E-Notes - Political Science - BALLB 210

Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher
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An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Quality Institute
(Recognized by Govt. of NCT of Delhi, Affiliated to GGS Indraprastha
University, Delhi)
Class : BALLB III A, B, C
Paper Code : BALLB 209
Subject : POLITICAL SCIENCE-II
Faculty Name : Mr. Vivek Tripathi
Unit 1: TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
Government is institutionalized authority, organized to direct the larger society towards goals
devised by the political actors. Accordingly, there are various forms of governments, which have
played vital roles in their existence.
A) DEMOCRACY
Democracy has directly originated from the French democratic, but its real origin is Greek. In
Greek there are two words—demos and kratos. The former means people while the latter rule
and what we mean by democracy in English is rule of the people.
David Held, a renowned authority on the concept, defines the term as “Democracy means a form
of government in which, in contradistinction monarchies and aristocracies, the people rule.
Democracy entails a political community in which there is some form of political equality among
the people”. Precisely stated, democracy is the rule by the people. Of all the definitions of
democracy perhaps the best and most popular definition is the following: It is called “the
government of the people, by the people and for the people”.
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The former U.S. President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)
University, Delhi) is the author of this definition. Lincoln
uttered this definition in his Gettysburg Address delivered in 1864. The sixties of the nineteenth
century witnessed the height of the American Civil War between the Northern and Southern
states. However, all the definitions have been found to contain the following Elements:
1. Democracy is a form of government in which people’s participation is of primary importance.
2. People may participate either directly or indirectly.
3. It is a form of government in which people have equal opportunity and this type of
government is based on individual merit and no place of hereditary privilege is to be found in
democracy.
4. Distribution of opportunities is adopted for reduction or removal of inequalities.
5. Democracy recognises that all the sections of the community will receive their due shares.
6. Interests of the minorities will be duly protected and state makes arrangements for that.
7. All the public offices and opportunities are opened to everyone and to fill the posts public
examinations are held. There is also open competition on in which every eligible citizen has the
right to participate.
8. It is a system of government which does not make any discrimination on the basis of caste,
religion, sex, birth etc.
9. In democracy all must have the scope to govern or to be a member of government.
10. Rulers are to be accountable to the ruled and forms of accountability are many.
11. Rules are to be chosen by the ruled.
12. People shall have the right to decide who would rule them.
Types of Democracy
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Following are two types of democracy University, Delhi)
1. Direct Democracy
Under this system the people take direct in the affairs of the state. The people themselves are the
rulers and they are the ruled at the same time. They themselves make the laws, enforce them and
decide cases according to these laws. Such a democracy existed in City States of ancient Greece
and Rome. Some practices of direct democracy are still observed in Switzerland and in some
states of the USA.
2. Indirect or Representative Democracy
After the creation of large nation states, it became impossible for all the people directly to
participate in the affairs of the state. Under this form of government the people elect a small
number of representatives or delegation and give them the authority to run the government. Since
the people rule through these representatives, we give the system the name of indirect or
representative democracy. Today in almost all the countries of the world there is indirect or
representative democracy.
B) Federal form of Government

A federal government is a system of dividing up power between a central national government
and local state governments that are connected to one another by the national government.
A federal system of government is one that divides the powers of government between the
national (federal) government and state and local governments. The Constitution of the United
States established the federal system, also known as federalism. Under federalism, each level of
government has sovereignty in some areas and shares powers in other areas. For example: both
the federal and state governments have the power to tax. Only the federal government can
declare war.
Features of Federal Government

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Fedralism has the following characteristics of itsDelhi)
University, own ans these characteristics distinguish it
form Unitarianism.
a) In a federal state there are two sets of governments, one is called federal or central
government, the other is provincial or Unit governments.The union of these two sets of
governments makes what is called federation.Each governments is independent of the other in its
own jurisdiction.The central and unit governments are constitutionaly equal in status and
position:non s superior to other.
b) In a federation governmental powers are essentially distributed by the constitution between
the Central government on the one hand and the unit government on the other.The details of
division vary in different federations.But the principle folllowed in the division is that all matters
which are primarily of common interest and require uniformity of regulation throughout the
country such as foreign affairs,defence,currency and coinage are placed under the central
government, and the resr is left to the Unit governments.
c) Federal system essentially implies the supremacy of constitution.A federal state derives its
existence from the constitution;powers of both central and unit governments are delegated by the
constitution.Wvery power whether of central or Unit governments is subordinate to, and
controlled by, the constitution.For instance, in the united states neither the president nor the
Congress nor the governer of New yorknor its legislature can legally exercise a single power
which is inconsistent with the articles of the constitution.Every legislature existing under a
federal constitution is merely a subordinate law-making body, whose laws are valid while within
authority conferred on it by the constitution, invalid if they go beyond the limits of such
authority.
d) To maintain in practice the supremacy of the constitution every federal state must have a
supreme courrt.It interprets the constitution, decides disputes between center and province or
provinces, or between different organs of government.It puts them in check, keeps them within
their constitutional limits.
e) The federal constitution being a complicated contract and the supreme law of the land is
essentially a written and rigid one.
f) In a federal state there exists some sort of double citizenship and allegiance.This means that a
citizen has to show alllegiance both to the provincial and federal governments,
g) The central legislature under federal system is generally found bicameral on tha age old
ground that the lower house enshrines the national idea and represents the nation as a whole and
the upper house is enshrine federal idea and to represent the units as such.
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Merits University, Delhi)
(1) Reconciliation of local autonomy with national unity:
The main advantage of a federal government is that in a country where there are many diversities
and the establishment of a unitary government is not possible, a political organisation can be
established through this form of Government. In this type of government, local self-government,
regional autonomy and national unity are possible.
Moreover, in this type of government some rights are given to the central government and the
rest to the states or the provinces. In this way cultural and administrative autonomy is given to
different nationalities and regions and matters like Defence, Foreign Affairs, Communication,
etc., are given to the centre.
(2) Division of powers between the Centre and States leads to administrative efficiency:
With the division of powers, the burden of work on the centre is lessened and the centre has not
to bother about the problems of a purely local nature. It can devote its full attention to the
problems of national importance. Because of provincial or regional autonomy, the administration
of these areas becomes very efficient.
(3) People take more interest in local and regional affairs:
In a federal government the provinces, regions or the states enjoy separate rights and they have
separate cabinets and legislatures. Local governments have also separate rights and the councils
elected by the people run the local administration. When elections to the provincial legislatures
and local bodies take place, and when the representatives of the people run the local and
provincial administration, people take keen interest in the administration.
(4) It gives rise to big states:
Fifty states of America could not have become so powerful if they had not joined the American
Federation. They could also not have enjoyed that prestige in international field, which they
enjoy now as a strong nation.
Similarly several Indian princely states could not get any importance in the international field, if
they had not joined the Indian Union. They occupy a position of prestige in the international field
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only because of their partnership in the Indian Union.
University, This is also applicable to the Soviet Union,
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Brazil, Australia and West Germany.
(5) This system is more advantageous to the smaller states:
This system is more advantageous to smaller states, because they cannot defend themselves
independently and establish diplomatic relations with other countries, which entails a lot of
expenditure. The expenditure that they incur on their defence is also reduced, if they join
together. Fifty states of America could not defend themselves individually. Similar is the case
with India and other countries.
States or provinces in India could neither defend themselves against expansionist China and
aggressor Pakistan, nor could they establish their political and cultural relations with other
countries of the world, in their individual capacity, as every state had lacked ample economic
resources to meet all the expenses.
(6) Citizenship of Federal Government is more dignified than that of its units:
The citizenship of a federation is more dignified. If we declare ourselves as citizens of Assam,

Bengal or the Punjab in foreign countries, it will not be as dignified as is in declaring ourselves
the citizens of India. Similarly, the citizenship of New York or Texas is not as dignified as that of
the United States of America.
(7) Distribution of powers checks the despotism of the Central Government:
Division of powers between the states and the centre checks despotism, because the
centralization of powers lead to dictatorship. This is the position in India, West Germany,
Austria, the United States of America, Australia, Brazil and Canada.
(8) More suitable for the bigger countries:
In countries where there are diversities of culture, religion, language and race and which have a
large size, unitary government is not suitable. In such countries only federal government is
possible, because this system brings unity in diversity; the separate authority of the provinces is
recognised and they are made autonomous. If unitary government is established in countries like
India and the United States of America, all powers will be concentrated in the central
government and there will be a possibility of its becoming despotic.
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(9) It is a model for the world state: University, Delhi)
The world-known politicians are of the belief that world’s government is the only solution to the
problem of world peace. The structure of the world state cannot be unitary; it can only be federal.
(10) It is good for economic and cultural progress:
Federal government is not only useful from the defence point of view, but it is also good for
economic and cultural progress. In a federation the centre looks after many common subjects,
and the states have not to incur expenditure on them. With the establishment of federation, inter-
state commerce and industry are encouraged. The regular supply of necessities is ensured in
scarcity areas without much expenditure.
The economic sources of the country are increased in a federation and the country can face
droughts, famines and other natural calamities without much difficulty. The country can
formulate a sound economic policy; it can build big dams and establish industries for its
prosperity.
For economic prosperity many plans have been executed in India. In big countries, there are
diverse nationalities, races, religions and cultures and federal government gives them special
facilities and safeguards, which help them in making a rapid progress.
Administrative and cultural autonomy has been given to different nationalities in the Soviet
Union. For the uplift of Harijans and tribal people and the protection of linguistic and religious
minorities, special step have been taken in India.
Demerits
Sharing of power between the Center and the states includes both advantages and disadvantages
of federation. Sometimes there can be overlapping of work and subsequent confusion regarding
who is responsible for what. For example, when typhoon Katrina hit Greater New Orleans, USA,
in 2005, there was delay in the rescue work as there was confusion between the state
governments and the federal government on who is responsible for which disaster management
work. This resulted in the loss of many lives.
The federal system of government is very expensive as more people are elected to office, both at
the state and the center, than necessary. Thus, it is often said that only rich countries can afford
it. Too many elected representatives with overlapping roles may also lead to corruption.
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Other than that, it leads to unnecessaryUniversity,
competition between different regions. There can be a
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rebellion by a regional government against the national government too. Both scenarios pose a
threat to the countries' integrity.
It is also promotes regional inequalities. Natural resources, industries, employment opportunities

differ from region to region. Hence earnings and wealth are unevenly distributed. Rich states
offer more opportunities and benefits to its citizens than poor states can. Thus, the gap between
rich and poor states widens.
It also can make the state governments selfish and concerned only about their own region's
progress. They can formulate policies which might be detrimental to other regions. For example,
pollution from a province which is promoting industrialization in a big way can affect another
region which depends solely on agriculture and cause crop damage.
Finally, it does not eliminate poverty. Even in New York, there are poor neighborhoods like
Harlem with a majority of black population. The reason for this may be that during policy
framing, it is the intellectuals and not the masses who are invited by the local government.
Thus, It can be concluded as,:
1. It is inefficient because of diversity of law and administration.
2. There is always a tug-of- war between national and local interests.
3. It is highly expensive.
C) Confederal & Quassi-Federal Form Of Government

Confederalism is a system of government in which sovereign power is held by the regional
governments, to which the national government is accountable. The member states are
independent and separate, but give certain powers to a central authority for reasons of mutual
security, convenience and efficiency. Member states are the ones that appoints the central
authority, which can make rules that will pass as laws only after all constituent states have
passed them.
The basic difference is that confederalism is a system where the central government is always
quite weak, whereas in federalism the central government can be quite a bit stronger.
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In, Confederalism, the lower level of Governments (example, states) have all the powers. They
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give whatever power they like to the National Government. The example for this is UN, where
UN has only those powers which are given to it by its members.
Quasi federalism is a form of government which is federal in structure but unitary in spirit. For
Example,India and Canada. These countries although have clear division of power between
states and center but major control lies in hand of central government in the form of residual
powers. Although India claims to be a Federal government but nowhere in the constitution is it
mentioned as federal of states but as a union of states, while there is clear demarcation of powers
between states and center on the other hand. This clearly proves India is quasi Federal in nature.
In the words of Professor KC Wheare “Indian Constitution is a quasi-federation.” To understand

what is a quasi federation we must first understand what is a federation.
1. It is a group of regions or states united with a central government or a federal

Government.
2. A federation has well-established dual polity or dual form of government i.e. the fields of
governance are clearly divided between the centre and the federating units.
3. Therefore, existence of co-coordinating authorities independent of each other is the gist
of a federal government.
The following are few pointers, which reflect India in federal features:
a) A perusal of the provisions of the Constitution reveals that the political system introduced
by it, possesses all the aforesaid essentials of a federal polity.
b) Weighted Centre Weak States: In the Indian Polity, central government has been given
more powers as compared to states. In USA & Australia for example, their states have
Laws which are equally powerful as the central laws but in India it isn’t the case. There
are certain limitations as to on what can the centre legislate and on what can the state
legislate.
c) India follows Single Citizenship unlike USA and Australia
d) States in India don’t enjoy the right to territorial integrity. I.e. Parliament can alter the
territorial boundary of any state without the consent of the concerned state. (Art-3)
e) Emergency provisions In case of proclamation of emergency under Art 352 Parliament
can legislate on topics mention in State List as well. Financial provision to states can be
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suspended at the sole discretion of the central
University, government. In case financial emergency is
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proclaimed under Art 360, the Money Bills presented by states are subject to central
scrutiny and control.
f) Appointment of Governor, under Art 155 Governor of a state is appointed by the
President and the same is not answerable to the State Legislature. Thus indirectly centre
enjoys control over the appointing authority of a Chief Minister of a state.
g) Under Art 256, centre can give administrative directions to states, which are binding on
the latter. Along with the directions, the Constitution also provides measures to be
adopted by the centre to ensure such compliance.
h) Appointments in Central Services under Art 312, I.A.S, I.P.S and I.F.S (forest) - are
appointed by the centre, but are paid and controlled by the state. However, in case of any
irregularities by the officer, states cannot initiate any disciplinary action except
suspending him/her.
i) Judges of the High Courts are appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief
Justice of India, Chief Justice of concerned state and Governor of the concerned state.
States do not play any role in it.
j) Therefore, we conclude Indian Constitution is a flexible federation - a federation of it’s
own kind. Thus, Indian Federation is also called federation sui-generis or a quasi-
federation.
Professor KC Wheare further remarked Indian Union is ‘a unitary state with subsidiary federal
features rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary features.’
To understand the term Quasi-Federalism one must first understand what federalism actually is?
The very soul of federalism lies in the division of power between the center and the states (or
provinces). The center and states have different areas of operation (by area of operation, I mean
the subjects they can frame a rule on) i.e, no one interferes in the working of other. They are
more like supplementary to each other. The states are not bound to give answers, to the center,
for their actions. Moreover, their areas of operation are clearly mentioned in the constitution.
Also, irrespective of the land area or the population, each state gets equal representation in the
parliament. A perfect example of a federal government exists in the USA.
Whereas, unlike the USA, in India the states can be asked for an answers regarding their actions
in certain areas. States are not even financially independent of the center. In a single sentence,
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the constitution is slightly aligned towards the center
University, in India. So, it can be said that although,
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India incorporates most of the features of federalism, it is not actually federal.
The experts, thus, came up with few creative words for the governments in countries like India-
The Quasi- Federal Government or The Semi- Federal Government.
D) The Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government
Parliamentary Form of Government

