Maranteanu and Bomboe (1993);
Bahuguna et al. (1993); Shu and Bhattacharyya (1993); and Singh and
Yadav (1995). The vertical subsidence related to mining activity in the
study area varies from millimeters to several meters (Chen, 1996).
Figure 7.13 presents the distribution of subsidence areas and coal fires
in the Rujigou coalfield. The field investigations carried out in 1996
and 1997 proved that the subsidence areas are related only to
subsurface coal fires.
The subsidence can be induced both by underground coal mining and

by underground coal fires. In fact, there are two different ways in
which subsidence can develop as a result of the coal fires:
 Above the coal fire, subsidence originating from mining activity
can be intensified by rock splits.
 Thermal burst can be induced by the long-term, high-temperature
influence on the surrounding rocks, resulting in fissure, cracks and
collapses.
Subsidence usually occurs in the latter stages of the coal fire

development. The displacement associated with subsidence related to
coal fires is usually of smaller and less clear than that caused directly
by mining.
Subsidence can be detected using large-scale stereo aerial photographs.

In combination with colour features related to coal fires, we can
recognise the subsidence caused both by mining and by coal fires.
Figures 7.14 and 7.15 show stereo pairs of the Xigou and Yinpo coal
fire areas, respectively (use the pocket stereoscope to view the photo
pair). Linear features perpendicular to the dip of the slopes are the
results of subsidence. Although these features might be seen on single
222
images too, only stereo investigation can help to identify their relation
to the topography.
Overlay map of main

subsidence area and
main coal fires in Beiyi Hongwan
the study area Baijigou

Beisan
N
Nanyi
Naner
Hongliang
Nansi
0 2500 m
Dafeng
Scale
LEGEND
Shangsan Shangyi
Xinsheng
Subsidence, clear main cracks/
displacement and subsidence block
Subsidence, clear cracks, clear
Xigou displacement locally
Shuixiang
Crack affected area
Gulaben Ruqigou
Extinct coal fires
Active coal fires

Dalingwan
Figure 7.12. Overlay map of the main areas of subsidence and coal
fires in the study area
Figure 7.13. Stereopair of the Yinpo coal fire area. Areas of slight
subsidence can be recognised by stereo viewing along the burnt rocks
indicating the coal fire
223
Chapter 7
224
Integrated analysis
Chapter 8
8 Integrated analysis
8.1 Integrated analysis of coal fires
Satellite data can be examined to obtain an impression of the outline of

coal fires, an estimate of the degree of coal loss, and a very rough
indication of the amount of overburden on top of a fire. Airborne data
can provide the same type of results with greater accuracy. The
methodology for airborne data is almost identical to that for satellite
data, and so a combined discussion is presented here. The inventory of
coal fire location, distribution and magnitude cannot be evaluated on
the basis of a single property. To obtain this information, the various
inventories discussed in section 7.1 have to be integrated.
8.1.1 Location and outlining of coal fires
The fires can be located on the night time imagery basis of their
specific thermal anomalous expression in contrast to their
surroundings. The anomalous temperatures are typically only a few
degrees Kelvin above normal. Even in the night time data temperature
differences of this magnitude may also occur frequently due to solar
heating. An over-all threshold and background temperature for the
Rujigou area can therefor not be applied for a qualitative and
quantitative evaluation. The problem is solved by:
1. evaluating the thermal gradient in the image to find fire areas

2. evaluation of these fire areas in the image for delineation of fires
An anomaly should be classified as a fire only if the temperature

gradient at the border of the anomaly is above a certain value and the
temperature of the pixel is above a certain minimum. A further
improvement to the method is the requirement that all pixels classified
as an anomaly due to a coal fire should be direct neighbours.
The integrated analysis of satellite (or airborne) data is discussed here

step-by-step, using a Landsat image as an example. The following
image was taken from the available Landsat 1989 data. It is an area
containing a subsurface coal fire located near the Dafeng mine. The
image has been pre-processed (i.e. destriped and georeferenced). To be
able to compare images of different dates, i.e. to compensate for the
weather changes, the image was normalised by means of histogram
225
Chapter 8
equalisation: the standard deviation and the modal image value were
made equal to those of a chosen standard image.
Figure 8.1. Landsat thermal image (1989)
Figure 8.1 shows the original image. From this thermal image, a first
derivative was calculated as shown in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2. First derivative image with Figure 8.1 as source
Note that the fire areas show up clearly show as areas of relatively
high gradient. Where the values of the first derivative were above a
certain threshold, these were assumed to exist due to the presence of
coal fires. These areas are coloured red in the thermal image.
Figure 8.3. Overlay of the thermal gradient threshold
226
Integrated analysis
The following step is to produce an image classified using an over-all