Parliamentary government is a democratic form of government in which the political party that
wins the most seats in the legislature or parliament during the federal election forms the
government. This majority party chooses a leader to be the Prime Minister or Chancellor, and
other high-ranking members of the party make up the cabinet. The minority party forms the
opposition, and its job is to challenge the majority party. If no party is able to win a majority in
the election, a coalition government will be formed with a few political parties cooperating
together.
It's called 'parliamentary government' because all of the power is vested in the parliament. In a
presidential system like the United States, the executive branch is separate, and the president is
popularly elected by the citizens of the nation. In a parliamentary system, the head of the
government is chosen from the parliament, and is often one of the most senior members or
ministers in parliament, which is where we get the term 'Prime Minister.' Often in a
parliamentary system, the country will have a Head of State, who is a ceremonial figure like the
Queen, but does not engage in legislating or politics.
In a Parliamentary form of government, the head of the state is usually a different person than
the head of the government. A Monarch or a President is usually the head of the state. However,
he or she is the head of state, but not the head of government. The functions of the head of the
state is chiefly formal or ceremonial. The council of ministers or the cabinet exercises the real
executive powers and authority to run the Government. In many countries, the Prime Minister is
the head of the council of ministers.
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The Parliamentary or the Cabinet system originatedDelhi)
University, in England. This form of government exists
in countries like Britain, India and Canada. This Parliamentary form of government is also called
Responsible government.
Features
The features of Parliamentary form of Government have been discussed below:
1. Existence of a Titular or Constitutional Ruler: The first characteristic feature of the

parliamentary system is the existence of a Titular of Constitutional Ruler. Legally the
administration of all the affairs of the state is conducted by the head of the state. In reality,
however, the administration is carried by the Council of Ministers. The Monarch or the
President, as the case may be, is the head of the state, but not the head of the government.
2. Absence of Separation of Powers: In the parliamentary system the principle of separation of

powers is not adopted. Here the three departments of government work in close, intimate contact,
sharing some of the powers and functions of one another.
3. Main Role of the Lower House in Ministry-formation: In the parliamentary government the
lower house of the legislature, i.e., the popular chamber plays a vital role in the formation of the
ministry. The leader of the party or alliance which wins the majority in this house is appointed
the Prime Minister or Chancellor. The constitutional ruler appoints the other members of the
ministry on his advice.
4. Responsibility to the Legislature: In such a system the Cabinet or Ministry has to remain
responsible to the legislature for all its activities and policies. In countries having bi-cameral
legislatures, the Cabinet remains responsible to the lower house composed of the people’s
representatives.
5. Collective Responsibility: The ministerial responsibility to the legislature may again be of

two kinds:
a) Individual responsibility, and

b) Collective responsibility.
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Individual responsibility means that theUniversity,
minister inDelhi)
charge of a department must be answerable
for the activities of his department. But when the ministers remain jointly or collectively
responsible to the legislature for the policies and activities of the government, it is called
‘collective responsibility’. Since no individual minister can unilaterally perform any business of
government without the consent of the Cabinet, the entire Ministry or Cabinet has to remain
accountable for the errors of the minister concerned.
6. Intimate relationship between the Legislature and the Executive: In the parliamentary
system an intimate relationship exists between the executive and the legislative departments. So
they can easily control each other. The leaders of the majority party or alliance in the legislature
become the members of the Cabinet or Ministry. Naturally, the ministers can easily extend their
influence on the legislature. Consequently, the programs and policies of the Cabinet are backed
by a majority inside the legislature.
7. Leadership of the Prime Minister: The leadership of the Prime Minister is another major
feature of the parliamentary system. The leader of the majority party in the legislature becomes
the Prime Minister. Though, in theory, he is ‘primus inter pares’, i.e. ‘first among equals’, in
reality, he possesses much greater power and status than the other ministers. As the undisputed
leader of the majority party or alliance in the legislature he plays the most vital role in the
determination and execution of government policies. Indeed, the success of parliamentary
democracy depends, to a great extent, on the personality, efficiency and charisma of the Prime
Minister.
8. Existence of a Strong Opposition: The existence of one or more strong and well-organized
opposition party or parties is the hall-mark of the parliamentary system. By criticizing the errors
of the government, the opposition can compel it to adopt welfare measures and prevent it from
becoming despotic. Judged from this angle, the opposition can be called the life-force of
parliamentary democracy.
9. Cabinet Dictatorship: In the parliamentary system of government the cabinet has to perform
manifold functions. It is the Cabinet which:
a) formulates well-considered policies of the Government after reviewing both the national
and international issues,
b) takes necessary, arrangements for passing laws to implement the policies formulated by
it,
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c) determines the matters to be included in the Delhi)
University, agenda of the central legislature,
d) controls and directs the administrative departments so that laws, Government orders, etc.
are to be implemented properly,
e) co-ordinates the activities of different departments of the Government,
f) prepares the draft budget in consultation with the Prime Minister and takes necessary
initiative to get it passed in the legislature,
g) formulates economic policies and takes necessary steps for implementing the same,
h) advice’s the constitutional head to take necessary action during emergency or unforeseen
situation, etc.
Hence, the Cabinet acts as ‘the keystone of the political arch’ or has become the ‘steering wheel
of the ship of the state’. In fact, in the parliamentary system of government as the cabinet
members are the leaders of the majority party or alliance in the legislature. Some critics think
that the Parliament is controlled by the Cabinet under the leadership of the Prime Minister giving
rise to some sort of “Cabinet dictatorship”.
Presidential Form of Government

The presidential system is a form of government in which the president is the chief executive
and is elected directly by the people. In this system all three branches – executive, legislative,
and judiciary – are constitutionally independent of each other, and no branch can dismiss or
dissolve any other. The president is responsible for enforcing laws, the legislature for making
them, and the courts for judging. Each is given specific powers to check and balance the others.
In a presidential system, the President (who is the chief executive as well as the symbolic head of
government) is chosen by a separate election from that of the legislature. The President is elected
directly by the people and is answerable to the voters. The President then appoints his or her
cabinet of ministers (or "secretaries" in US parlance). Ministers/Secretaries usually are not
simultaneously members of the legislature, although their appointment may require the advice
and consent of the legislative branch. Because the senior officials of the executive branch are
separately elected or appointed, the presidential political system is characterised by a separation
of powers, wherein the executive and legislative branches are independent of one another.
Presidents have great control over their cabinet appointees who serve at the President’s pleasure,
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and who are usually selected for reasonsUniversity,
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the extent of their congressional support (as
in parliamentary systems). In contrast, the British Prime Minister is more constrained to
represent his/her parliamentary party in the Cabinet.
The US represents the strongest form of presidentialism, in the sense that the powers of the
executive and legislative branches are separate, and legislatures often have significant powers.
In a presidential system, in line with the notion of a separation of powers, presidents and
members of the legislature are separately elected for a given length of time. Presidents have no
authority to remove members of the legislature. Premature removal of either legislative members
or the President can only be initiated by a vote in the lower legislative chamber and under
particular conditions. Thus, under normal circumstances, even if the political party that the
President represents becomes a minority in either or both houses of the legislature, the President
will remain in his position for the full term for which he was elected.
In such systems, the legislature formulates its own agenda and passes its own bills. The
legislature typically formulates and introduces legislation. The legislature can and often work
closely with the executive branch in formulating legislation, particularly when the same party is
in power in both branches. The executive can draft laws, but members of the legislature must
introduce them on the floor. Some presidential systems, however, limit the legislature’s power to
amend the proposed executive budget, and a president may force the legislature to act on
legislation within a certain period. Some characteristics of a legislative function in a presidential
system or governance are as follows:
The legislature tends to have broad powers to amend any legislation. However, lack of resources
and other factors may act to blunt this power. In some countries, like Mexico during the period
of one-party domination, the President effectively controlled the Congress’ lawmaking function.
The potential for legislative assertiveness is greater in presidential systems, but the actual
realization depends on the presence of other conditions.
Legislatures in presidential systems are more likely to have specialized and permanent standing
committees and subcommittees with a number of professional staff to help draft, review and
amend legislation. Large congressional staffs in the United States came about in the post World
War II (WWII) years, with the greatest growth in the sixties and seventies. Staff and other
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resources are typically much greater in University,
the U.S. presidential
Delhi) system than in the Latin American
or other presidential models.
Via the committee system, the legislature has extensive powers to call expert witnesses,
members of the cabinet, presidential advisors, etc. for public or private hearings before the
legislature.
The President can veto legislation, which can only be overridden by a two-third vote in the
legislature.
Parties in presidential systems tend to be less structured than parties in parliamentary systems.
Failure to vote with one’s party does not threaten to bring the government down. Therefore,
members of the legislature are freer to identify with regional, ethnic, economic or other divisions
when considering policy issues. Because they are usually directly elected and identifiable with
particular districts or regions, many members see a duty to their constituents (in a district or
state) as the first priority, with allegiance to a party and its platform as secondary. While the
legislators are under some pressure to vote with their party, particularly on important votes, the
consequences of not doing so are not as serious to the individual legislator and to the system.
Legislatures and executives are elected separately and often for different terms, it is therefore not
uncommon for them to be controlled by different parties.
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Unit II:Key Concepts in International
University, Delhi) Relations
A) POWER (National Power)

National Power of a nation is dependent upon several factors which are together called the
components or elements or determinants of national power. Frankel calls these as capabilities or
capability factors. Several other scholars prefer to use the name ‘Determinants of National
Power.’ However, more and more scholars now prefer to use the name Factors/Elements of
National Power because no single factor or element is a determinant of National Power.
Elements of National Power:

There are a number of elements of National Power. Several political scientists have attempted to
classify these. Whereas Morgenthau has classified these into two parts— permanent and
temporary elements, Organski has preferred to classify these into the natural and social
determinants—the former including geography, resources and population and the latter economic
development, political structures and national morale.
Palmer and Perkins, Charles O. Lerche, Abdul Said, Theodore A, Couloumbis and James H.
Wolfe have classified these elements into two parts; Tangible and Intangible Elements— the
former category includes those elements which can be assessed in quantitative terms and latter
Geography, raw material, natural resources, population and technology are the tangible elements,
whereas ideology, morale, leadership, personality, organisational efficiency and quality of
diplomacy are the intangible elements.
In a simple way we can discuss the following seven elements of National Power:
1. Geography
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2. Natural Resources University, Delhi)
(a) Raw Materials
(b) Food
TANGIBLE
3. Population ELEMENTS
4. Economic Development and Industrial Capacity
5. Technology
6. Military Preparedness
7. Ideology
8. Leadership
9. Organisation and Quality of Government INTANGIBLE

ELEMENTS
10. National Character and Morale
11. Diplomacy
1. Geography
Amongst the elements of National Power, geography is the most stable, tangible, permanent and
natural element. Its importance as a factor of national power can be judged from the fact that
Geo-political scientists, like Moodie, Spykman, Haushofer, Mackinder and others, regard
Geography as the determinant of international politics.
While describing the importance of geography in international relations Napoleon, observed.

“The foreign policy of a country is determined by its geography.” Geography is, however neither
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an independent determinant of nationalUniversity,
power norDelhi)
of foreign policy. It is just an element of
National Power.
Nature and Role of Geography as an Element of National Power:

(i) Maps:
Maps are always geographical in nature. These are sometimes used by nations to justify a
particular course of policy or action as well as to reject the views of other nations.
“Observers of international relations always need an atlas showing population, raw materials,
communication routes and other data and the ability to interpret maps.” —Padelford and Lincoln
The Sino-Indian dispute has been a dispute of maps regarding McMahon Line. Maps are used as
instruments for justifying a particular demand or action of a nation. These are used to influence
decisions in ones favour.
(ii) Size:
Size is another geographical element of national power. The large size of a country can
accommodate a large population, offer better natural resources and raw materials, and can be
more helpful in the defence of the country. A large size can help the country to defend by retreat
in the event of an attack. It is definitely more, rather very difficult for a state to defeat a big
country. It was also the large size of the erstwhile Soviet Union that helped it to defeat the forces
of Hitler.
Large area also makes it possible for a country to establish vital industrial complexes far away
from the borders and thereby, to organdie effective defense. Thus size is a component of national
power. A united Germany as a big state is bound to be a new powerful state in the world politics
of 21st century.
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However, size can be both a helping as University,
well as a hindering
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natural resources, inaccessible mountains and forests, unhealthy climate and topography can be a
hindrance in the way of national power. It can also pose a defense problem.
The Himalayas in the North and a long sea-coast in the South have made the defense of India a
complex and difficult problem. Moreover, the existence of some other factors can help even the
small sized states to develop a large amount of national power. The location of England and the
rapid industrial development that it could achieve after the Industrial Revolution helped it to
establish and maintain a big empire and be a virtual ruler of the seas till 1945.
Japan, even with its small size, scored a victory over Russia in 1905. The USA has a relatively
smaller territory than Russia yet it has more power than the latter. Israel offers another striking
example of a small sized country that has a disproportionately large amount of power.
On the other hand, some large sized countries such as, Brazil, Canada, Zaire, Australia and
Sudan, and now Russia are not as powerful as their sizes might indicate. In spite of these
exceptions, it cannot be denied that a large territory generally creates the possibility of a great
power, or, conversely, small states are normally not expected to be great powers.
(iii) Location:
Location of a nation can be as helping as well as a hindering factor for its national power. It
determines whether a nation can be a sea-power or not. England could become a big naval power
and thereby an imperial power because of its location. The location of Japan has helped it to be a
major ship- building nation. Location of Germany in the heart of Europe has been a source of
strength for it.
The location of the USA helped it to adopt (1823-1945) and follow the policy of isolationism.
Further, its location, being relative to land as well as seas, has helped it to be a both land and sea
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power. The location of Switzerland has been instrumental
University, Delhi) in securing for it the status of a
permanently neutralized state.
Middle East and Continental Europe have been the potential zones of power rivalry because of
their geographic and strategic locations. Location of Canada has hindered its emergence as a
great power. Hence, a favorable geographical location among other things can help a nation to be
powerful and an unfavorable location can limit the national power.
(iv) Climate:
No one can deny the importance of climate in the context of National Power. Climate determines
the food production, economy and even the culture of a nation. It can be a source of big
limitation or help for the human capabilities. The cold climate of Arctic zone and Antarctic and
the excessive heat of the Tropical zone, and Sahara have kept the development of life backward
in these areas.
Extreme heat or cold are unfavorable conditions for national power. The prosperity of India
stands inseparably conditioned by Monsoons. A failure of Monsoons weakens India and likewise
timely and good Monsoon rains help India to be self- sufficient and even surplus in food
production.
It is a well-known fact that the great centers of power have so far emerged only in the moderate
temperate zone, between 20 and 60 degrees north. A helpful climate can be a source of power
and an unkind climate can be a source of weakness.
(v) Topography:
The nature of terrain, together with other geographical elements, is an important factor of
national power. Terrain can influence the power of a state and its potential for offence, defence
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and growth. A nation with plane and artificial boundaries
University, Delhi) can be an easy victim of expansionism
on the part of a powerful nation.
Natural boundaries with strategic advantages are always a source of strength for a nation. It is
terrain which determines decisions concerning physical security of the state. The English
Channel has remained a source of defense and some security for England. The Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans have provided strength to the security of the United States.
Since mid-1950s, defense of the Himalayas has been a source of limitation on India’s power. The
lack of a good number of natural harbors along the sea coast has hindered the development of
economic and trade relations of India with other countries. All these examples highlight the role
of topography in determining the national power of a state.
(vi) Boundaries:
Boundary is also a geographic factor of national power. Settled and natural boundaries are
always a source of friendly and cooperative relations among the nations of a region. Undefined
and disputed boundaries are potent sources of conflict which weakens national power e.g. the
boundary disputes between India and China, Israel and Arab states can be quoted as examples.
Natural boundaries are helpful to national power and conversely artificial boundaries are a
source of weakness and conflict.
Everyone accepts that Geography is an important element of National Power. However, its role
can be both helpful and hindering. Ideal geographical conditions can be a source of strength and
negative and hindering geographical factors can be a source of weakness for the national power.
Further, role of geography as an element of national power is linked with several other elements,
like population, level of scientific and industrial development means of transport and
communication, and the like. In fact, scientific inventions and technological innovations have
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made it possible for man to adjust withUniversity,
and overcome
Delhi)geographical problems and hindrances.
Geography is an element but not an independent determinant of national power. The Geo-
political scientists over-rate its importance.
2. Natural Resources
No nation can hope to be a powerful nation if its territory is not adequately graced by natural
resources. Natural resources are indeed “gifts of nature of established utility.” The industrial and
military capabilities of a nation as well as its economic well-being are dependent upon the
existence of natural resources.
Self-sufficiency in certain key resources can be a big source of power of a nation. The USA has
been in a position to be a super power in the world mainly due to its near self-sufficiency in
respect of several key natural resources. No nation can be powerful without becoming a
developed industrialized nation and the chances of becoming an industrialized nation are
basically linked with the possession of natural resources, particularly industrial raw materials and
minerals. Natural resources, in the form of minerals, fertile soil, flora and fauna, through planned
exploitation and use always make a nation powerful.
In analyzing the role of National Resources as a factor of National Power Morgenthau

discuss it in two parts:
1. Raw Materials and
2. Food.
1. Raw Materials:
Raw materials can be further sub-divided into three categories:
(i) Minerals— Coal, Petrol, Iron, Copper, Zinc, Tin, Manganese, Uranium etc.,
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(ii) Natural Products— Rubber, Jute, Bamboo, Medicinal
University, Delhi) Plants, Wood Pulp, Wood, Plants,
Colors ,Varnishes, Forest Products etc., and
(iii) Animal Products—Milk, Eggs, Meat, Wool, Hides, Feathers, Silk etc.
It is impossible to develop power in modern times without industrialization and it is very