threshold.
Figure 8.4. Image classified using an over-all threshold
The pixels red in both Figure 8.3 and 8.4 have been classified as
'likely' coal fire areas. Around these local area windows were defined
as shown in figure 8.5.
Figure 8.5. Outlines around the 'likely' fire areas
The next step is to determine the threshold and background for each
local area window. This is done by examining the histogram of the
area outlined in purple. The histogram of this area is shown in Figure
8.6 below.
Figure 8.6. Histogram of the possible fire area outlined in Figure 8.4.
227
Chapter 8
The thermal threshold and background are determined; here, the

thermal background level is 69 and the threshold level 73. Starting
from the pixel with the highest level within the fire outline, all adjacent
pixels that have a thermal level above the local threshold can be
classified as belonging to the final coal fire outline.
Figure 8.7. Final coal fire outline
This procedure should be applied to all possible fire areas. Automated

software is provided for this purpose.
The following step is to estimate the magnitude and the thickness of

overburden above the outlined fire areas.
Figure 8.8. Result of automated fire outline mapping in the Beisan

area for Landsat data (left) and for airborne data (right)
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Integrated analysis
8.1.2 Inventory and analysis of the magnitude of coal fires and of

the overburden thickness
To mapply the research described in section 2.5, the analysis of

Landsat and airborne thermal data was extended to the estimate of the
amount of coal loss due to fires and a rough estimate of the thickness
of the overburden. The magnitude of a coal fire can be expressed in
terms of the associated coal loss.
Estimating the coal loss
A direct indication for the magnitude of the fire is the estimated coal
loss. The relation between the coal loss and the total heat exchange at
the surface above a subsurface fire was discussed in subsection 2.5.2.6.
To be able to calculate the total heat exchange of a fire from a thermal
image, we need to know the anomaly for all pixels within a fire area.
This can be done by subtracting the local background temperature
from the temperature of each coal fire pixel. The sum of all the
individual anomalies classified as being part of one fire is a measure of
the total heat exchanged. The total heat exchange is then related to the
coal loss.
The following two-step procedure is carried out:
1. all anomalies for the cluster in the local area are summarised
2. the total anomaly is converted to coal loss
This methodology has been included in the software.
Figures 8.9. 1997 Airborne thermal night data of 1997, Beishan area.
Outline and coal loss estimate right, depth estimate left.
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Chapter 8
In subsection 2.5.2.6, it was anticipated that the overburden thickness

of a coal fire can be estimated from the gradient of a profile drawn
perpendicular to the strike of the fire. This criterion cannot be applied
in Ningxia because of the uneven terrain and the irregular shape of the
fire outlines. Instead, the standard deviation for a surrounding square
of pixels is determined for each pixel.
The results comply with that what qualitatively was known from the
coal fires. Therefore, the results could only be expressed in relative
terms as 'deep' or 'shallow', indicated respectively by yellow and red.
Note the bright yellow area at the upper left indicating a shallow fire;
this is the thermal anomaly caused by the burning tailings loaded out
of the subsurface fires at Beisan.
8.1.3 Change-in time analysis
The analysis of images acquired at different times is possible because

of the applied histogram equalisation. This equalisation is important
because it compensates for the inevitable differences in environmental
factors as differences in weather and atmospheric transmission. The
change-in-time analysis is illustrated using the processed images from
1989, 1995 and 1997.
Figure 8.10. Time series of Landsat TM band 6 data for 1989, 1995
and 1997 (left to right)
From the coal loss estimates made using the images, it can be
concluded that after a decrease in 1989, the fires have increased
seriously in the period 1995 – 1997. In the 1997 image, however, it is
estimated that at least 40 percent of the estimated coal loss is related to
the tailing fire anomalies. This still implies an estimated coal loss for
the in situ fires of about 150 x 103 m3/yr.
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Integrated analysis
Time series of the Rujigou coal fires based on Landsat data
FIRE INTENSITY [(M3/YR)/KM2]

500000 2
BURNING RATE [M3/YR]
SURFACE [km2]
400000
1.5
300000
1
200000
Burning rate
0.5 [m3coal/yr]
100000
Fire intensity
[(m3/yr)/km2]
Surface [km2]
0 0
1989 1995 1997
YEAR
Figure 8.11 Time series of Landsat TM band 6 data for 1989, 1995
and 1997
The time series relate to the history of coal fire-fighting in the Rujigou
area. Fire-fighting started in 1989; in 1994 the fire-fighting was
reduced to a minimum until, in 1997, the fighting work restarted. The
consequences for the coal losses can be recognised easily in the image.
For analysis of the thermal imagery qualitatively better results could

have been obtained using the user-interactive software. For reasons of
objectivity the fully automated software was preferred.
The estimate of coal loss as caused by the tailing fires in the 1997
image was determined using the interactive software, as this allows
examination of local thermal phenomena.
8.1.4 Conclusions and recommendations
Summarising the integrated coal fire analysis, the following Coal Fire
evaluation procedure was developed for the remote sensed thermal
imagery obtained by Landsat or airborne survey:
1) The thermal values of the image are normalised to a certain
standard image by means of histogram equalisation.
2) Pixels that show a lateral thermal gradient above a certain level are
marked as possible fires.
3) The pixels that are above a certain temperature are marked as
possible fires.
4) The 'possible' fire areas classified as such using conditions 1) and
2) are classified as 'likely' fire areas.
5) A frame is drawn around the 'likely' fire area and the local
threshold and background level are determined.
6) The cluster of adjacent pixels with digital numbers above the local
threshold is classified as the fire area.
7) The thermal anomaly for each pixel is calculated and summarised
for the whole fire area.
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Chapter 8
8) The summed thermal anomaly for each fire area is converted to a

coal loss estimate.
The coal loss for a specific image should be regarded as a best

estimate. The quality of the coal loss calculations is limited, i.e. the
real world is far more complex then can be modelled; environmental
differences at different times of observation cannot fully be
compensated for; there is lack of ground truth etc.
The estimating method is most likely a significant improvement

compared to the currently used methods for estimating coal loss. This
coal loss estimate is considered of good utility in year-to-year
comparisons of the coal-fires.
Other methods for the estimation of coal loss may become available;
however, research still has to be done on this. It may, for example, be
possible to relate the amount of subsidence to the volume of coal burnt
etc. So far, however, these methods have not proven to give a reliable
or even useful result.
8.2 Hazard identification and risk assessment
A hazard is defined as a source of danger, whereas a risk is defined as

someone or something that creates or suggests a hazard. Another
definition describes a hazard as a situation or condition with the
potential for loss or harm to the community or environment.
A geohazard is defined as a natural earth surface process which

interferes adversely with human activity. Coal fires are often
considered as a geohazard. Geohazards include natural disasters such
as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and susceptibility to inundations
and landslides, as well as those disasters caused by the influence of
mankind on the landscape. Manifestations of the latter include
inundations due to the failures of man-made structures such as dams,
land failure due to man-made changes in the water table, or other
factors which affect slope stability.
Since the coal fire hazard analysis and subsequent risk evaluation
should be implemented as a tool in the coal fire monitoring system, the
applied GIS methodology is similar to the one described in the ILWIS
manual. In this methodology, the procedure is subdivided into three
basic steps:
1. Identification and analysis of the hazard(s) resulting in a qualitative
hazard map of the area. The hazard is defined as the probability of
occurrence of a potentially damaging phenomenon. For the
232
Integrated analysis
Rujigou area, the hazard map will consist of a combination of