difficult, if not impossible, for a nation to get industrialized without adequate possession of key
raw materials. Raw materials influence national power, national policies and international trade
of the nation.
The United States has been nearly self-sufficient in respect of key minerals and this fact has
largely contributed to its industrial and military strength. The interdependence among nations
stands largely constituted by the necessities of trade relations in respect of minerals and raw
materials for their industrial needs.
A nation cannot hope to be a big military, industrial and economic power without the possession
of adequate quantities of raw- materials. The importance of oil as the key source of energy is a
well known fact of present day international relations. Oil diplomacy in world politics of our
times solely depends upon the fact that the OPEC countries monopolies world crude production
and have vast oil reserves.
Oil has tremendous importance, both for industrial production and military strength and mobility.
Clemenceau’s observation; “One drop of oil is worth one drop of blood of our soldiers”, is true
even today. The importance of uranium as a source of atomic power is well known. Adequate
means of energy security contribute to the national power of a nation. As such, raw materials
constitute an important element of national power.
However, merely the existence of raw materials cannot be automatically a source of power. The
ability to exploit and utilize the raw- materials is a factor almost as important as the existence of
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raw-materials. This ability is directly University,
linked with the level of scientific, technological and
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industrial advancement.
2. Food:
Food indeed is an important element of national power. Food determines policies. The existence
of large stocks of food grains and surplus food production can be a source of vital strength of a
nation. A nation deficient in food production can rarely become a major power.
“Nations self-sufficient in food are better placed than nations which import food.” —Morgenthau
The food shortage in India was a highly limiting factor of the Indian foreign policy during 1950s
and 60s. Food shortage leads to power shortage. Acute food problem is a big source of weakness
for all the developing countries. It is keeping them dependent upon developed states who have
surplus food productions. The Green Revolution of 1970s enabled India not only to sustain its
economy but also to preserve and develop its national power.
The military preparedness of a nation is dependent upon adequate supplies of food. A popular
valid saying has been; “Armies travel on their stomach.”
However, the food factor is also inseparably linked up with other factors particularly with
population, science and technology. Food production is dependent upon agricultural technology
and industrial capacity. Man-power is vitally important for food production. Production of food
can be stepped up by human efforts and the application of advanced agricultural technology.
The ability to utilize sea food resources can help a nation to overcome its food problem. This
ability is dependent upon science and technology. As such food is again an element of national
power. However its role as a factor of National Power has to be evaluated along with other
factors, population, climate, and level of scientific and technological development of a nation.
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3. Population: University, Delhi)
Another basic element which affects national power is population. “As long as men are needed
for production and fighting, other elements being equal, the state with a large number of men and
women to perform such tasks shall be more capable of becoming a major power.” Manpower
continues to be a key factor which determines the industrial and military capacities of a nation
and its status as a power in international relations.
In this age of science, machines have come to perform a large number of functions which were
previously being performed by men. Yet machines have failed to completely replace men. Even
today men behind the machines continue to be more important than the machines.
Manpower alone can exploit the natural resources and utilize these for the satisfaction of national
needs. Geographical hindrances can be overcome by men. Scientific and industrial development
cannot be accomplished without men.
Men are needed to fight. Voltaire’s observation: “God is always on the side of the biggest
battalions” holds good even today. The mechanization of warfare has not seriously limited the
importance of man as the soldier. Manpower alone can register a military victory.
Hence, population is a source of power. The major powers of our times are states with fairly
large populations. Large concentration of man-power in Asia, particularly China and India, has
been an important factor of the power structure in international politics. Human Power resulting
from the presence of a large class of skilled workforce has been a source for the emerging power
of India in the world.
Thus, it can be observed that:

1. Population is an important element of military power.
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2. Man power is needed for fully exploiting the Delhi)
University, resources of the state. Industrial production
depends upon man-power as well as machines.
3. Population factor determines both national needs as well as policies designed to serve these
needs.
4. Population is an important human element of National Power.
However, it is not merely the large number of people that determines the power of a nation.
Britain, with a very small population, was in a position to rule many countries, even heavily
populated countries like India. Israel with a small population has been demonstrating a larger
amount of power than Arab countries.
4. Economic Development and Industrial Capacity:

A. Economic Development:
Economic power is a vitally important part of national power of a nation because it is the means
for military power and the basis for welfare, prosperity and development of its people. A nation
with developed, healthy and growing economy alone can be a great power in world politics.
Effective economic organisation and planning are essential qualities of a powerful nation.
Poverty is always a source of limitation of power. It is this factor which has been largely forcing
most of the developing countries of the Third World to live with neo-colonialism.
The increased importance of economic instruments of foreign policy is a recognized fact of

present day international relations. Only nations with developed economies can use the economic
instruments—aid, loan, rewards, trade, grants and denial of rewards or punishment, for securing
their desired goals in international relations. By using economic means a nation tries to exercise
its national power in a productive and useful way. The level of economic well-being determines
the power of a nation.
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B. Industrial Capacity: University, Delhi)
The economic factor is intimately linked up with industrial capacity of a nation. In this age of
science, industrialisation and technology developed industrial capacity alone can be a source of
enduring and effective economic development. Only industrially advanced nations can become
great powers. Today, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Japan and Germany are
powerful nations because of their huge industrial capacities. They have the ability to process raw
materials, and thereby are in a position to control international economy. India is now emerging
as an industrial power.
Industrial capacity of a nation is thus an important factor of national power. Industrial

backwardness, despite the possession of raw materials, can be a source of weakness for any
nation. The USA, Russia and India have almost equal coal and iron resources, but some
weakness industrial capacity in India has been responsible for her comparatively less powerful
position. Since her independence, India has been trying conceitedly to develop her industrial
capacity and technology for increasing her power and role in international relations.
The modern warfare has made industrial capacity a significant factor of military power of a
nation. The agricultural production of a country can be increased only through industrialized
farming. Increased industrial capacity increases the agricultural capacity and the power of a
nation.
Thus, economic development and industrial capacity are important elements of national power.
However, like other elements these two are also closely related to other elements, particularly,
raw materials, technology, skilled human power, scientific talent and research, economic
resources and the like. Their role as elements of power has to be analyzed in relation with other
factors and not independently.
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5. Technology University, Delhi)
Technology is the application of knowledge of science for promoting human welfare. It is the
ability to use scientific inventions for the promotion of human welfare. Progress in engineering
and industrial production is directly related to the nature and level of technology. It has been the
advanced technological ability that has largely contributed to the prosperity and power of the
developed countries.
In fact the level of technological advancement determines the power-status of a nation. A nation
backed by highly developed and advanced technology alone can be recognized as a developed
nation. The USA and other developed countries are technologically advanced nations and this
fact has been a major source of their power. Now nuclear technology has emerged as an
important source of power and influence in international relations.
Initially, monopoly over atomic secret was sought to be used by the USA for maintaining her
power superiority in relation with the erstwhile USSR. The success in acquiring the nuclear
technology in early 1950s, however, made it possible for the erstwhile USSR to successfully
compete with the US power in international relations.
The overkill capacity achieved by the nuclear powers, resulting from the huge stockpiling of
nuclear weapons of mass destruction, has been a source of limitation for other nations. The
nuclear technology, missile technology, space technology and information technology have
given a big boost to the power of some of the states. It has decidedly been a source of power for
India.
The capacity of a nation to develop is greatly related to the capacity for technological
advancement. Industrial development, development of means of transport and communication,
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military preparedness and all-round economic and social
University, Delhi)development can be really possible only
when a nation has access to advanced technology.
The ability to achieve this through self-efforts is a bigger source of strength than the capacity to
import know-how. The inability to register self-development makes a nation dependent upon
technologically advanced nations and hence it limits its national power.
The technological development secured by the Indian scientists in various spheres has been a
source of power for India. However, the continued dependence upon advanced nations for the
import of highly advanced technology in respect of certain vital spheres has been acting as a
source of limitation on India’s national power. Many developing or lowly developed countries
have not been in a position to fully use their natural resources because of the low levels of their
technological development.
The role of technology as a factor of national power can be judged from the fact that today
technological aid or assistance, weapon-technology, nuclear technology, information technology,
communication technology, dual use technology, and space technology are elements of
international relations and all these have been influencing the foreign policies of both the
developed and under-developed countries.
However, here again it must be pointed out that the importance of this factor stands linked up
with several other factors, like scientific and industrial capacity, raw materials, government
policies and educational facilities.
6. Military Preparedness
Military power is a vitally important part of national power of a state. The importance of military
factor as an element of national power can be judged from the fact that many persons regard
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these synonymous. Military power is not national power,
University, Delhi) nevertheless it is an important part of
national power which contributes to its strength and effectiveness.
Military preparedness is a background factor for the success of a foreign policy and it is a
tangible factor capable of supporting the foreign policy and promoting national interest.” It
influences the level of success of foreign policy. The super powers and other major powers of
our times have been big military powers. By virtue of being a major military power, India,
besides other factors, is considered to be a major power having a potential to be a super power in
the next 20 years or so.
While evaluating military preparedness as a factor of national power, we have to take into
account three factors:
(i) War technology or technological innovations,
(ii) Military leadership, and
(iii) Quantity and Quality of soldiers.
(a) War Technology:

War technology refers to the nature and type of weapon system that is available with the army of
the state. Modern warfare is a sophisticated technological warfare. The quantity and technical
quality of weapons and military equipment is a major factor that determines the level of military
power of a nation. Advanced military technology is always a source of strength and strategic
advantage.
(b) Quality of Military Leadership:

War technology is an important factor but it can be fruitful only when backed by efficient
planning and systematic and effective use. This brings into focus the role of military leadership.
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Military planning is a valuable factor ofUniversity,
military action
Delhi) in a war. Skilled, trained, experienced,
dedicated, energetic and disciplined military leadership alone can make the best use of available
weapons, equipment and manpower. A war victory can be possible only under effective and
efficient military leadership.
(c) Quantity and Quality of Soldiers:

In a war weapons and equipment play a key role but their role and effectiveness is dependent
upon the quantity and quality of soldiers. Military equipment and weapon-system is important,
but not as much as the soldiers who actually use these weapons and equipment. The number,
skill, training, discipline, dedication and morale of the soldiers are essential factors which can
make possible an effective and successful use of military weapons and machines.
Pakistan had a superior weapon system, tanks and aircrafts in both the 1965 and 1971 wars with
India. However, it failed to use this to its advantage because of inadequately trained and less
skilled men behind these machines. Indian soldiers could provide a decisive and befitting answer
to Pakistani aggressions because of their superior qualities. Kargil Victory was also the outcome
of the qualities of discipline, training and dedication of Indians Officers and Jawans.
We have to take into account these three factors for judging the level of military preparedness as
an element of national power. However, military preparedness is directly dependent upon such
factors as technology, industrial capacity, economic development, state of economy, policies of
the government, and strategic factors. Hence it is not an independent determinant of national
power.
B) Limitations on National Power

Exercise of national power by every nation is an accepted reality of international relations.
Power and its individual distribution is one of the major determinants of the behaviour of a state
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in international relations. However, an unlimited
University,use of power by the states can be a source of
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war, anarchy and chaos in international relations.
The humankind fully realizes the dangers of an unregulated use of national power by each state.
The states now themselves realize their increased international interdependence and the need for
exercising restraint in the use of power.
In this nuclear age, the danger resulting from an unlimited use of power involves the possibility
of a total destruction of the humankind by a nuclear war. The new need for sustainable all round
development has again compelled all nations to accept the need for controlling and regulating the
use of power by all states in the interest of preventing war and anarchy in the international
relations. This objective is sought to be realized with the help of several devices which act as
limitations on national power.
The major limitations on national power of each state can be discussed as under:
1. International Law:
International Law is the body of rules that the nation-states accept as binding upon them, and
which regulates their behavior in international relations. It is an important limitation on the
power of a nation. It directs and controls the behaviour of the nations engaged in international
relations.
International law constitutes a legal framework for the orderly conduct of international relations
both in times of peace and war. Backed by common consent, natural law, international morality,
world public opinion and its utility, International law acts as a major limitation on the misuse of
power by the states. It enunciates the do’s and don’ts for the states.
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It declares war as an illegal means forUniversity,
the promotion
Delhi)of interests. It lays down rules for the
establishment and conduct of diplomatic relations. Violations of International Law can invoke
sanctions against the violating states.
However, International Law is a weak law. It is not backed by force. It is also subject to different
interpretations. It often fails to meet the pressure exerted by a powerful nation pursuing
aggressive nationalism. Its objective is to secure international peace, security and development,
by securing orderly international relations through the prevention of use of force, war and
violence. However, its weakness as a law, rather half- law, and half-morality, tends to limit its
role as a limiting factor of national power.
2. International Morality:
Just as human behavior in a society is regulated by a set of moral norms or rules, likewise
behavior of states in the international environment is limited by International Morality.
International community accepts certain values—peace, order, equality, goodness, mutual help,
respect for life and liberty of all, and respect for Human Rights of all, as right and good values
which must be accepted and followed by all states.
International Morality is “a generally accepted moral code of conduct which nations usually
follow in international relations”. It acts as a limitation on the national power of each state. It has
played a role in strengthening human consciousness against war i.e. against misuse of national
power.
3. World Public Opinion:

The democratization of foreign policy and the coming of communications and IT revolutions
have together made possible the rise of organized and strong World Public Opinion in
contemporary international relations.
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It has emerged as an important factor of international
University, Delhi)relations. The presence of strong global
peace movements, strong movements in favor of Nuclear Arms Control and Disarmament, a very
strong and healthy global movement for the preservation of Earth’s ecological balance, the
environment protection movements, Human Rights protection movements and several other such
movements clearly show the presence of a strong World Public Opinion.
It is now fast emerging as a big limitation on national power. Fear of adverse world public
opinion often forces a nation either not to follow a particular policy or to take a decision or even
to pursue a particular goal or decision. Strong world public opinion in favor of Arms Control and
Disarmament has been a factor behind the INF Treaty, the START-I, START-II, the Chemical
Weapons Elimination Treaty and the continued talks on the issue of disarmament, nuclear
disarmament and arms control in international relations.
Moreover, in contemporary times, the widespread support of World Public Opinion for the
protection of Human Rights and Freedoms of all by all the countries has been a source or big
influence on the role of national power in international relations. However, World Public
Opinion is a limiting factor in itself. It often fails to neutralize or forcefully control strong and
aggressive nationalism. It has failed to prevent the US war against Iraq.
C) BALANCE OF POWER
It is indeed very difficult to define Balance of Power. It has been defined it differently by
different scholars.
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The trouble with Balance of Power isUniversity,
not that itDelhi)
has no meaning, but that it has too many
meanings.” —Innis L. Claude Jr.
Some writers define it in terms of equilibrium where as others in terms of “preponderance” or

“disequilibrium”. Some define it as a principle of action while others define it as a policy or
system.
Some Popular Definitions of Balance of Power:

(1) “Balance of Power is such a ‘just equilibrium’ in power among the members of the family of
nations as will prevent any one of them from becoming sufficiently strong to enforce its will
upon others.” —Sidney B. Fay
(2) “Balance of Power is an equilibrium or a certain amount of stability in power relations that
under favourable conditions is produced by an alliance of states or by other devices.” —George
Schwarzenberger
(3) “Balance of Power is such a system in which some nations regulate their power relations
without any interference by any big power. As such it is a decentralized system in which power
and policies remain in the hands of constituting units.” —Inis Claude
(4) Balance of Power means “the maintenance of such a just equilibrium between the members
of the family of nations as should prevent any one of them from becoming sufficiently strong to
impose its will upon the rest.” —Lord Castlereagh
(5) “Whenever the term Balance of Power is used without qualification, it refers to an actual
state of affairs in which power is distributed among nations with approximately equality.” —
Hans. J. Morgenthau
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All these definitions clearly reflect that Balance Delhi)
University, of Power is defined differently by different
scholars. It is very difficult to give or select a uniformly acceptable definition. This difficultly
makes it essential for us to study the features of Balance of Power.
Nature of Balance of Power

Palmer and Perkins describe several major features of Balance of Power (BOP):
1. Some Sort of Equilibrium in Power Relations:

The term Balance of Power suggests ‘equilibrium which is subject to constant, ceaseless
change. In short, though it stands for equilibrium, it also involves some disequilibrium. That is
why scholars define it as a just equilibriums or some sort of equilibrium in power relations.
2. Temporary and Unstable:

In practice a balance of power always proves to be temporary and unstable. A particular balance
of power survives only for a short time.
3. To be actively achieved:
The balance of power has to be achieved by the active intervention of men. It is not a gift of
God. States cannot afford to wait until it “happens”. They have to secure it through their efforts.
4. Favours Status quo:

Balance of power favours status quo in power positions of major powers. It seeks to maintain a
balance in their power relations. However, in order to be effective, a foreign policy of balance of
power must be changing and dynamic.
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5. The Test of BOP is War: University, Delhi)
A real balance of power seldom exists. The only test of a balance is war and when war breaks out
the balance comes to an end. War is a situation which balance of power seeks to prevent and
when it breaks out, balance power comes to an end.
6. Not a Device of Peace:

Balance of Power is not a primary device of peace because it admits war as a means for
maintaining balance.
7. Big Powers as Actors of BOP:

In a balance of power system, the big states or powerful states are the players. The small states or
less powerful states are either spectators or the victims of the game.
8. Multiplicity of States as an Essential Condition:

Balance of Power system operates when there are present a number of major powers, each of
which is determined to maintain a particular balance or equilibrium in their power relations.
9. National Interest is its Basis:

Balance of Power is a policy that can be adopted by any state. The real basis that leads to this
policy is national interest in a given environment.
Underlying Principal Assumptions and Postulates of Balance of Power:

The Balance of Power rests upon several fundamental postulates and assumptions.
(a) Five Principal Assumptions:

(1) Firstly, Balance of Power assumes that states are determined to protect their vital rights and
interests by all means, including war.
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(2) Secondly, vital interests of the states University,
are threatened.
Delhi)
(3) The relative power position of states can be measured with a degree of accuracy.
(4) Balance of Power assumes that “balance” will either deter the threatening state from
launching an attack or permit the victim to avoid defeat if an attack should occur.
(5) The statesmen can, and they do make foreign policy decisions intelligently on basis of power
considerations.
(b) Major Postulates of Balance of Power:

(1) A nation following balance of power is prepared to change its alliances or treaties if the
circumstances may so demand.
(2) When a nation finds that a particular preponderance of power is increasing menacingly, it
gets prepared to go to war for maintaining the balance.
(3) Balance of Power postulates that no nation is to be totally eliminated in war. War is aimed
only at the weakening of power of the violator of the balance. After war a new balance of power
system is achieved. The basic principle of Balance of Power is that excessive power anywhere in
the system is a threat to the existence of others and that the most effective antidote to power is
power.
From the above discussion of the features, assumptions, postulates and purposes of Balance of
Power, it becomes clear that Balance of power is a device of power management which is used
by several major powers for maintaining a balance in their power relations.
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In this process they maintain a sort of equilibrium
University, in their power relations and do not permit any
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state to violate the Balance. In case any state tries to disturb or violate the balance of power, the
other states individually or collectively or is a group can take action, including war, for
weakening the power of the violator as well as for restoring the balance.
Methods of Balance of Power:

Balance of Power is not automatic; it has to be secured by the states following this policy. In
fact, there are several methods by which states try to secure and maintain balance of power.
“Balance of Power is a game which is played by actors with the help of several devices.”
Major Methods of Balance of Power:

I. Compensation:
It is also known as territorial compensation. It usually entails the annexation or division of the
territory of the state whose power is considered dangerous for the balance. In the 17th and 18th
centuries this device was regularly used for maintaining a balance of power which used to get
disturbed by the territorial acquisitions of any nation.
For examples the three partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795 were based upon the
principle of compensation. Austria, Prussia and Russia agreed to divide Polish territory in such a
way that the distribution of power among them would be approximately the same.
In the latter part of the 19th century, and after each of the two world wars of the 20th century,
territorial compensation was used as a device for weakening the powers of the states whose
actions had led to a violation of the balance. It was applied by the colonial powers for justifying
their actions aimed at maintaining their imperial possessions.
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II. Alliances and Counter Alliances: University, Delhi)
Alliance-making is regarded as a principal method of balance of power. Alliance is a device by
which a combination of nations creates a favorable balance of power by entering into military or
security pacts aimed at augmenting their own strength vis-a-vis the power of their opponents.
However, an alliance among a group of nations, almost always, leads to the establishment of a
counter alliance by the opponents. History is full of examples of such alliances and counter
alliances.
Whenever any nation threatened the balance of Europe, other states formed alliances against it
and were usually able to curb the power of the over- ambitious state. After the Triple Alliance of
1882, a rival alliance—The Triple Entente, was slowly formed through bilateral agreements over
a period of 17 years (1891-1907).
In post-1945 period, alliances like NATO, SEATO, and Warsaw Pact emerged as devices of
Balance of Power. The first two were established by the USA and the third one was organized by
the erstwhile USSR for strengthening their respective power positions in the era of cold war.
III. Intervention and Non-intervention:

“Intervention is a dictatorial interference in the internal affairs of another state/states with a view
to change or maintain a particular desired situation which is considered to be harmful or useful to
the competing opponents. Some times during a war between two states no attempt is made by
other states to intervene. This is done for making the two warring states weaker.
As such intervention and non-intervention are used as devices of Balance of Power. Mostly it is
used by a major power for regaining an old ally or for picking up a new ally or for imposing a
desired situation on other states. British intervention in Greece, the US intervention is Grenada,
Nicaragua, Cuba, Korea, Vietnam, and (Erstwhile) USSR’s interventions in Poland,
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Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Afghanistan can beDelhi)
University, quoted as examples of interventions carried
out by the big powers.
IV. Divide and Rule:

The policy of divide and rule has also been a method of balance of power. It has been a time
honored policy of weakening the opponents. It is resorted to be all such nations who try to make
or keep their competitors weak by keeping them divided or by dividing them.
The French policy towards Germany and the British policy towards the European continent can
be cited as the outstanding examples. The rich and powerful states now do not refrain from using
divide and rule for controlling the policies of the new states of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
V. Buffer States or Zones:

Another method of balance of power is to set up a buffer state between two rivals or opponents.
Buffers, observes V.V. Dyke, “are areas which are weak, which possess considerable strategic
importance to two or more strong powers, Buffer is a small state created or maintained as a
separating state i.e. as a buffer state for keeping two competing states physically separate each
stronger power then tries to bring the buffer within its sphere of influence but regards it as
important, if not vital, that no other strong power be permitted to do so.
The major function of a buffer is to keep the two powerful nations apart and thus minimize the
chances of clash and hence to help the maintenance of balance.”
VI. Armaments and Disarmaments:

All nations, particularly very powerful nations, place great emphasis on armaments as the means
for maintaining or securing a favorable position in power relations in the world. It is also used as
a means to keep away a possible aggressor or enemy.
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However, armament race between two competitors or opponents can lead to a highly dangerous
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situation which cans accidently cause a war. In this way armament race can act as a danger to
world peace and security. Consequently, now-a-days, Disarmaments and Arms Control are
regarded as better devices for maintaining and strengthening world peace and security. A
comprehensive disarmament plan/exercise involving nuclear disarmament can go a long way in
strengthening the balance (peace) that exists in international relations.
VII. The Holder of the Balance or the Balancer:

The system of balance of power may consist of two scales plus a third element ‘holder’ of the
balance or the balancer. The balancer is a nation or a group of nations, which remains aloof from
the policies of the two rivals or opponents and plays the role of, “the laughing third party.”
It poses temptations to both parties to the balance, and each contending party tries to win over
the support of the laughing third party—the balancer. Normally, the balancer remains away from
both the parties but if any party to the balance becomes unduly weak resulting into a threat to the
balance, the balancer joins it and helps the restoration of balance.
After that the balancer again becomes aloof. Traditionally Britain used to play the role of a
balancer in Europe. However in the era cold war no state could perform the role of a balancer in
international relations.
The rise of unipolarity after 1991, involving the presence of only one super power has now
further reduced the chances for the emergence of a balancer in international relations. These are
the seven major methods or devices of Balance of Power. These have been traditionally used by
nations pursuing the policy of a balance of power.
Critical Evaluation of Balance of Power:

Balance of Power has been strongly praised as well as severely criticized.
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Some Scholars observe: University, Delhi)
“Balance of Power is nearly a fundamental law of politics as is possible to find,” —Martin
Wright
“Balance of Power is a basic principle of international relations.” —Palmer and Perkins
As against this several others like Richard Cobden criticize it as unreal, inadequate and uncertain
system. They hold that Balance of Power admits war in the have balance and makes the nations
power hungry. The supporters of Balance of Power advance a number of arguments in favour
and give example of the 1815-1914 period of history to prove the effectiveness of balance of
power as a device of power management.
Balance of Power: Arguments in Favor:

(1) A Source of Stability in International Relations:
Balance of Power provides stability to international relations. It is a device of effective power
management and peace. During the past 400 years it was successful, at most of the times, in
preserving peace.
“Balance of Power has many a times prevented war. War breaks out only when any state
assumes excessive power.” —Fredric Geniz
(2) It suits the real nature of International Relations:

Balance of Power is in tune with the dynamic nature of international relations. It helps
continuous adjustments and readjustments in relations without any grave risk of war among
states.
(3) Ensures Multiplicity of States:

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Since Balance of Power postulates the presence of aDelhi)
University, number of major international actors (7 or 8
even more), it ensures multiplicity of nations and their active participation in preserving balance
in international relations.
(4) Guarantees the Freedom of Small States:

Balance of Power ensures the preservation of small and weak states. Its rule that no nation is to
be completely eliminated, favors the continued existence of all states. Each state feels secure
about its security in the balance of power system.
(5) Balance of Power Discourages War:

Balance of Power discourages war because each state knows that any attempt to become unduly
powerful shall invoke an action, even war, by all other states and hence, it keeps its ambitions
under control.
(6) A Source of Peace in International Relations:

Finally, Balance of Power is always a source of peace and order in international relations. It
supports status quo in relations. Between 1815-1914 it successfully prevented war.
Balance of Power: Arguments Against:

(1) Balance of Power cannot ensure Peace:
Balance of Power does not necessarily bring peace. Even during its golden days, it failed to
prevent the domination of small states by the big states. It was not successful in preserving the
security of small states. In fact, in the past, wars have been fought in the name of preservation of
Balance of Power.
The three periods of stability—one starting from 1648, the second from 1815 and the third from
Treaty of Versailles (1918), were preceded by continuous warfare and by the wholesale
elimination of small states starting with the destruction of Poland, and followed by a large
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number of isolated acts of a similar nature. The tragedy
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in the name of balance of power. Balance of Power cannot really secure peace and freedom of
the nations.
(2) States are not Static Units:

Each state always tries to secure more and more national power. It does not really belong to any
balance of power system. Another point that must be raised about the balance of power is that
nations are not static units.
They increase their power through military aggressions, seizure of territory and alliances. They
can change their power from within by improving social organisation, by industrializing and by
mobilizing internal resources. So the traditional mechanism of the balance of power is not the
only cause responsible for an increase of power.
(3) Preponderance of One State in the world can also secure Peace:
A preponderance of power in the hands of one state or group of states does not necessarily
threaten world peace or the independence of any nation. The unipolarism resulting from the
collapse of one super power (USSR) and the continued presence of the other super power (USA)
has not in any way disturbed international peace and security or power balance. In contemporary
times the preponderance of one state is a reality and yet there is peace and peaceful coexistence.
(4) Narrow Basis:

The concept of Balance of Power is based upon a narrow view of international relations. It
regards power-relations as the whole of international relations. It gives near total importance to
preservation of self and national-interest as the motives of all state actions. It fails to give proper
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weight age to other ends—social, economic, cultural
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(5) A Mechanical view of Peace:

Balance of Power wrongly takes a mechanistic view of world peace as a situation of balance or
equilibrium in power relations. Peace does not depend upon balance in power relations. It really
depends upon international consciousness and morality.
(6) Equality of a number of States is a Myth:

Balance of Power presupposes the existence of a number of equally powerful states. In practice
no two states have or can have equal power. It involves the conception of equilibrium which is in
fact disequilibrium and is subject to continuous change.
(7) Nations are not free to break Alliances:

The theory of the balance of power can also be criticized on the ground that it wrongly assumes
that nations are free to make or break alliances as and when they may desire for the main
consideration of balance of power.
(8) Uncertainty of Balance of Power:

Morgenthau criticizes Balance of Power for its uncertainty. Balance of Power is uncertain
because its operation depends upon an evaluation of power of various nations. In practice it is
not possible to have an absolutely correct evaluation of power of a state.
(9) Balance of Power is Unreal:

Since the evaluation of the national power of a nation is always uncertain, no nation can afford
dependence upon the balance of power. Each nation always keeps a secret about its power. Since
all nations keep safe margins, the balance of power at a particular time is always unreal.
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(10) Inadequacy of Balance of Power:University, Delhi)
Balance of Power in itself is an inadequate device of international peace and security. It even
accepts war as a means for maintaining a balance. Fear cannot be a real basis of international
relations.
(11) Balance of Power has now lost its Relevance:

Finally, the critics argue that now Balance of Power it is not a relevant principle of international
relations. The big changes in the international system as well as in the balance of power system
have made it almost an obsolete system. On the basis of above arguments, the critics of Balance
of Power advocate its total rejection.
Undoubtedly, in contemporary times the balance of power has lost its utility and much of its
importance due to changes in the international system. However it cannot be denied that it
continues to be an important factor in the regional power relations among the states of a region.
It is used by nations for assessing the nature of power relations at the regional level.
Role and Relevance of Balance of Power in International Relations:

“As long as the nation-state system is the prevailing pattern of international society, balance of
power policies will be followed in practice, and in all probability, they will continue to operate,
even if effective supranational groupings on a regional or world level are formed” —Palmer and
Perkins.
In contemporary times, Balance of Power has lost much of its utility due to several changes in
the international relations. The following changes in the international relations as well as in the
traditional balance of power system have adversely affected the role and relevance of Balance of
Power as a device of power management in International politics.
(1) End of the era of European Domination and the dawn of era of Global Politics:
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The structure of international politics has undergone
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From a narrow European dominated international system it has come to be a truly global system
in which Asian, African and Latin American states enjoy a new and added importance. Today
Europe is no longer the centre of world politics. European politics constitutes only one small
segment of international politics. This changes has considerably reduced the operation ability of
balance of power.
(2) Changes in Psychological Environment:

The characteristic moral and intellectual consensus that characterised European nations during
the classical period of Balance of Power (1815-1914) has ceased to exist. Each major power now
seeks to protect its interests as universal interests and hence tries to impose these upon others.
The use of propaganda and ideology as instruments of national policy has increased manifold.
This development has further checked the importance of balance of power.
(3) Rise of Propaganda, Psychological and Political Warfare as instruments of National

Policy:
Previously, diplomacy and war used to be the chief means of conducting foreign policies. The
decline of diplomacy, rise of new diplomacy and the new fear of war as a means, have brought
into operation two new devices- Propaganda and Political warfare, as the instruments of national
policy. These have in turn reduced the popularity and role of balance of power principle in
(4) Emergence of Ideology as a Factor of International Relations:

The new importance of ideology and other less tangible but, nevertheless, important elements of
national power have further created unfavorable conditions for the operation of balance of
power.
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(5) Reduction in the Number of MajorUniversity,
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The most obvious structural change that has seriously limited the role of balance of power has
been the numerical reduction of the players of power-politics game. For its operation, Balance of
Power needs the presence of a number of major power actors. The presence of two superpowers
during 1945-91 discouraged the operation of balance of power and now there is present only one
super power in the world.
(6) The Bipolarity of Cold War period and the new era of Unipolarity:
The bipolarity (presence of two super powers and their blocs) that emerged in the cold war
period reduced the flexibility of the international system. It reduced the chances of balance of
power whose working requires the existence of flexibility in power relations, alliances and
treaties. Presently unipolarity characterizes the international system.
(7) The End of the Era of Colonialism and Imperialism:

Another big change in the structure of balance of power has been the disappearance of
imperialism and colonialism: It has limited the scope for the exercise of power by the European
powers, who in the past always worked as the key players of the principle Balance of Power.
(8) Disappearance of the “Balancer”:

The rise of two super powers the disappearance of the “holder of balance” or the “balancer”
considerably reduced the chances of balance of power politics during 1945-91. Traditionally,
Britain used to play such a role in Europe. The sharp and big decline in the power of Britain in
the post-war period compelled it to abandon its role of balancer between the two super powers.
No other nation or even a group of nations was successful in acting as a balancer between the
USA and the (erstwhile) USSR. The absence of a balancer further reduced the role of balance of
power in post-war international relations.
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(9) Change of Concept of War into Total War: Delhi)
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The emergence of nuclear weapons and other revolutionary developments in war technology has
produced a big in change the nature of war. The replacement of war by Total War has made war
the most dreaded situation in international relations. This has forced nations to reject war as an
instrument of balance of power which rests upon the assumption that nations can even go to war
for preserving or restoring the balance.
(10) The Emergence of Global Actors:

The rise of the United Nations and several other international and regional actors in international
relations has given a new looked to the international relations of our times. The presence of the
UN has made a big change in the structure and functioning of the international system. With a
provision for collective security of international peace and security, the United Nations
constitutes a better source of peace. Due to all these changes in international relations, Balance
of Power has come to suffer a big decline. It has definitely lost much of its relevance.
In contemporary times, Balance of Power has ceased to be a fully relevant and credible principle
of international relations. However, it still retains a presence in international relations, more
particularly, in the sphere of regional relations among states.
Some scholars observe:

“The idea of balance of power is still the central theoretical concept in international relation.” —
Snyder
“The Structural changes in international politics of post-war period have not greatly affected the
principle of Balance of Power. It still holds good in respect of regional relations among nations.”
—Arnold Wolfers
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Although Balance of Power has lost must of its relevance
University, Delhi) as a global level device of power
management, it is still being used by the states of a region to maintain a balance in their power
positions.
Several scholars admit its continued presence:

“As long as the nation-state system is the prevailing pattern of international society, balance of
power policies will be followed in practice, and in all probability, they will continue to operate,
even if effective supranational groupings on a regional or world level are formed.” —Palmer and
Perkins
Indeed the concept of Balance of Power is bound to continue so long as the struggle for power
among nations continues to characterize international relations. Even the staunch critics of
Balance of Power like, Martin Wright and Friendrich admit that Balance of Power is still a basic
element in international relations. Balance of power is neither totally obsolete nor dead. Its role,
however, has changed from a global device to a regional device of power management.
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Unit III:United Nations and Delhi)
University, International Relations
A) Diplomacy
The term Diplomacy is used in a variety of ways. Sometimes it is described as “the art of telling
lies on behalf of the nation”, or “as instrument for employing deceit and duplicity in international
relations.”
Definitions:
(1) “Diplomacy is the process of representation and negotiation by which states customarily deal
with one another in times of peace.” —Padelford and Lincoln
(2) “Diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations
between governments of independent states.” —Sir Ernest Satow
On the basis of these definitions, it can be said that, Diplomacy is the mechanism for the
promotion of national interest of the nation that it represents. It is done by means of negotiations
and conduct of relations with other nations. Diplomacy is always guided and conditioned by the
foreign policy of the nation that it represents.
Nature of Diplomacy:
(1) Diplomacy is not Immoral:
Diplomacy is neither the art of deceit nor mere lies or propaganda, and nor even something
immoral.
(2) Diplomacy is a means of International Relations:

Diplomacy is a normal means of conducting relations. It consists of techniques and procedures
for conducting relations among nations.
(3) Diplomacy is machinery for action:

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In itself diplomacy is recognized as official machinery
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nations.
(4) Diplomacy acts through Settled Procedures:

Diplomacy functions through a network of foreign offices, embassies, legations, consulates, and
special missions all over the world. It always works according to definite and settled procedures
and protocol.
(5) Bilateral as well as Multilateral in Form:

Diplomacy is commonly bilateral in character. However as a result of the growing importance of
international conferences, international organisations, regional negotiations, it has now also
developed a plural character. It is concerned with all issues and problems among nations.
(6) Diplomacy handles all types of Matters:

Diplomacy may embrace a multitude of interests—from the simplest issues to vital issues to that
of war and peace.
(7) Breakdown of Diplomacy always leads to Crisis:

When diplomacy breaks down, the danger of war, or at least of a major crisis develops.
(8) Diplomacy operates both in times of Peace as well as War:

Some writers hold that diplomacy operates only in times of peace and when war breaks out
diplomacy comes to an end. However, this is not a correct view. Diplomacy continues to operate
even when war breaks out. Of course, during war its nature undergoes a change; from peace
diplomacy it takes the form of war diplomacy.
(9) Diplomacy works in an environment characterised both by Conflict and Cooperation:

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Diplomacy works in a situation involving both cooperation
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cooperation among nations is essential for the working of diplomacy because in its absence,
diplomatic relations cannot be maintained. Similarly when there is no conflict diplomacy
becomes superfluous because there is no need for negotiations. Thus existence of cooperation as
well as conflict is essential for the working of diplomacy.
(10) Diplomacy always works for securing national interests of the nation it represents:
The purpose of diplomacy is to secure the goals of national interest as defined and specified by
the foreign policy of the nation. Diplomacy always works for the nation it represents.
(11) Diplomacy is backed by National Power. Diplomacy is backed by national power:

A strong diplomacy means a diplomacy backed by a strong national power. Diplomacy uses
persuasion and influence as the means for exercising power in international relations. It cannot
use force and violence. However, it can issue warnings, give ultimatums, promise rewards and
threaten punishment, but beyond this it cannot directly exercise force. “Diplomacy is the
promotion of national interest by peaceful means.”
(12) Test of Success of Diplomacy:

Success in Diplomacy is measured in terms of the amount of success achieved towards the
fulfillment of the goals of national interest in international relations.
All these characteristics highlight the nature of Diplomacy. One can describe Diplomacy as an
instrument of national interest and a tool of foreign policy.
Objectives of Diplomacy:
Broadly speaking, Diplomacy seeks to secure two types of primary objectives for the nation
it represents. These are:
(i) Political Objectives, and
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(ii) Non-political Objectives. University, Delhi)
(1) Political Objectives of Diplomacy:

Diplomacy always works to secure the goals of national interest as defined by the foreign policy.
It always works for increasing the influence of the state over other states. It uses persuasion,
promises of rewards and other such means for this purpose. Through rational negotiations, it
seeks to justify the objectives of the foreign policy of the nation. It seeks to promote friendship
and cooperation with other nations.
(2) Non-political Objectives of Diplomacy:

The interdependence among nations is the most important and valuable fact of international
living. Each nation depends upon others for economic and industrial links and trade. Diplomacy
always seeks to promote the economic, commercial and cultural links of the nation with other
nations. Diplomacy depends upon peaceful means, persuasive methods for promoting the
interests of the nation and this is indeed an important non-political objective of Diplomacy.
Means of Diplomacy:
For securing its objectives, Diplomacy depends upon three major means: persuasion,
compromise and threat of use of force. Diplomacy has to depend upon several tactics or
techniques. The chances of the success of diplomacy are directly related to the ability of using
appropriate means through appropriate tactics. In the main diplomacy uses six technique, which
have been defined by the Hostile? A selection of a method or means is done on the basis of the
time and circumstances of the situation. Any wrong decision in this respect can lead to a failure.
Functions and Role of Diplomacy:
In performing its tasks and securing its national objectives, Diplomacy has to undertake a
number of functions.
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Major Functions: University, Delhi)
(1) Ceremonial/Symbolic Functions:
The diplomats of a nation are the symbolic representatives of the state and they represent their
state and government in all official ceremonies and functions as well as in non-official, social
and cultural functions held in the place of their postings.
(2) Representation:
A diplomat formally represents his country in a foreign state. He is the normal agent of
communication between his home office and that of the state to which he is accredited. His
representation is legal and political. He can vote in the name of his government. Of course, in
doing so he is totally bound by the directions of his home office and the foreign Policy of the
nation.
(3) Negotiations:
To conduct negotiations with other states is a substantive function of diplomacy. Diplomats,
observe Palmer and Perkins are by definition negotiators. They are the channels of
communication which handle the transmission of messages between the foreign ministries of the
parent state and the host state. Along with the nature of the message, the manner and style of
delivering the message greatly influences the course of negotiations. It is mainly through
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negotiations that a diplomat seeks to secure agreements and compromises over various
conflictual issues and problems among states.
The role of diplomacy in conducting negotiations has, however, declined in our times because of
the emergence of multilateral diplomacy, personal diplomacy political diplomacy, summit
diplomacy and the direct communication links among the world leaders and top statesmen. The
diplomats today do not play as great a role in international negotiations as used to be previously
played by them. Nevertheless, they continue to be the legal and formal channels of negotiations
in international relations.
(4) Reporting:
Reporting involves the observation of the political, economic, military and social conditions of
the host country and the accurate transmission of the findings of the diplomat to his home
country. The political reporting involves a report about the assessment of the roles of various
political parties in the politics of the host country. It seeks to assess the friendliness or hostility of
the various political groupings towards the home state, and the power potential of each party or
organisation.
Economic reporting involves sending of reports to the home office containing general
information about the economic health and trade potential of the host country. Military reporting
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involves an assessment of the military might, intentions and capabilities, and the strategic
importance of the host country.
The level of social and cultural conflicts among the people of the host country and the level of
social harmony and cohesion are assessed for determining the level of stability of the host
country. Thus reporting is an important and valuable function of diplomacy.
(5) Protection of Interests:
Diplomacy is always at work for protecting and promoting the interests of the nation and its
people living abroad. Protection of interests is the “bedrock of the practice of diplomacy.” It
works to secure compatibility out of incompatibility through accommodation, reconciliation and
goodwill.
A diplomat always attempts to prevent or change practices which he feels are discriminatory to
the interests of his country. It is his responsibility to protect the persons, property and interests of
such citizens of his country as are living in the territory of the state to which he stands posted.
Through all these functions, diplomacy plays an important role in international relations.
Change in the Character of Diplomacy: From Old Diplomacy to New Diplomacy:
In contemporary times the nature of Diplomacy has undergone a big change. From its traditional
dress (Old Diplomacy) it has come to acquire several new features. This change has earned for it
the name New Diplomacy.

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Old Diplomacy:
Diplomacy in its traditional form is known as Old Diplomacy and its main features have
been:
(i) European Diplomacy:
Old Diplomacy was primarily confined to Europe. Being an imperial continent which controlled
and ruled the continents of Asia and Africa, Europe was the centre of all international activities.
Old Diplomacy had its origin in Europe and continued, till 1914, to handle the relations among
the European states.
(ii) Aristocratic:
In Old Diplomacy, the conduct of foreign relations was considered to be the prerogatives of the
kings or rulers and their trusted ambassadors. The diplomats used to be selected by the monarchs
and were responsible to their ‘lords’. Diplomacy was conducted by a class of professional
diplomats and was characterised by an air of aristocracy, nobility and class consciousness. It was
both formal and elitist in nature and approach.
(iii) Special Emphasis upon Virtues:
The Old Diplomacy was aristocratic and hence regarded several well defined and accepted
principles as cardinal principles or virtues of diplomats. Honesty, integrity, truthfulness,
politeness, fairness, strict conformity to protocol, secrecy and total commitment to national
interests were considered to be the essential qualities of diplomats. However in actual operation,
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the Old Diplomacy was characterised by ‘honest lies,’ integrity in appearance, qualified
truthfulness, outward politeness, self- satisfying fairness and strict observance of protocol and
secrecy.
(iv) Secrecy:
Secrecy was considered to be the hallmark of Old Diplomacy. Complete secrecy in respect of the
negotiations as well as about the outcome of these negotiations was considered to be a vitally
important condition of old diplomacy. Diplomats communicated only with their counterparts in
other countries. Secret negotiations leading to secret undertakings, agreements or treaties or
alliances were considered to be the ideal ways of conducting relations for the preservation of
peace and problem solving.
(v) Freedom of Action for the Ambassadors:
Within the broad limits of agreed policy, the diplomats handling diplomatic negotiations used to
enjoy freedom of action. During the era of Old Diplomacy, the ambassadors enjoyed
considerable freedom in matters of negotiations. Lack of speedy and continuous means of
communications made it essential for the state to give wide powers to its diplomats.
The inability to maintain continuous speedy communications with the ambassadors made it
essential for the ruler of the state to give freedom of action and full power to his ambassadors.
Ambassadors always used their authority freely without much fear of the ‘home office.’
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Old Diplomacy continued to remain in operation till the middle of the 20th century. Thereafter, it
had to change due to several big changes in the international system as well as because of the
development of fast and comprehensive means of transport and communications. It now came to
be a New Diplomacy.
New Diplomacy and Distinction with Old Diplomacy:
New Diplomacy has the following salient features which have been totally different from the
features of Old Diplomacy.
(i) New Diplomacy is Global, Old Diplomacy was mainly European:
The New Diplomacy is truly global in nature and scope. The rise of Asia, Africa and Latin
America and the emergence of a large number of sovereign independent states changed the
character of post-war international relations. From mostly European relations these came to be
truly international relations involving all the sovereign states. Consequently, diplomacy had to
abandon its European character and to become truly global in nature and approach.
(ii) New Diplomacy is mostly Multilateral, whereas Old Diplomacy was mostly Bilateral:
Multilateral negotiations in international conferences, institutionalized diplomacy at the United
Nations and the emergence of direct personal contacts among the statesmen and leaders of
various states, have all combined to give a new look and content to New Diplomacy. Old
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Diplomacy was mostly bilateral and limited; the New Diplomacy is mostly multilateral and
global.
(iii) New Diplomacy is less formal than Old Diplomacy:
New Diplomacy is not as much formal and rigid in respect of rules or procedures as was the case
with the Old Diplomacy. Presently, there exist quite informal and direct contacts among the
leaders and diplomats of various states.
(iv) New Diplomacy is mostly open and Old Diplomacy was mostly secret:
In New Diplomacy the negotiations are open and the results are, invariably always, made public
soon after the reaching of agreements or treaties or alliances or settlements. Diplomatic
negotiations are given full coverage over the Radio, Press, Television and other means of mass-
media. Old Diplomacy favoured secrecy as its governing principle.
(v) Democratic Nature of New Diplomacy versus Aristocratic nature of Old Diplomacy:
The New Diplomacy is democratic, whereas Old Diplomacy was aristocratic in nature. In the era
of the latter, a special elitist class of diplomats, who were professionals to the core, used to
conduct diplomatic negotiations and relations.
However, at present the increased influence of public opinion, political parties, pressure groups,
world public opinion, the rise of a more democratic and less aristocratic class of civil servants,
have all given a new dimension and look to diplomacy. Modern ambassadors and consoler’s are
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democratic in their outlook towards diplomacy. A degree of informality has come to characterize
their functioning in international relations.
(vi) New Diplomacy depends more on Propaganda than Old Diplomacy:
The use of propaganda/publicity as an important instrument of political warfare in international
relations is accepted and used by New Diplomacy as a means for securing the goals of national
interest that it represents. Old Diplomacy was mostly secret and hence avoided propaganda. It
concentrated upon legal and formal communications as the means for conveying its wishes,
desires and objectives.
(vii) Under New Diplomacy, the role of a Diplomat has suffered a Decline:
In the era of New Diplomacy, the role of diplomat has suffered a decline. Due to the
development of speedy means of transport and communications, it has become possible for the
political leaders of the states to develop and maintain direct, continuous and active contacts with
one another.
This development has reduced the role of an ambassador as a link between his home state and
the host state. In Old Diplomacy, diplomats were regarded as the most important vital links
among the states and were full representatives of their nations in international relations.
They enjoyed a lot of discretion and freedom of action. New Diplomacy has reduced the role of
diplomats to glorified representatives who really act as highly dignified messengers and actors
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with the responsibility of faithfully carrying out the instructions of the foreign office and political
leadership of their states. The control of the foreign office over the diplomats has considerably
increased in this real of New Diplomacy.
Thus, the features of New Diplomacy are almost entirely different from the features of Old
Diplomacy.
B) UN Principal Organs
The United Nations Organisation (UNO) is the global international organisation of sovereign
independent states. It was established on 24 October 1945. The destruction caused by the Second
World War compelled the people to establish an international organisation for keeping the world
away from war and in favour of friendship and cooperation among all the nations. The UNO was
designed to save the future generations from the scourage of war by promoting International
peace and security.
After the end of the Second World War, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet
Union (Former USSR) some other states held several meetings and planned to establish an
organisation for preserving peace and promoting social, economic and political co-operation
among all nations. As a result of their efforts, the United Nations Organisation came into
existence in 1945 when the representatives of 51 nations signed the Charter of the UNO at San
Francisco.
Principles of the UN:
The principles are the means to achieve the objectives of the UN.
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These are contained in Article 2 of the UN Charter:
1. All the member states are equal.
2. The member states shall fulfill their obligations to the UN honestly.
3. The member states shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means.
4. The member states shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force
against any other state.
5. The member states shall give to the UN every assistance in any action it takes in accordance
with the UN Charter.
6. The states which are not members of the UN, should also act in accordance with these
principles for the maintenance of international peace and security.
7. No member state shall interfere in the internal affairs of any other state.
UN Organs and their roles:

The Charter of UN establishes six principle UN organs.
1. The UN General Assembly:
The General Assembly is the highest deliberative organ of the UN. It is also called the World
Parliament of Nations. Each member state sends five representatives to it but each state has only
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one vote. The session of the General Assembly is convened on third Tuesday in the month of
September every year.
The opening day of the session stands designated as the International Day of Peace. The UN
General Assembly holds deliberations on all issues which are related to the Charter of the United
Nations. It also approves the annual budget of the UN. It’s headquarter is located at New York
(the USA).
2. The UN Security Council:
The Security Council is the executive body of the UN. It is called “the Power House” of the UN.
It is made up of 15 members out of whom 5 are permanent members, each with a veto power.
These are the USA, Russia, China, France and United Kingdom. Remaining 10 are non-
permanent members who are elected by the General Assembly by a 2/3 majority for a term of
two years.
The decisions of the Security Council are taken by a majority and vote but each of its five
permanent members has the right to veto its decisions. Under the “uniting for peace resolution”
adopted in November 1950, the UN General Assembly can direct the Security Council to act for
meeting any threat to international peace by taking collective security action against aggression.
The Security Council is a powerful organ of the UN. It’s headquarter is located at New York in
USA. India now wants to become a permanent member of the UN Security Council.
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3. The Economic and Social Council:
The Economic and Social Council has 54 members, they are elected by the UN General
Assembly for a term of three years. One-third members (18) out of these retire every year and in
their place new members are elected. This Council helps the UN in solving the economic and
social problems of the world. It also supervises the work of some other UN bodies. It’s
headquarter is located at New York in the USA.
4. The Trusteeship Council:
The Trusteeship Council supervises the administration of those backward and disputed
territories, the responsibility for the development of which has been taken over by the UNO.
Apart from the permanent members of the Security Council, the administering countries of the
trust territories are its members. These are elected for three years by the UN General Assembly
the Trusteeship Council monitors the development of trust territories.
5. The International Court of Justice (ICJ):
It is the chief judicial body of the UN. It is also called “the World Court.” It consists of 15 judges
who are elected by the General Assembly on the recommendations of the UN Security Council;
each judge of ICJ holds tenure of 9 years. It’s one third judges retire after three years and in their
place new judges are elected.