several factors.
2. Creation of a vulnerability map of the area which shows the degree
of loss resulting from the occurrence of the phenomenon.
3. In the third step, a risk map will be created, which provides an
estimate of risk in terms of expected damage, given by the
combination of the hazard and the vulnerability of exposed
systems. A simple way to express risk is, therefore, as follows:
Risk = hazard * vulnerability
The coal fire hazard analysis of the Rujigou area has a two-fold
purpose:
1. Classification of the existing coal fires in terms of risk. The
outcome of the risk analysis can be a useful tool in the fire-fighting
decision making (which coal fire should be extinguished first)
2. Identification of areas with the highest risk of new coal fires
starting. Basically, this implies the incorporation of one additional
step in the GIS methodology. The outcome of this procedure will
be a ‘susceptibility map’. This map combines factors promoting the
initiation of new coal fires, such as mining activity, the exposure of
(fresh) coal at outcrops, and the susceptibility of the coal to
spontaneous combustion as measured in the laboratory by means of
an oxidation test or by means of the determination of the activation
energy. The results of this procedure will be a component in the
set-up of a prevention plan.
Hazard Coal susceptibility
Subsidence Air pollution Coalification Thickness and dip
Economic loss Overburden Tmax or Eact
Mining activity Outcrop
Vulnerability
Housing density Roads and railways
Rivers and streams Steepness of slopes
Risk
Figure 8.12. Schematic overview of the coal fire risk analysis
The quality and quantity of the input data determine the reliability of
the risk analysis that will be implemented in the monitoring system.
Since for some of the elements (e.g., coal seam depths, exhaust gases),
the database is in a very early stage of development, conclusions
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Chapter 8
and/or decisions on made the basis of the risk analysis should be made
with caution. However, the monitoring system is designed in such a
way that new data or interpretations allow end-users to carry out a new
risk assessment, communicating through a user-friendly interface.
Knowledge of (coal fire) hazards and vulnerable areas of the Rujigou
area is an important requirement for effective fire fighting and
prevention.
8.2.1 Hazard identification
The coal fires in the Rujigou coalfield induce several side effects, that
have a negative impact on the population, economy and infrastructure
of the area. It is, therefore, important to estimate the magnitude of
these effects. A coal fire can be considered to be a multiple hazard,
causing land subsidence, economic loss, water pollution and the
emission of noxious fumes and particulates. Due to the lack of
sufficiently detailed data or actual measurements of these different
hazards, the description of the factors will be more theoretical or will
consider worst-case scenarios.
By combining the various hazard areas into one general Rujigou coal
fire hazard map and applying information such as the road
infrastructure, housing density and the location of critical facilities, the
specific vulnerabilities to these hazards can be assessed.
Since the hazard and risk analysis will be an integral part of the
prevention plan no detailed discussion on the procedure and the results
will be given here.
8.2.2 Vulnerability
Vulnerability describes how severely (in a qualitative way) an area's

physical infrastructure, population and economy can be effected by a
coal fire. Vulnerability refers to the potential for the physical
infrastructure to be damaged or destroyed; for individuals to be
injured, killed, or left homeless, or to have their daily lives disrupted;
and for the economic systems to be disrupted.
The vulnerability map combines the following elements: main roads,

dirt roads, railways, topography (steepness of slopes) and housing
density. The latter is considered to be a proxy record of the population
density although no differentiated data concerning the buildings are
available. Therefore, no subdivisions can be made into schools, mining
buildings, shops, houses etc.
234
Integrated analysis
New factor maps can be added, or existing maps can be edited or

updated. This results in a new vulnerability map.
8.2.3 Susceptibility
In order to make any predictions of the severity of future coal fires, an

additional map has to be taken into consideration. This map has to
display those areas that have the highest potential for new coal fires.
Once these areas have been identified as coal fire hazards, a new risk
analysis can be performed. The results of this analysis can be part of
the prevention plan.
Factors to be considered in such an analysis are those related to the

causes of coal fires. These include the susceptibility of the coal to
spontaneous combustion (oxidation test), the degree of mining activity,
the presence of cracks in the overburden and cleats and fractures in the
coal, and whether there is a (fresh) outcrop of the coal.
8.2.4 Risk assessment
In order to assess the severity of present or future coal fires, the

vulnerability map has to be combined with the (multiple) hazard maps
into a risk map.
8.3 Keys for coal fire-fighting
The keys for coal fire fighting will form the basis for the improvements
of coal fire-fighting. These are derived from the research done in the
first phase of the Ningxia coal fire project, from the existing coal fire-
fighting plan made by the Ningxia Fire-Fighting Department and from
the communications with the coal-fire department and the project
partners.
Setting priorities for fire-fighting is an important task in coal fire-

fighting planning. The CoalMan system may provide useful input by
supplying decision support. The coal fire-fighting improvements can
be separated into the monitoring and the combat of fires. The fire
combat part is dedicated to the actual improvement of fire-fighting
measures. The monitoring is dedicated to early detection of fires and
evaluation of fire-fighting results.
235
Chapter 8
8.3.1 Priorities in coal fire-fighting
Good planning of fire-fighting activities is important as the economical

impact can be high. Before, and during, the combat of fires, the
relative priority of the fires in the area should be known. Some relevant
factors in priority-setting may be determined using CoalMan:
 size and magnitude of the fire
 growth rate of a fire
 consequences of the fire in terms of expected coal loss
 availability of infrastructure
Once the required input data has become available, the factors
mentioned earlier can be determined relatively fast by using CoalMan.
Changes of these factors, indicated by the system, may therefor have a
direct impact on the fire-fighting planning.
8.3.2 Improving coal fire-fighting
Efforts will be made to improve the actual combat of coal fires on

several points. For each point a short description of the necessary
action is given:
1. For loading-out coal fires two issues are important: where exactly
is the seat of the fire, and how much overburden will have to be
removed. These questions can be answered with the use of
CoalMan.
2. The water supply needed for coal fire-fighting is restricted. The
water is derived mainly from waste-water of the villages. The
water supply may be improved by the construction of a reservoir
and improved water management. Also, the effective use of water
in fire-fighting may be improved.
3. Often the fires are in inaccessible areas. New roads and other
facilities may have to be constructed. Application of the GIS can
help with the routing of pipe lines, road alignments and electrical
power supply that are needed for coal fire-fighting.
Whether these improvements may be successful or even feasible is not

yet known. This can be found in the Coal fire fighting and prevention
manual; a dedicated follow up concentrating on application.
236
Integrated analysis
8.3.3 Monitoring coal fire-fighting
The tools developed in the first phase of the project for detection,
outlining and evaluation of coal fires using airborne and satellite
thermal imagery, can be of use for coal fire fighting. The following
issues can be of interest:
 early detection of new fires
 monitoring of coal fire fighting results
 reduction of bore holes made for the evaluation of coal fire results
 development of applications for handheld thermography
An important improvement in the monitoring can be the operational

use of a handheld thermal scanner. A thermal scanner was used for the
first time in the Rujigou area during the 1997 fieldwork; already then it
proved to be a valuable data source: The availability of such
instrument may replace the laborious and inaccurate pointing
thermometer scan line survey and can be used for detection of new
fires and gas inlets and outlets associated with coal fires.
8.4 Keys for coal fire prevention
In order to define any preventive measures against the initiation of coal

fires in the Rujigou area, an understanding of the actual causes is
necessary. The safety regulations as stipulated by the Chinese Ministry
of Energy in 1992 for underground coal mines will form the basis of
the discussion of the prevention plan.
As described and modelled in Chapter 2, spontaneous combustion is a

result of oxidation in which temperatures capable of ignition are
reached. Spontaneous combustion can only occur under conditions in
which heat released by exothermic oxidation is greater than that
carried away.
The literature on this subject mentions several factors which may be of

influence on the initiation and progress of coal fires. Some of these
factors are also incorporated in the set-up of the Safety Regulations.
8.4.1 Air flow rate
The air flow rate is a complex factor because air both provides oxygen
for oxidation of the coal and dissipates the heat generated by the
oxidation. A very high flow rate provides almost unlimited oxygen, but
dissipates heat efficiently. A low flow rate restricts the amount of
oxygen available, but allows heat generated to remain in the coal. In
237
Chapter 8
mining, a critical flow rate would be one that provides sufficient

oxygen for widespread oxidation but does not dissipate the heat
generated.
8.4.2 Particle size and surface area
Particle size has an inverse relationship to the likelihood of

spontaneous combustion of coal. The smaller the coal particles, the
greater the exposed surface area and the greater is the tendency
towards spontaneous heating. In laboratory experiments, smaller
particle size fractions are used in order to obtain results within a short
period of time. In mining, areas where crushed or broken coal
accumulates present the greatest hazard of spontaneous combustion.
8.4.3 Coal rank
It is generally assumed that spontaneous combustion is a rank-related

phenomenon. As the rank of coal decreases, the hazard of spontaneous
combustion increases. Lignite and sub-bituminous coals are most
susceptible to spontaneous combustion.
8.4.4 Temperature
The rate of coal oxidation is a direct function of temperature: the

higher the temperature, the faster the rate at which coal reacts with
oxygen. This is particularly important in areas where heat generated by
oxidation accumulates, further accelerating the rate of oxidation. It is
also significant in the presence of a thermal anomaly; that is, where the
ground temperature is substantially higher than normal. Solar
irradiation on the coal surface can also significantly enhance
temperatures (see Chapter 2).
8.4.5 Pyrite content
The presence of the sulphur minerals pyrite and marcasite may

accelerate spontaneous combustion. Under certain conditions, the
pyrite may swell and cause the coal to disintegrate, exposing more
oxidative sites. If the pyrite is finely divided and can be rapidly
converted to ferrous sulphate, the coal is more susceptible to
spontaneous combustion. Generally, the pyrite concentration must
exceed two percent before it has a significant effect.
238
Integrated analysis
8.4.6 Geological factors
The presence of faults in the coal seam may contribute to spontaneous

combustion by allowing air and water to migrate into the coal seam.
Zones of weakness around faults also allow air leakage into the coal
mass. When the coal seam under shallow cover is mined, cracks and
fissures may develop in the coal and adjacent strata. Air and water
from the surface can gain access to the coal and increase the potential
for spontaneous combustion.
8.4.7 Mining practice
Several factors in the mining method used, particularly in underground

mining, can contribute to the potential for spontaneous combustion.
Areas where fine coal particles accumulate, especially gob areas,
present a hazard because of the large coal surface available for
oxidation. Air leakage around and through fissured pillars, and into
abandoned areas of the mine, allows coal to oxidise and also allows
generated heat to accumulate. Changes in ventilation, either intentional
or accidental, may cause air to leak or may suddenly bring moist air
into contact with dry coal.
239

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Development and implementation of a coal fire

monitoring and fighting system in China

MANUAL OF COAL FIRE

MANUAL OF COAL FIRE

Environmental Analysis and Remote Sensing (EARS)

International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC)

Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience TNO (NITG)

This report may be referred to as follows:

Cui Bailin (FIRE FIGHTING DEPARTMENT, NINGXIA)

Andries Rosema, Arthur ten Katen, Ko Bijleveld (EARS)

Guan Haiyan, Kong Bing, Ma Jianwei, Zhang Jianmin, Wang Mei

John van Genderen, Zoltán Vekerdy, Anupma Prakash, Massoud

Ko den Boeft (TNO-MEP)

Proofreading was done by Craig Cassells.

This project is jointly funded by the Netherlands Development Agency

This report may be referred to as follows:

2 PROPERTIES OF COAL AND THEORY OF COAL

2.2.3 Calculation of the diffusive properties of the coal

2.5.2.3 A model with heat transport dominated by

3 FOUR-LEVEL DATA COLLECTION 97

4 GIS: THE INTEGRATED WORKING ENVIRONMENT 131

4.3.3 The meta-database 152

5 DATA PRE-PROCESSING 163

6 PROCESSING OF DATA 183

7 INVENTORY TECHNIQUES 207

7.1.2 Inventory of spectral satellite data 212

8 INTEGRATED ANALYSIS 225

The burning coal outcrops cover substantial areas. There is geological

Coal fires induce various hazards:

1.1 The project and its objectives

 EARS Remote Sensing Consultants (Delft)

A project identification mission was carried out in September -

The project partners provide the following, largely complementary

The project consists of two phases:

During phase 1, the coal fire monitoring system is developed. This is

1.1.1 Objectives and deliveries

The objectives of the project are:

The deliverables of the project are:

 a locally implemented coal fire monitoring system for Ningxia

1.1.2 Brief description of the work done in phase 1 of the project

The project started with the making of an inventory of the existing

model included oxygen transport and the heat generated by coal

The coal fire monitoring methodology consists of a set of procedures,

An important aspect of the methodology is the planning of the remote

Prototype design and testing

Finally, various sources of information (geological, remote sensing etc.),

methodologies, and the theoretical backgrounds of these are documented

1.2 Set-up of this manual

The intention of this manual is to provide a reference in which all skills

1.3 The coal fire monitoring and management system

Coal fire-fighting is a complex activity, which has to be based on

1.3.1 Functions of CoalMan

The coal fire monitoring and management system is a personal

Three major groups of tools are used in CoalMan:

The tools are accessible to the user via an easy-to-use interface.

CoalMan also contains a database, which can be continuously

 reports, fire-fighting and prevention plans, and

Data and information security was considered during the design of

Every computer hard disk has a limited storage capacity. It is foreseen

1.3.2 Users of CoalMan

The primary users of CoalMan are the Fire-Fighting and Prevention

The ‘actual operators’ have to have fire-fighting and computer

1.4 General description of the study area