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The International Court of Justice gives its verdict on such disputes/cases which are brought to it
by the concerned states by their mutual consent. It gives advisory opinion on legal matters to the
organs and special agencies of the UN when solicited. It’s headquarter is located at The Hague
(Netherlands).
6. The UN Secretariat:
Secretariat is the administrative organ of the UN. It implements the policies and decisions taken
up by organs of the UN. It consists of international civil servants who, while serving the UN,
must forget their national loyalties and work for securing the interests of the UN. There are about
4000 employees of the UN Secretariat.
Their salaries are paid by the UN. The Secretariat General is the head of the Secretariat. He is
called the “Watchdog of the UN”. He is appointed for a term of 5 year by the UN General
Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. At present. Mr. Ban Ki Moon is the
UN Secretary General.
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C) Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
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For the settlement of an international dispute there are following amicable means:
1. Negotiation: – The settlement of the international disputes by the disputant states

themselves by negotiation is said to be settlement of the disputes by negotiation. In other
words when there a dispute arises between two or more states then to avoid the chances
of war or violence they tends to conduct negotiation for the matters to be settled. The
negotiation is to be taken by the political representatives of the disputant countries,
without involving any third or non-concerned country.
2. Good-offices: – The act or arrangements taken by a third party to bring disputant parties
for negotiation or to settle dispute between them by any peaceful means is said to be
Good-offices. In case of Good-offices the third merely renders services to bring the
disputant parties to peace full means of settlement of disputes. Here the third party does
not give any suggestions or take part in the meetings as to be held between the disputant
parties. Shortly speaking, in case of good offices whenever the parties to dispute come to
peace full of settlement of dispute the duty of the third party finishes.
3. Mediation: – The act of participating and in the discussions and giving suggestions to
settle a dispute between two parties by a third party is said to Mediation. In other words,
mediation is the method to settle a dispute where any third party actively takes part in the
sessions of dialogues or negotiations held between disputant party as to resolve the
dispute. In case of mediation the mediator should consider the matter of compromise
between the parties rather to encourage the strict letter of law.
4. Inquiry: – The process to ascertain the facts of disputes by a commission of imperial

investigators is said to inquiry. This mean is intended to find out the questions of law and
mixed questions of law and fact involved in a dispute. The only function of the
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commission is to bring in lightUniversity,
those facts, which are the root cause for the alleged
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dispute, and to investigate the question of law and mixed questions of law and fact.
5. Conciliation: – The process of referring a dispute to a commission; for the purpose of

finding out facts and to prepare a report containing proposals for the settlement of that
dispute, is called conciliation. In case of conciliation the commission is to take two tasks,
at first, it shall ascertain the facts of the dispute and secondly, it shall prepare a report
which shall reveal that the possible measures to settle the dispute. But the proposals
prepared by the commission have no binding force upon the parties. The parties can
disagree with the proposals.
6. Arbitration: – The process of referring the dispute; by the mutual consent of the parties
to a body of persons or to a tribunal for a legal decision is called as arbitration. The
essential ingredient of arbitration is the consent of disputant parties to the dispute. In
other words, the referring of the dispute to a Court of Arbitration is dependent on the
sweet-well of the parties. International law recognizes a court for arbitration known as
Permanent Court of Arbitration. But in fact it is neither permanent nor a court.
7. Judicial Settlement: – The process of settling a dispute; by the International Tribunal in

the light of the provisions of International Law, is said to be Judicial Settlement. For
Judicial Settlement there is a judicial organ in international law, known as International
Court of Justice. Both the award given by the arbitration tribunal and decision given by
the International Court of Justice are comes in the ambit of Judicial Settlement. Like in
arbitration, in case of referring the dispute to the International Court of Justice the
consent of both the parties are necessary to be given. International Court of Justice shall
take its proceeding in the light of the rules of International law, and its procedure is
governed by a statute known as the Statute of International Court of Justice. International
Court of Justice plays a very important rule in the settlement of international disputes.
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8. Security Council: – A dispute may be Delhi)
University, settled by a principal organ of the United
Nations, known as Security Council. The Council is consisted of fifteen members. Five
members are permanent while the remaining ten members are non-permanent members.
Wide powers have been entrusted to the Council for the settlement of the disputes, which
tend to endanger world peace and security. There is a number of measures to be taken by
the Council for the settlement of the disputes.
9. General Assembly: – General Assembly is another principal organ of the United

Nations. The Assembly has no specific means to settle the dispute, rather it has general
powers to settle the international dispute. It has the power to discuss and to suggest better
means for the peaceful settlement of the disputes.
Conclusion: –
Briefly speaking, International Law intends to overcome the chances of war and violence, and
believe to solve the disputes on the merits of political, diplomatic and judicial bases. To avoid
the chances of breaking out of wars it provides certain measures and means. Among which above
are the amicable means to settle the disputes. But international law also recognizes certain
coercive or compulsive means to settle the disputes in extra-ordinary cases where the
International peace and security has been endangered.
D) Collective Security Mechanism
Collective Security is a device of crisis management which postulates a commitment on the part
of all the nations to collectively meet an aggression that may be committed by any state against
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another. War or aggression is viewedUniversity,
as a breach of international peace and security and
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collective security stands for collective action by all the nations in defence of peace. Collective
security stands for meeting any war or aggression by the creation of a global preponderance of
power of all nations against the aggression.
Collective Security is also regarded as a deterrent against aggression in so far as it lays down that
the collective power of all nations will be used to repel aggression or war against any state. It is
based on the principle, ‘Aggression against any one member of the international community is an
aggression against international peace and security. As such it has to be met by the collective
efforts of all the nations’
Definition of Collective Security:

(1) “Collective Security is machinery for joint action in order to prevent or counter any attack
against an established international order.” —George Schwarzenberger
(2) “Collective Security clearly implies collective measures for dealing with threats to peace.” —
Palmer and Perkins
(3) “In essence, Collective Security is an arrangement among states in which all promise, in the
event any member of the system engages in certain prohibited acts (war and aggression) against
another member, to come to latter’s assistance.” —Schleicher
In simple words, Collective Security system guarantees the security of each state of the world
against any war or aggression which may be committed by any state against any other state. It is
like an insurance system in which all the nations are bound to protect the victim of an aggression
or war by neutralizing the aggression or war against the victim.
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Main Features/Characteristics of Collective Security:
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(1) A Device of Power Management:
Collective Security is a device of power management or crisis management. It seeks to preserve
international peace through crisis management in the event of any war or aggression in the
world.
(2) It accepts Universality of Aggression:

Collective Security accepts that violations of the security of a nation are bound to occur and that
wars and aggressions cannot be totally eliminated from international relations.
(3) All Nations are committed to pool their power for ending Aggression:
Collective Security believes that in the event of a violation of international peace by any
aggression in any part of the world, all the nations are committed to pool their power and
resources for taking effective steps against every aggression for restoring international peace.
(4) Global Preponderance of Power:

Collective Security stands for the creation of a universal or global preponderance of power
involving all the nations for the maintenance of international peace and security. Under it all the
nations are ready to defend international peace and security through collective military action
against aggression.
(5) Admits the presence of an International Organisation:

Collective Security presupposes the existence of an international organisation under whose flag a
global preponderance of power is created for ending the aggression.
(6) Collective Security System is a Deterrent against War:

Collective Security can be an effective deterrent against a state with aggressive designs. Under
this system each nation knows that any aggression against another nation shall be met by the
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collective power of all other nations. As such noDelhi)
University, nation tries to commit aggression and war
because it knows that such an action will invite collective security action against it. This
realization acts as a deterrent against any war or aggression.
(7) Aggression/war is the enemy and not the State which commits it:
Finally, Collective Security regards ‘aggression’ or ‘war’ as the enemy and not the state which
may resort to war or aggression. A collective security action is limited to the elimination of war,
aggression or threat of war or aggression. It does not stand for the elimination of the state which
commits aggression. Its sole concern is to get the aggression vacated, to prevent the aggressor to
gain out of its aggression, to restore the health of the victim of aggression, and to restore
international peace and security.
Criticism Against Collective Security:

1. It is Idealistic in Nature and Scope:
The concept of Collective Security is based upon certain idealistic assumptions which make its
operationalization difficult.
For example:
(1) It assumes that there can be a complete international understanding regarding the nature of all
threats or aggressions against international peace and security.
(2) It is assumed that all nations could and would come forward to name the aggressor and to
take up collective security actions against the aggressor.
(3) The concept of “collectivity” meaning, “All acting for one and all” is basically an idealistic
concept since it ignores the fact; all nations are not active in international relations. Nor can all
the nations be expected to join a collective security action.
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2. At times it is not possible to identifyUniversity,
the Aggressor:
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Another major defect of the Collective Security system is that it wrongly assumes that in the
event of an aggression against any nation, the aggressor and the nature of its aggression can be
really and easily identified. In practice, it is very difficult to determine and name the aggressor as
well as to identify the nature of aggression. Often the aggressor acts in the name of self-defence
and justifies its aggression as a defensive action.
3. Admits War as a means:

Collective Security is self-negating in so far as it first denounces war or aggression as an illegal
activity and then indirectly accepts that wars and aggressions are bound to remain present in
international relations. It wrongly believes the most effective way to deal with such situations is
to undertake a collective security war.
4. Rules out ‘Neutrality’ in times of War:

The concept of Collective Security makes it an international obligation of all the nations to pool
their resources and undertake collective action in the event of an aggression. It, as such, rules out
neutrality. Many nations often prefer to remain away from war. It makes Collective Security war
an international obligation and wrongly assumes that all nations are willing to participate in such
a war.
5. A Limited Concept:
The concept of Collective Security, as laid down in the U.N. Charter, has two inherent
limitations. It accepts the right of the states to undertake war as a measure of self-defence against
any aggression. In practice this provision gives a legal basis to an aggression or war in the name
of action in self-defence.
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Secondly, it admits the right of the nations to establish
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for protecting their security. It admits regional security systems as devices for preserving peace
and security. The working of regional security systems has in-fact been a source of strain upon
international peace and security.
6. Absence of a Permanent International Peace Keeping Force:

Another major limitation of the Collective Security system is the absence of a permanent peace
keeping force. It is only after a decision of the Security Council to take military action against an
aggressor is taken that the constitution of a collective security military force in initiated. This
process is so slow and difficult that it takes a long time to raise the force and press it into service.
The time-gap between the date of aggression and the date on which the United Nations is
actually able to send its peace keeping force for restoring peace is very big, and the aggressor
gets all the time needed for reaping the fruits of aggression.
7. Lack of provisions for the termination of Collective Security Action:

Another drawback of the U.N. Collective Security System is that whereas elaborate provisions
have been laid down for implementing the system, no provision has been made regarding the
method of terminating the Collective Security action.
8. Dependence on Powerful States:

One of the basic principles of Collective Security is that all the states should have an equal say in
arriving at collective security decisions. In actual operation, it fails to work on the principle of
equality. Powerful states always dominate collective security decisions and actions. In fact, only
the powerful states can play an effective role in executing a collective security action. At times
the powerful state is reluctant to put their power behind a collective security action which does
not strictly conform to their national interests.
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9. Dangerous: University, Delhi)
Some critics hold the view the Collective Security system is a dangerous system as it can
transform a local war into a global war involving all the nations. On the basis of these points
critics describe the collective security system as an idealistic and limited system.
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Unit 4 University, Delhi)
Critical Global Concerns
A. Cold War: Causes, Phases and Case Studies (Korean Crisis, Vietnam
Crisis, Cuban Crisis and Gulf War)
Cold War can be defined as a state of intense unhealthy competition— political, economic and
ideological—which falls short of an armed conflict between the states.
As a concept in international relations, it denotes a state of constant conflict, strains, tensions and
strife maintained and perpetuated by political and psychological warfare but without a direct war
between the opposing sides.
The peace that came after the end of Second World War was neither a healthy nor an enduringly
effective peace. The possibilities of outbreak of a Third World War were keeping the world
under grave stress and strain. Peace in 1945 was a peace under the shadow of war-like tensions
and strains because of the emergence of a dangerous cold war between the USA and the USSR.
Causes for the Emergence Cold War:

General Grievances of the USA i.e. the West against the USSR:
1. Western fear of growing Soviet Power:
Anglo-American nations were dissatisfied with several Soviet decisions during the course of the
Second World War. The growing strength of the USSR and the demonstration of its power in the
Second World War made the Western powers apprehensive about the growing ‘communist
menace’ in international relations. The war time cooperation between the East and West was a
necessary evil and hence, after the war, it was quite natural for the Western powers to work for
containing the growing power of the USSR.
2. The Ideological Conflict—Communism Vs. Capitalism:

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The communist thesis of the inevitability of conflict
University, between socialism and capitalism, and the
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final triumph of socialism also made the democratic western states highly apprehensive of the
growing strength of the Soviet Union and its policy of exporting socialism to other countries.
The differences between the Soviet Union and the Western democracies were the direct product
of contradicting ideologies of communism and capitalism.
3. Western Fears of growing Socialist Movement:

After the coming of Socialist Revolution (1917) in the Russia, labour movements became very
popular and powerful in almost all the states of Europe. The emergence of socialist parties in
various states of Europe and elsewhere greatly alarmed the capitalist states. They felt that
socialist movements were really subversive movements as these were guided by the ideology
that class interests were stronger than national interests and that workers of the world had no
country of their own.
Various Phases of the Cold War:

The Cold War did not occur in a day. It passed through several phases.
First Phase (1946-1949):

In this phase America and Soviet Russia disbelieved each other. America always tried to control
the Red Regime in Russia. Without any hesitation Soviet Russia established Communism by
destroying democracy in the Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungery, Yugoslavia and other Eastern
European Countries.
In order to reduce Russia’s hegemony, America helped Greece and Turkey by following Truman
Doctrine which came into force on 12 March 1947. According to Marshall Plan which was
declared on 5 June, 1947 America gave financial assistance to Western European Countries.
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In this phase, non withdrawal of army University,
from Iran by Soviet Russia, Berlin blaockade etc. made
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the cold was more furious. After the formation of NATO in 1949, the Cold War took a halt.
Second Phase (1949-1953):

In this phase a treaty was signed between Australia, New Zeland and America in September,
1957 which was known as ANZUS. America also signed a treaty with Japan on 8 September,
1951. At that time by taking armaments from Russia and army from China, North Korea
declared war against South Korea.
Third Phase (1953-1957):

Now United States of America formed SEATO in 1954 in order to reduce Soviet Russia’s
influence. In 1955 America formed MEDO in Middle East. Within a short span of time, America
gave military assistance to 43 countries and formed 3300 military bases around Soviet Russia. At
that time, the Vietnamese War started on 1955.
To reduce the American Power, Russia signed WARSAW PACT in 1955. Russia also signed a
defence pact with 12 Countries. Germany was divided into Federal Republic of Germany which
was under the American control where as German Democratic Republic was under Soviet
Russia. In 1957 Soviet Russia included Sphutnick in her defence programme.
Fourth Phase (1957-1962):

In 1959 the Russian President Khrushchev went on a historical tour to America. Both the
countries were annoyed for U-2 accident and for Berlin Crisis. In 13 August 1961, Soviet Russia
made a Berlin Wall of 25 Kilometres in order to check the immigration from eastern Berlin to
Western Berlin. In 1962, Cuba’s Missile Crisis contributed a lot to the cold war.
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This incident created an atmosphere ofUniversity,
conversation between American President Kenedy and
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Russian President Khrushchev. America assured Russia that she would not attack Cuba and
Russia also withdrew missile station from Cuba.
Fifth Phase (1962-1969):

The Fifth Phase which began from 1962 also marked a mutual suspicion between USA and
USSR. There was a worldwide concern demanding ban on nuclear weapons. In this period Hot
Line was established between the White House and Kremlin. This compelled both the parties to
refrain from nuclear war. Inspite of that the Vietnam problem and the Problem in Germany kept
Cold War between USA and USSR in fact.
Sixth Phase (1969-1978):

This phase commencing from 1969 was marked by DETENTE between USA and USSR- the
American President Nixon and Russian President Brezhnev played a vital role for putting an end
to the Cold War. The SALT of 1972, the summit Conference on Security’ of 1975 in Helsinki
and Belgrade Conference of 1978 brought America and Russia closer.
.Last Phase (1979-1987):
In this phase certain changes were noticed in the Cold War. That is why historians call this phase
as New Cold War. In 1979, the American President Carter and Russian President Brezhnev
signed SALT II. But in 1979 the prospects of mitigating Cold War were marred by sudden
development in Afghanistan.
CASE STUDY:
Korean Crisis and Cold War:

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World War II divided Korea into a University,
Communist,Delhi)
northern half and an American-occupied
southern half, divided at the 38th parallel. The Korean War (1950-1953) began when the North
Korean Communist army crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded non-Communist South Korea. As
Kim Il-sung's North Korean army, armed with Soviet tanks, quickly overran South Korea, the
United States came to South Korea's aid. General Douglas MacArthur, who had been overseeing
the post-WWII occupation of Japan, commanded the US forces which now began to hold off the
North Koreans at Pusan, at the southernmost tip of Korea. Although Korea was not strategically
essential to the United States, the political environment at this stage of the Cold War was such
that policymakers did not want to appear "soft on Communism." Nominally, the US intervened
as part of a "police action" run by a UN (United Nations) international peacekeeping force; in
actuality, the UN was simply being manipulated by US and NATO anti-Communist interests.
With the US, UN, and South Korean (ROK) forces pinned against the sea at Pusan, MacArthur
orchestrated a daring amphibious assault on Inchon, a port on the western coast of Korea. Having
made this landing, MacArthur crushed the North Korean army in a pincer movement and
recaptured Seoul, the capital of South Korea. Instead of being satisfied with his rapid reconquest
of South Korea, MacArthur crossed the 38TH Parallel and pursued the North Korean army all
the way to the northernmost provinces of North Korea. Afraid that the US was interested in
taking North Korea as a base for operations against Manchuria, the People's Republic of China
secretly sent an army across the Yalu River. This Chinese army attacked the US/UN/ROK
forces. Only after the appointment of Lt. General Matthew Ridgway as commander of ground
forces did American morale improve and the initiative begin to swing against the Chinese
Communists.
Although President Truman hoped to end the war quickly and pressed MacArthur to be more
tactful, the brilliant strategist went against presidential orders and continued spouting incendiary
lines about his hopes to reunify Korea. After gaining the support of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
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(JCS), Truman relieved MacArthur of command.
University, The move was extremely unpopular in
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America; MacArthur was perceived as a popular war hero. Only the support of the JCS saved
Truman from impeachment after the firing.
Ridgway took MacArthur's command and held off the Communists with strong fortifications and
entrenchments just north of the 38TH Parallel, sending occasional offensives against the Iron
Triangle, the Communists staging area for attacks into South Korea. Peace negotiations dragged
on at Kaesong, then moved and continued to drag at Panmunjom through 1951 and 1952. The
US tried using strategic bombing to intimidate the Communists into negotiating a peace treaty,
but they wouldn't budge, particularly on the issue of POW (Prisoner of War) repatriation. Neither
side wanted to appear weak, and so the talks went on, occasionally breaking down for months.
Only after Eisenhower, who was a war hero and was unafraid of Republican criticism (since he
himself was a Republican), became President, could the US make substantial concessions to the
Communists. In 1953 a peace treaty was signed at Panmunjom that ended the Korean War,
returning Korea to a divided status essentially the same as before the war. Neither the war nor its
outcome did much to lessen the era's Cold War tension.
In 1950, the Korean War provided the ground for the pursuance of cold war politics-in Far East.
The situation created by the North Korean aggression against South Korea provided the U.S.A.
and the Western powers an opportunity to attempt containment of communism by helping
democratic South Korea against communist North Korea.
In the Korean war, North Korea was supported by the U.S.S.R. and Communist China, whereas
South Korea was supported by the U.S.A. and other western countries. American success in
making the U.N. Security Council agree upon the need to enforce collective security system in
the Korean war was strongly opposed by the Soviet Union.
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The differences between the U.S.A. andUniversity,
the U.S.S.R. over the issue of peace in Korea sharply
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divided the U.N. Security Council and consequently, it failed to perform its responsibility of
preserving international peace and security against aggression.
VIETNAM CRISIS and Cold War
The Vietnam War is the commonly used name for the Second Indochina War, 1954–1975.
Usually it refers to the period when the United States and other members of the SEATO
(Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) joined the forces with the Republic of South Vietnam to
contest communist forces, comprised of South Vietnamese guerrillas and regular-force units,
generally known as Viet Cong (VC), and the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). The U.S.,
possessing the largest foreign military presence, essentially directed the war from 1965 to 1968.
For this reason, in Vietnam today it is known as the American War. It was a direct result of the
First Indochina War (1946–1954) between France, which claimed Vietnam as a colony, and the
communist forces then known as Viet Minh. In 1973 a “third” Vietnam war began—a
continuation, actually—between North and South Vietnam but without significant U.S.
involvement. It ended with communist victory in April 1975.
The Vietnam War was the longest in U.S. history until the Afghanistan War (2002-2014). The
war was extremely divisive in the U.S., Europe, Australia, and elsewhere. Because the U.S.
failed to achieve a military victory and the Republic of South Vietnam was ultimately taken over
by North Vietnam, the Vietnam experience became known as “the only war America ever lost.”
It remains a very controversial topic that continues to affect political and military decisions
today.
The United States’ Cold War foreign policy began to play a major part in Vietnam. U.S. policy at
the time was dominated by the Domino Theory, which believed that the “fall” of North Vietnam
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to Communism might trigger all of Southeast Asia Delhi)
University, to fall, setting off a sort of Communist chain
reaction. Within a year of the Geneva Accords, the United States therefore began to offer support
to the anti-Communist politician Ngo Dinh Diem. With U.S. assistance, Diem took control of the
South Vietnamese government in 1955, declared the Republic Of Vietnam,and promptly
canceled the elections that had been scheduled for 1956.
Cold War towards Hot War—Cuban Missile Crisis 1962:

In October 1962, the Cuban Missile crisis, came to be developed between the USA & USSR. It
brought them the threshold of a war. The USSR’s decision to establish a missile base in Cuba
was strongly opposed by the USA. When the Soviet missile carrying ships were on their way to
Cuba, the USA, in order to prevent their entry into Cuba, ordered the blockade of Cuba.
The American government declared that it would regard any missile launched from Cuba against
any nation as an attack by the USSR on the USA requiring a full retaliatory response. On 23
October, 1962, the U.S.A. decided to take all necessary steps for ending the threat to peace and
security of the American continent.
On 24 October 1962, the U.S. Blockade of Cuban ports became effective. The war between the
U.S. and the U.S.S.R. became a distinct possibility. The U.N. Secretary General tried to prevail
upon the U.S.A. to suspend the blockade and also asked the USSR to halt shipments to Cuba, but
failed.
The USSR demanded the withdrawal of the U.S. rockets from Turkey as a precondition for
stopping installation of missiles in Cuba. This demand was rejected by the U.S.A. ultimately,
after some very anxious days; the Soviet Union agreed to divert her missile carrying ships and to
dismantle the Cuban missile sites. Thus, ended the dreaded Cuban Missile Crisis.
Gulf War
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The Gulf War started on August 2, University,
1990 when the forces of Iraqi dictator Saddam
Delhi)
Hussein invaded oil-rich Kuwait. Hussein hoped that Kuwait's oil reserves would help to pay
off the massive debt Iraq had accrued in its recent war with Iran, as well as give Iraq significant
bargaining power as the gatekeeper to Middle Eastern oil.
US officials worried that the invasion of Kuwait might be Iraq's first step in a larger effort to
consolidate its power over other nations in the Middle East, such as Saudi Arabia. With about
one million soldiers in its armed forces, the Iraq Army was the world’s fourth largest military
force—in part, ironically, because the United States had furnished weapons to Iraq to aid in its
fight against Iran.
Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait posed a geopolitical oil crisis. If Saddam Hussein gained control of
Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, he would have control over twenty percent of world oil reserves and
become the world’s dominant oil power. As President George H.W. Bush explained, ''Our jobs,
our way of life, our own freedom and the freedom of friendly countries around the world would
all suffer if control of the world's great oil reserves fell into the hands of Saddam Hussein.
The United States and United Nations Security Council immediately condemned the invasion.
The Security Council passed resolutions placing economic sanctions on Iraq and set a deadline
of January 15, 1991 for Iraq to withdraw forces from Kuwait.
The response to the invasion of Kuwait took place in two stages:
Operation Desert Shield (August 1990 - January 17, 1991)
Five days after Iraq invaded Kuwait, President Bush commenced Operation Desert Shield.
Building a 34-nation coalition in the United Nations and enhancing US troop strength in the
region to more than 500,000, the president explained Operation Desert Shield as “a line in the
sand”—both to protect Saudi Arabia and liberate Kuwait.
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Operation Desert Storm (January 17 -University,
FebruaryDelhi)
28, 1991)
Operation Desert Storm was the combat phase of the conflict. It began with a five-week
bombing campaign of some 2,000 sorties a day that employed "smart bombs"—bombs able to
find their target with pinpoint accuracy—against a broad range of strategic Iraqi targets.
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Colin Powell, and General Norman Schwarzkopf
orchestrated the US-led attack.
B) POST COLD WAR
IRAQ WAR
Iraq War, also called Second Persian Gulf War, (2003–11), conflict in Iraq that consisted of
two phases. The first of these was a brief, conventionally fought war in March–April 2003, in
which a combined force of troops from the United States and Great Britain (with
smaller contingents from several other countries) invaded Iraq and rapidly defeated Iraqi military
and paramilitary forces. It was followed by a longer second phase in which a U.S.-led occupation
of Iraq was opposed by an insurgency. After violence began to decline in 2007, the United States
gradually reduced its military presence in Iraq, formally completing its withdrawal in December
2011.
Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 ended in Iraq’s defeat by a U.S.-led coalition in the Persian
Gulf War (1990–91). However, the Iraqi branch of the Baʿth Party, headed by Ṣaddām Ḥussein,
managed to retain power by harshly suppressing uprisings of the country’s minority Kurds and
its majority Shiete Arabs. To stem the exodus of Kurds from Iraq, the allies established a “safe
haven” in northern Iraq’s predominantly Kurdish regions, and allied warplanes patrolled “no-fly”
zones in northern and southern Iraq that were off-limits to Iraqi aircraft. Moreover, to restrain
future Iraqi aggression, the United Nations (UN) implemented economic sanctions against Iraq
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in order to, among other things, hinder University,
the progressDelhi)
of its most lethal arms programs, including
those for the development of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. UN inspections during
the mid-1990s uncovered a variety of proscribed weapons and prohibited technology throughout
Iraq. That country’s continued flouting of the UN weapons ban and its repeated interference with
the inspections frustrated the international community and led U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton in 1998 to
order the bombing of several Iraqi military installations (code-named Operation Desert Fox).
After the bombing, however, Iraq refused to allow inspectors to reenter the country, and during
the next several years the economic sanctions slowly began to erode as neighboring countries
sought to reopen trade with Iraq.
efforts by the Security Council futile, Bush declared an end to diplomacy and issued an
ultimatum to Ṣaddām, giving the Iraqi president 48 hours to leave Iraq. The leaders of
France, Germany, Russia, and other countries objected to this buildup toward war.
RISE OF CHINA AND JAPAN

In recent years, China’s rapid development has attracted worldwide attention. The implications
of various aspects of China’s rise, its expanding economic influence, and its military muscle are
bring hotly debated in the international community. Correctly understanding China’s
achievements and its path towards greater development is thus crucial. However, the
international relations of the people’s republic of China (PRC) are saga of isolation-alienation-
socialization of China’s integration in international society since 1949.This is the year China
emerged as a communist country in Asia
Japan’s postwar economic recovery was nothing short of remarkable. New technologies and
manufacturing were undertaken with great success. A shrewed trade policy (middlemanship)
gave Japan larger shares in many Western markets, an imbalance that caused some tensions with
the U.S. The close involvement of Japanese government in the country's banking and industry
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produced accusations of protectionism. University,
Yet economic growth continued through the 1970s and
Delhi)
1980s, eventually making Japan the world's second-largest economy.
US HEGEMONY
The period of cold war from 1945-1989 characterized the pattern of international politics in a
bipolar world with two power blocs namely the United States and the Soviet Union balancing
each other as well as providing relative stability in international relations. However, the
disintegration of Soviet Union and the victory of capitalism over communism left the US as the
only remaining superpower dominating the international system and shaping the future of global
politics. In terms of its military and air force capabilities, the US can target any country in the
world as well as can deal with a conflict without deploying ground forces. For instance, the air
campaign in Kosovo after which the US was considered as “hyper power” by the French foreign
minister, Hubert Vedrine. Also, the progress in global finance and marketing, the achievement of
international institutions envisioned by the US for peace-making and world democracy,
advancement in science and technology makes it unparalleled all around the world.
The capability of US was further accelerated with the advent of globalisation which allowed its
multinational corporations into every major market possible. It enjoys a rich cultural heritage and
has an incredible reach to the remotest corners of the globe as its products can be found in every
spot found on the world map. Moreover, its rapid development in world communication that
connects the farthest regions more closely than ever before, have become important attributes of
a promising peaceful global order(Geir 1994).In the words of John Ikenberry, no other great
power ever enjoyed the privilege of having such advantages in political, economic, cultural and
technological spheres as the US does. He further argues that “we live in a one-superpower world,
and there is no serious competitor in sight”. Today, the US hegemony is seen to extend well
beyond the management of the international economy to include international security, rule
making and management in areas of international development, peacekeeping, nation-building,
democratic transition as well as human rights. The hegemonic character of the US can be also
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perceived in the contents of countless regimes that Delhi)
University, regulate global relations within several issues
areas composing current political economy and world politics. To those who perceive the world
being managed today by the hegemony of the world’s only remaining superpower understand
global organizations mainly functioning as creators, monitors as well as enforcers of
international regimes. Thus, the hegemony of US, both logically and practically implies US
domination of global organizations most notably the international economic and financial
institutions vis-à-vis the United Nations.
NATO
NATO has been a central element in the network of multilateral and bi-lateral alliances of the
western world. The United States is the strongest and the pivotal power in the NATO system.
(A) The Formation of the NATO Alliance:

NATO came into being as a defence organisation against the (erstwhile) USSR. France, U.K.,
Belgium, Netherland and Luxemburg. When the U.S.A. decided to abandon the policy of
isolationalism in favour of active involvement in Europe for preventing the spread of Soviet
communist influence, the stage was set for the formulation of a comprehensive security system
for Europe.
The North Atlantic Treaty was signed on 4th April, 1949 between 12 States-The U.S.A., Britain,
France, Italy, Canada, Belgium, Denmark, Luxemburg, Norway, Portugal, Iceland and
Netherlands. In 1952, Greece and Turkey joint it, and in 1955, West Germany was admitted as a
member of this treaty
On July 9, 1997, NATO took a historic step to invite Poland, Hungary and Czech Republic to
join the alliance in 1999. Which they really did. Even Russia became a partner of NATO. The
leader of this alliance, the USA was successful in expanding this alliances in the post Cold War
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period. On November 21, 2002, NATO University,
members decided
Delhi) to add seven new members—Bulgaria,
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. These state joined NATO in 2004.
With this the membership in NATO came to be 26 and it is prepared to expand further. However,
a further eastward expansion of NATO is not really appreciated by Russia.
(B) The NATO Treaty:

The Treaty consists of 14 articles. Art 1 calls for the elimination of disputes among the
signatories and Art. 2 provides for the promotion of economic collaboration among the members.
Article 3 calls for self-help and mutual aid for developing the capacity to resist armed attack
against any one state.
The most important clause of the Treaty stands embodied in Article 5, by which members have
agreed that in the event of an armed attack against any one or more of them, it shall be
considered as an attack on all of ‘them and all the members shall take steps individually or
collectively to restore peace and security. Further that “any such action and all measures taken
thereof shall by immediately reported to the U.N. Security Council.” This provision clearly
reflects the lack of faith in the power of the U.N. Security Council to undertake collective
security action. NATO is a collective Defence System.
Purpose and Significance:

1. To serve as a deterrent against war or aggression against the members.
2. To provide a security umbrella to the European countries with a view to help them proceed
with their programmes for economic and military development.
3. To psychologically prepare the people, particularly of the U.S.A. for a possible war.
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In the era of Cold War, NATO’s chief aim was to strengthen
University, Delhi) the defence of Europe.
However, in reality it added fuel to the cold war in Europe. The introduction of nuclear
armament race in Europe came as a direct consequence of NATO. Rather than creating a sense
of security, it increased the chances of war in Europe because it greatly disturbed the East-West
relations. Presently, it continues to be operative and the USA is determined to secure its
expansion as well as to retain its character as a western alliance against opponents.
In September 2001, the NATO expressed its full support and extended full help to the USA in its
war against terror (Taliban’s Afghanistan). It used its Article 5 for the first time and declared that
terrorist attacks against the USA constituted an act of aggression and war against all the
members of NATO and that NATO would extend its full support and help to the US-led war
against terrorism.It is expected that the NATO members will take a similar view and support
Great Britain in its attempts to fight the menace of international terrorism particularly after the 7
and 21 July 2005 terrorist bomb blasts in London.
Non-Aligned Movement
What is not Non-alignment?
Before defining non-alignment, let us first know what is not non-alignment. Initially several
western scholars used such terms as “Neutrality” or “Neutralism” or “Neutralisation” to define
non-alignment. George Schwarzenberger referred to six term—isolationalism, non-commitment,
neutrality, neutralisation, unilateralism and non-involvement, which were in some way similar to
non-alignment but none of which could be used for defining Non-alignment.
Isolationalism stands for policy of aloofness, but non-alignment stands for aloofness only from
military alliances and cold war and not from international relations. Likewise, non-commitment
refers to the politics of detachment from other powers in a multi-corner relationship; neutrality
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describes the political and legal status University,
of a state which
Delhi) decides to remain neutral in any war;
neutralisation means the permanent legal status of neutrality conferred on a state e.g.
Switzerland; unilateralism involves the policy of taking calculated unilateral risks and decisions;
and non-involvement stands for keeping away from the struggle between the different ideologies
and powers. These terms are nowhere near to the Non-alignment. Non-alignment is neither a
legal status nor a diplomatic means, nor even a principle of aloofness and inaction.
Non-alignment simply denotes a foreign policy which opposes cold war, alliances and aggressive
power politics and which stands for independence in foreign relations based on such principles as
peace, friendship and cooperation with all.
Definition of Non-alignment:
“Non-alignment means attempt by a nation to keep itself aloof from military blocs. It means
trying to view the things as far as possible, not from military point of view though that has to
come in sometimes, but we must have independent view point and must have friendly relations
with all countries.” —Pt. J.L. Nehru
Nehru also described Non-alignment as the principle of Independent Foreign Policy. In simple
words, Non-alignment means a foreign policy which while keeping herself free from cold war
and military alliances, actively participates in international relations, It means a foreign policy
based on national interest as well as on the demands of international objectives of peace and
security. The term is commonly used to describe the foreign policies of those states which do not
enter into any security alliance with either the communist or the anti-communist states.
To sum up we can say that Non-alignment is the feature of a foreign policy which is opposed to
cold war and military alliances of the power blocs. It stands for the policy of acting
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independently in international relations University,
and taking all decisions on the basis of national interests
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and an independent view of the world. It stands for full participation in international relations. ,
Origin and Evolution of Non-Aligned Movement:

The rise and development of Non-aligned Movement has been a key development that has
changed the nature and character of contemporary international relations in several important
ways. It originated as an answer to the cold war and was designed to serve both the interests of
the new states as well as the objective of securing international peace and security.
(A) Adoption of Non-aligned Foreign Policies by several States:

The first stage in the emergence of NAM came in the form of adoption of Non-alignment as a
fundamental principle of their foreign policies by several states, particularly by India, Burma,
Indonesia, Egypt, Yugoslavia and Ghana. These countries became the torch bearers of Non-
alignment. Their successful and fruitful adherence to Non-alignment, despite stiff opposition
from both the super powers and their camp followers, gave a tremendous popularity to Non-
alignment.
(B) The attempts at the unity of the Non aligned Countries:

The second stage in the organisation of Non-aligned Movement came when some of the leaders
of the non-aligned countries decided to establish and develop contacts and cooperation among
the new states. The lead that India took in holding the Asian Relations Conferences in New Delhi
and the success with which the prominent leaders of Asia and Africa could organize the Bandung
Conference in April 1955, went a long way in preparing the ground work for the emergence of
the movement of the Non-aligned in international relations.
The Bandung spirit and the ten principles which were adopted by this historic conference
provided the much needed solid ground to Non-aligned movement. Many countries came
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forward to realize the justness and soundness of theDelhi)
University, concept of Non-alignment. They adopted it
and started taking keen interest in spreading and strengthening it.
D. Supra-National Organizations:
EUROPEAN UNION
The European Union (EU) is supranational and intergovernmental union of 27 states in Europe.
It was established in 1992 by the Treaty on European Union (The Maastricht Treaty) and is the
de facto successor to the six-member European Economic Community founded in 1957.
The EU is one of the largest economic and political entities in the world, with 494 million
peoples and a combined nominal Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of £11.6 ($14.5) trillion in
2006. The Union is the single market with a common trade policy, a Common
Agriculture/Fisheries Policy and a Regional Policy to assist underdeveloped regions.
Organisational Structure of the European Union
I. The Commission:
It consists of 17 members appointed by the member states to serve for 4 years. The President and
the Vice- Presidents are appointed initially for 2 years but are generally reappointed for the rest
of their term. The Commission acts independently of any country in the interests of the
Community as a whole.
II. The Council of Ministers:

It consists of the foreign ministers of the governments of member states. It represents the
nations’ interests and not the community interests. It takes decisions under the Treaties. Legally
all decisions are to be made by majority. In actual practice, the unanimity rule is followed.
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The Council works through several special councils,Delhi)
University, e.g. the Agricultural Council, for discussing
matters related to individual policies. Since 1974, the Heads of States and Governments have
also been meeting three times a year at the European Council for discussing the affairs of the
Community as also matters connected with Foreign Policy. The term of the Presidency of the
Council is 6 months and it rotates among the member countries.
III. The European Parliament:

It consists of 518 members who are directly elected from all member countries. France,
Germany, Italy and the U.K. return 81 members each. Spain 60 the Netherlands 25, Belgium,
Greece and Portugal 24, Denmark 16, Ireland 15 and Luxembourg 6. Several political parties-
Socialists, European Peoples Party (Christian Democratic Group), European Democrats
(formerly European Conservatives), Liberal Democrats and Reforms Group, Communists and
Allies, the Rainbow Group, the European Rights and Independents—contest these elections in
the member countries. The Parliament has the right to be consulted on a wide range of legislative
proposals. It forms one arm of the Community’s Budgetary Authority.
IV. The Economic and Social Committee (ECSC):

It is an advisory institution. It consists of 189 representatives of employers, trade unions,
consumers etc. The ECSC has a separate consultative committee of the members.
V. The European Court of Justice:

It consists of 13 judges and 6 advocate-generals. It is responsible for the adjudication of disputes
arising out of the application of the treaties. Their judgments are enforceable in all member
countries.
VI. The Court of Auditors:

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It was established by a treaty signed on 22nd July,
University, 1975 and came into operation on 1 June,
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1977. It replaced the former Audit Board. It consists of 12 members. It audits all income and
current and past expenditure of the European countries.
VII. The European Investment Bank (EIB):

It was created by the EEC Treaty to which its statute stands annexed. Its governing body is the
Board of Governors consisting of ministers designated by member states. Its main task is to
contribute to the balanced development of the common market in the interest of the community
by financing projects; developing less-developed regions, for modernizing or converting
undertakings, developing new activities, or those of common interest to several member states.
VIII. Community Law:

Provisions of the treaties and secondary legislation may be either directly applicable in member
states or only applicable after member states have enacted their own implementing legislation.
Secondary legislation consists of regulations, which are of general application and binding in
their entirety and directly applicable in all member states; directives which are binding upon each
member state as to the result to be achieved within a given time, but leave the national authority
the choice of form and method of achieving this result; and decisions which are binding in their
entirety on their addresses. In addition the Council and the Commission can issue
recommendations and opinions, which have no binding force.
IX. Legislative Process of the Community:

It starts with a proposal from the Commission to the Council. The Council generally seeks the
views of the European Parliament on the proposal, and the Parliament adopts a formal opinion
after consideration of the matter by its specialist committees. The Council may also consult the
economic and social committee, which similarly delivers an opinion.
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X. Finances of the Community: University, Delhi)
The resources of the community, levies and duties, have been surrendered to it by the EC Treaty.
The Budget is made by the Council and the Parliament acting jointly as Budgetary Authority.
The Parliament has control within a certain limit, of non-obligatory expenditure i.e. expenditure
where the amount to be spent is not set out in the legislation concerned. It can also reject the
budget totally; otherwise the Council is the deciding body.
Organization of American States (OAS)
organization formed to promote economic, military, and cultural cooperation among its
members, which include almost all of the independent states of the Western Hemisphere. The
OAS’s main goals are to prevent any outside state’s intervention in the Western Hemisphere and
to maintain peace between the various states within the hemisphere.
STRUCTURE
The General Secretariat is the administrative backbone of the OAS and is headed by a secretary-
general elected to a five-year term. The chief policy-making body of the OAS is the General
Assembly, which holds annual meetings at which member states are represented by their foreign
ministers or chiefs of state. The General Assembly controls the OAS’s budget and supervises
various specialized organizations. In case of attack or an act of aggression within or between
member states, the Permanent Council, composed of an ambassador from each member state,
acts as the provisional organ of consultation until all the member states’ ministers of foreign
affairs can assemble. At this consultation meeting of foreign ministers, collective action cannot
be undertaken without the approval of two-thirds of the foreign ministers present. The General
Secretariat and the Permanent Council are based in Washington, D.C.
AFRICAN UNION(AU)
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As the Organisation of African UnityUniversity,
(OAU), founded
Delhi) in 1963, was established as a loose
association of African states with limited mechanisms for implementing coordinated regional
policies, managing conflicts and fostering continental peace and security, Among these
challenges – and arguably the most limiting challenge – was the decision to maintain an
inviolable respect for a Westphalian conception of state sovereignty. This essentially meant that
in order for the OAU to function at all it had to rely heavily on the political will of member
states. The OAU’s limited Charter, together with its failure to stem the tide of civil wars and
emerging dictatorships, eventually overburdened the institution, and in 2002 the African Union
(AU) was established as its successor. The AU, while retaining much of the ideology of its
predecessor, would be created with an eye to addressing shortcomings of the OAU while still
promoting continental unity and a united front for Africa.
Structure: Organs of the AU
The Assembly, comprising of Heads of State and Government, acts as the supreme organ of the
AU and meets annually. The Assembly is responsible for determining common policies,
membership, and the establishment of institutions. The responsibility of deciding on matters of
intervention rests with the Assembly. In comparison to the OAU, the AU Assembly possesses
legal capacities to impose sanctions on members who do not comply with AU policies.
Executive Council, comprised of foreign ministers, is tasked with determining policies of

common interest to member states such as trade, industry, resources, infrastructure and science
and technology. Decisions are taken through a two-thirds member state majority.
The AU Commission is the third organ of the AU, appointed by the AU Assembly to act as a
secretariat to the Assembly, preparing documents and agendas.
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ECOSOCC the Economic, Social and Cultural Council,
University, Delhi)which consists of 150 representatives of
social and professional civil society groups, is intended to provide civil society with a voice to
influence AU policymaking.
Permanent representatives of AU member states form the Permanent Representatives’

Committee, which is responsible for preparing work of the executive and acting as an advisory
body. The Representatives also facilitate dialogue between member state capitals and the AU
Commission.
Technical Committees, The Technical Committees are comprised of seven committees with
unlimited membership, including committees on agriculture, finance, trade and immigration,
science and technology, transport and infrastructure, health, and education.
Court of Justice, was adopted in 1998 and established via Article 1 of the Protocol to the African
Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and
People’s rights.
ASEAN: Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
The Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN) is an association of nations dedicated to

economic and political co-operation in Southeast Asia countries.
ASEAN was established on 8th August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand with the signing of the
ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by the Founding Members of ASEAN, Indonesia,
Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam then joined on 7 January
1984, Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on 23 July 1997 and Cambodia on 30
April 1999 making up what is today the ten Member States of ASEAN.
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Objectives of Asean: University, Delhi)
i. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region
through joint endeavours.
ii. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law.
iii. To encourage active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in
Economic, Social, Cultural, Technical, Scientific and Administrative fields.
iv. To provide assistance to each other in terms of training and research facilities in the
educational, professional, technical and administrative areas.
v. To work together for a greater utilisation of agriculture and industries in order to expand the
trade both locally and internationally.
vi. To study the problems of international community trade, the improvement of their
transportation and communications facilities and the raising of the living standards of the
nations.
vii. To maintain close and positive co-operation with existing international and regional
organisations with similar aims and purposes.
E. INTERNATIONAL TERRORRISM
Meaning and Nature:

Terrorism has no precise definition. It is the incarnation of an organised violence and an
act of brutality leading to massive killing of innocent human beings. One traditional
definition of terrorism is, “the use of violence or threat to use of violence inducing fear,
for attaining certain political goals”. An act of violence and a method of intimidation or
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coercing a Government or community by a person
University, Delhi) or group of persons to achieve a
political objective amounts to terrorism. Precisely speaking, terrorism is an organised
violence coupled with some specific demands, mostly irrational.
Terrorism has also been described as a form of ‘politically motivated action’ based on two
inter-related components, such as:
(a) Psychological (fear-inducing)
(b) Physical (violent action).
It is mostly carried out by a small group of terrorists, who create an emotional ‘state of
terror’ among specific groups and thereby, ultimately bringing about general or specific
changes in the social structure or governmental system. The US Army Regulation
defines terrorism as “use of violence or threat of violence to till the Socio-economic and
Political balance.”
Types of Terrorism:
Four types of terrorism have been identified by Chalmers Johnson and those are:
(1) Ethnic
(2) Nationalist
(3) Ideological
(4) Pathological or Religious.
Other Forms of Terrorism:

Studies
&
School of Law
Terrorism may also take several other University,
forms, suchDelhi)
as Bio- terrorism, Nuclear terrorism Cyber
terrorism, Gene terrorism. Bio-terrorism refers to the use of biological weapons which are more
fatal compared to other conventional weapons. Bio- terrorism became a reality only after the
September 11 incident with the detection of Anthrax attack in the U.S. cities through postal
mails. The main objective of the terrorists to resort to bio-terrorism is to create a panic among the
civilian population of the targeted country.
Nuclear Terrorism:
It relates to the secret use of Nuclear weapons by the terrorists. Its use was confirmed when the
Al-Qaeda documents and manuals were found in the city of Kabul in Afghanistan by the North-
Alliance army. These documents contained research studies into the use of nuclear weapons and
materials including U- 235. This also included use of radioactive materials to incite panic acid
terror among the civilians.
Cyber Terrorism:
It is a 21st century threat. The goal of a cyber attack is to disable the enemy’s defence system,
scramble its logistics, and in fact the software’s. ‘Hacking’ is the most commonly and easily
used method to deface governmental Websites by hackers. Security experts feel that this method
is virtually untraceable as there is no trail from sender to recipient. These terrorists exploit hi-
tech graphic tools and the Internet to send and receive coded messages.

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Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher

Class : BALLB III A, B, C

Paper Code : BALLB 209

Subject : POLITICAL SCIENCE-II

Faculty Name : Mr. Vivek Tripathi

Unit 1: TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

1. Democracy is a form of government in which people’s participation is of primary importance.

2. People may participate either directly or indirectly.

4. Distribution of opportunities is adopted for reduction or removal of inequalities.

9. In democracy all must have the scope to govern or to be a member of government.

11. Rules are to be chosen by the ruled.

2. Indirect or Representative Democracy

B) Federal form of Government

Features of Federal Government

(3) People take more interest in local and regional affairs:

(4) It gives rise to big states:

(5) This system is more advantageous to the smaller states:

The citizenship of a federation is more dignified. If we declare ourselves as citizens of Assam,

(7) Distribution of powers checks the despotism of the Central Government:

(8) More suitable for the bigger countries:

(10) It is good for economic and cultural progress:

It is also promotes regional inequalities. Natural resources, industries, employment opportunities

Thus, It can be concluded as,:

1. It is inefficient because of diversity of law and administration.

2. There is always a tug-of- war between national and local interests.

C) Confederal & Quassi-Federal Form Of Government

In the words of Professor KC Wheare “Indian Constitution is a quasi-federation.” To understand

1. It is a group of regions or states united with a central government or a federal

D) The Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government

Parliamentary Form of Government

1. Existence of a Titular or Constitutional Ruler: The first characteristic feature of the

2. Absence of Separation of Powers: In the parliamentary system the principle of separation of

5. Collective Responsibility: The ministerial responsibility to the legislature may again be of

a) Individual responsibility, and

Presidential Form of Government

A) POWER (National Power)

Elements of National Power:

(a) Raw Materials

4. Economic Development and Industrial Capacity

9. Organisation and Quality of Government INTANGIBLE

While describing the importance of geography in international relations Napoleon, observed.

Nature and Role of Geography as an Element of National Power:

In analyzing the role of National Resources as a factor of National Power Morgenthau

It is impossible to develop power in modern times without industrialization and it is very

Thus, it can be observed that:

4. Population is an important human element of National Power.

4. Economic Development and Industrial Capacity:

The increased importance of economic instruments of foreign policy is a recognized fact of

Industrial capacity of a nation is thus an important factor of national power. Industrial

(ii) Military leadership, and

(iii) Quantity and Quality of soldiers.

(a) War Technology:

(b) Quality of Military Leadership:

(c) Quantity and Quality of Soldiers:

B) Limitations on National Power

3. World Public Opinion:

Some writers define it in terms of equilibrium where as others in terms of “preponderance” or

Some Popular Definitions of Balance of Power:

Nature of Balance of Power

1. Some Sort of Equilibrium in Power Relations:

2. Temporary and Unstable:

4. Favours Status quo:

6. Not a Device of Peace: