INGLES I

TP 2_READING AND COMPREHENSION

UNIDAD DIDACTICA 2
TEMA 4

Gross Anatomy of the trunk

The trunk is the central part of the body. The neck and head extend above the trunk and are
continuous with it. The upper limbs are attached to either side of the trunk and the lower limbs
extend downwards from it. The outer tissues of the trunk form the body wall.
The trunk consists of two main cavities, namely the thorax and the abdomen. These are
separated by a dome-shaped muscle known as the diaphragm. The thorax lies above the
diaphragm, and the abdomen lies below it.
The posterior wall of both cavities is composed of the vertebral column and its related muscles.
The thoracic cavity is bounded at the sides and front by the ribs, the sternum, and the
intercostal muscles. The principal internal organs contained in the thorax are the heart and the
lungs.
The abdomen is the largest cavity in the body. It consists of two parts: the abdominal cavity
proper and the pelvic cavity.
The lateral and anterior walls of the abdominal cavity proper are formed mainly by three layers
of muscle which run concentrically round the cavity. The organs of digestion are the principal
internal organs contained in the abdomen.
The pelvic cavity, or pelvis, lies below the abdominal cavity and is continuous with it. It is
bounded anteriorly and laterally by bone. The contents of the pelvis are the urinary bladder, the
lower part of the large intestine, the rectum, and some of the reproductive organs.

 Decide if the following sentences are true or false according the information in the text
above. If they are false justify them (in Spanish).

a. The trunk means the same as the body. False

El tronco es una parte del cuerpo, la parte central.

b. The neck and head form part of the trunk. False

El cuerpo y la cabeza no forman parte del tronco, se extienden de él.

c. The abdomen is bounded superiorly by the diaphragm. True

d. The abdomen is bounded posteriorly by the vertebral column and its related muscles.
True

e. The walls of the thoracic cavity are composed of the ribs, the sternum, and the
intercostal muscles. False
Está incompleta, falta la pared posterior (columna vertebral y músculos relacionados)

f. The heart and the lungs lie within the thoracic cavity. True

g. The cavity above the diaphragm is larger than the cavity below the diaphragm. False
La cavidad situada debajo del diafragma (el abdomen) es la cavidad más grande.

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h. The abdominal cavity is part of the abdominal cavity proper. False
La cavidad abdominal propiamente dicha es parte de la cavidad abdominal.

i. The pelvic cavity can be said to be part of the abdomen. True

j. The organs of digestion are the only internal organs contained in the abdomen. False
Los órganos digestivos son los principales órganos contenidos en el abdomen, no los
únicos.

k. The abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity are separated by layers of muscle. False
La cavidad abdominal de la cavidad pélvica está separada por el diafragma que es un
músculo con forma de cúpula.

l. The reproductive organs are found in the pelvis. True.

 Rewrite the following sentences replacing the underlined words, with expressions from
the text, which have the same meaning.

1. The body wall is composed of the outer tissues of the trunk.

The body wall is bounded the outer tissues of the trunk.

2. The muscle which separates the thorax from the abdomen is referred to as the
diaphragm.
The muscle which separates the thorax from the abdomen is namely the diaphragm.

3. The vertebral column and its associated muscles form the posterior wall of the thorax.
The vertebral column and its related muscles form the posterior wall of the thorax.

4. The abdomen is situated below the diaphragm.

The abdomen lies below the diaphragm.

5. The organs contained within the abdomen are principally the organs of digestions.
The principal internal organs contained within the abdomen are consists the organs of
digestions.

6. The pelvic cavity is bounded laterally and anteriorly by bone.

The pelvic is bounded laterally and anteriorly by bone.

7. Some of the organs of reproduction are found in the pelvis.

Some of the reproductive organs are found in the pelvis.

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 The Thoracic Cavity

The thoracic cavity is divided by fibrous partitions into three compartments. The central
compartment, the mediastinum, is a mass of tissue and organs, extending from the
vertebral column behind to the sternum in front. It contains the heart and great blood
vessels, the oesophagus, the trachea and its bifurcation, the phrenic and the vagus nerves,
and the thoracic duct. The two lateral compartments are cavities, known as the pleural
cavities. These contain the lungs.
The mediastinum is commonly considered to have three divisions, lying anterior, posterior
and superior to the pericardium. Both the anterior and the posterior mediastinum are
continuous with the superior mediastinum, which connects freely with the neck.
The anterior mediastinum is not much more than a potential space. It lies between the
sternum and the pericardium and is overlapped by the anterior edges of both lungs. It
sometimes contains the lower part of the thymus gland, but usually this does not extend
lower than the superior mediastinum.
The posterior mediastinum lies behind the pericardium and the diaphragm. It contains the
thoracic lymph nodes and, in addition, various organs in their passage to or from the
superior mediastinum. These are principally the aorta and the oesophagus, which descend
from the superior mediastinum through the posterior mediastinum to the abdomen, and the
thoracic duct, which leads upwards from the posterior mediastinum into the superior
mediastinum.
The superior mediastinum contains the esophagus, the trachea, the apices of the lungs,
the phrenic and vagus nerves, the arch of the aorta, and other major blood vessels. The
superior mediastinum is remarkable because of the asymmetrical relationships of its
contents, mainly due to the position of the great veins and arteries, that is to say veins on
the right side and arteries on the left. The trachea, for example, is in contact with the right
vagus nerve and the apex of the right lung, but is separated from the left vagus and the
apex of the left lung by the left common carotid and the left subclavian arteries.
The pericardium is a fibrous sac that encloses the heart. The pericardium is conical in
shape, fused at its apex with the roots of the great veins and arteries and at its base with
the central tendon of the diaphragm. It is attached by ligaments to the upper and lower ends
of the sternum. A layer of serous membrane lines the fibrous pericardium and is reflected
round the roots of the great veins and arteries to cover the surface of the heart. Thus the
heart is separated from the fibrous pericardial sac by two adjacent layers of serous
membrane.
The lungs and the pleural cavities are lined by the pleura, a membrane of fibrous tissue
surfaced by a single layer of squamous epithelium. In each cavity the pleura lines the
thoracic wall, the upper surface of the diaphragm and the mediastinal surface.
At each lung root the pleura is reflected from the mediastinum to from a layer, which
covers the surface of the lung. Thus each lung lies enclosed in a pleural sac, just as the
heart lies enclosed in the pericardial sac and again two layers of serous membrane are
adjacent.
The pericardium and the pleura have the same function, namely to provide two slippery
surfaces so that the structures contained within can move without friction. The thoracic
cavity is a very mobile area. The heart is in rhythmic pulsation and changes its position a
little between systole and diastole; the lungs also are in rhythmic motion, gliding down and
up; the oesophagus dilates with each bolus; and the great veins expands considerably
during increased blood flow.

 Answer the following questions about the text (in Spanish):

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1. How many compartments are there in the thoracic cavity?
Name them.
En la caja torácica hay tres compartimientos: el mediastino, y las dos cavidades
pleurales.

2. Where are the compartments located?

El mediastino, está ubicado en la caja torácica y se extiende, en la parte posterior
hacia la columna vertebral, y en la parte anterior o frontal hacia el esternón.
Las cavidades pleurales se ubican a ambos lados de la caja torácica.

3. What are the anatomical structures found into each mediastinum?

Las estructuras anatómicas encontradas en cada mediastino son:
 Mediastino anterior: es solo un espacio potencial, que a veces contiene la
parte inferior del timo.
 Mediastino posterior: contiene los ganglios linfáticos torácicos y varios
órganos que pasan hacia, o desde el mediastino superior como la aorta y
el esófago (descienden del mediastino superior hacia el posterior).
También contiene el conducto torácico (conduce hacia arriba al mediastino
superior).
 Mediastino superior: contiene, el corazón, arco de la aorta y otros vasos
sanguíneos importantes. También el esófago, la tráquea, los ápices de los
pulmones, los nervios frénico y vago.

4. Which is the most important division of the mediastinum according to its content?
De acuerdo a su contenido, el mediastino superior es el más importante.

5. What is the relation between the superior mediastinum and the neck?
El mediastino superior se conecta libremente con el cuello.

6. Why is superior mediastinum “remarkable”?

El mediastino superior es “notable” debido a las relaciones asimétricas de su
contenido, principalmente debido a la posición de las grandes venas y arterias.

7. Is the heart in contact with the pericardium? Why?

El corazón no está en contacto con el pericardio, porque están separado (corazón y
pericardio) por dos capas adyacentes de membranas serosas.

8. What is the name of the membrane that lines the lungs?

El nombre es pleura.

9. What is the main function of the pericardium and the pleura?

Tienen la función de proporcionar dos superficies resbaladizas para que los
órganos que contienen puedan moverse sin fricción.

10. Why does the article say, “The thoracic cavity is a mobile area”?
La cavidad torácica es un área móvil porque algunas de las estructuras que
contiene poseen movimientos: como el corazón que está en pulsación rítmica y
cambia un poco su posición entre la sístole y la diástole, los pulmones también
están en movimiento (se deslizan hacia arriba y abajo), el esófago se dilata y los
grandes vasos se expanden.

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UNIDAD DIDACTICA 2
TEMA 5

The Heart

The heart is a hollow, cone-shaped organ. It is about the size of a fist and weighs approximately
230g. The base of the heart, which is directed backwards lies opposite the borders of the 5º, 6º,
7º and 8º thoracic vertebrae. The apex is directed forwards, downwards, and to the left, and is
located below the 5º left intercostal space in the mid-clavicular line. In addition to the base and
the apex, three surfaces are usually described: the sterno-costal, the left and the diaphragmatic.
The sterno-costal surface is limited by four borders, which are sometimes referred to as the
borders of the heart.
The heart is essentially a hollow muscle. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers of
tissue. A serous membrane, the pericardium, forms the outer covering of the tissue. The middle
layer, the myocardium, is the heart muscle proper. This consists of specialized cardiac muscle
fibres. Internally the heart is lined throughout with a serous membrane known as the
endocardium.
The cavity of the heart is divided longitudinally into two parts by a thick septum. Each side
contains two chambers: a posterior chamber called the atrium, where the blood is received from
the veins and collected, and a thickly muscled anterior chamber called the ventricle, which
pumps the blood out again into the arteries. The atria lie above the ventricles. The base of the
heart is formed mainly by the left atrium, and partly by the right atrium. The apex is formed
entirely by the left ventricle.
The heart pumps blood round two circuits: the pulmonary and the systemic. Blood flows into
the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae. It passes into the right ventricle,
which pumps it out along the pulmonary artery to the lungs. There, it is cleansed of carbon
dioxide and re-oxygenated. It returns along the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, passes into
the left ventricle, and is pumped out into the aorta.
The pumping action of the heart is effected by rhythmic contraction of the muscle, and valves
ensure that the blood is propelled in the right direction. The atria are separated from the
ventricles by valves, which allow the blood to pass freely from the atria into the ventricles, but
prevent the blood from returning into the atria when the ventricles contract. These valves are
formed by flaps of endocardium, which hang down into the ventricles. When the ventricles are
full of blood, the blood pushes the flaps upwards to close the orifice. Three flaps, known as the
tricuspid valve, close the right atrio-ventricular orifice. The mitral valve, which consists of two
flaps, closes the left atrio-ventricular orifice. The semilunar valves, so called because of the half
moon shape of the flaps, lie at the exits of the ventricles, one between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery, and one between the left ventricle and the aorta. These valves too prevent
the reflux of the blood and help to maintain the pressure necessary for circulation. When the
blood pressure in the arteries exceeds the blood pressure in the ventricles, the flaps of the
semilunar valves close.

 Decide if the following sentences are true or false according the information in the text
above. If they are false justify them (in Spanish).

a. The heart lies opposites the borders of the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th thoracic vertebrae. False
Es la base del corazón la que se encuentra frente a los bordes de la 5ª, 6ª, 7ª y 8ª
vertebras torácicas.

b. The apex of the heart lies above the base. False

El vértice se encuentra por debajo de la base.

c. The borders of the heart are the same as the borders of the sterno-costal surface. True

d. The wall of the heart consists mainly of specialized cardiac muscle fibres. False

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 Es el miocardio el que se compone principalmente de fibras musculares cardíacas
especializadas.

e. A vertical septum divides the heart. True

f. The heart contains four chambers. True

g. The ventricles lie inferior to the atria. True

h. The right ventricle pumps blood round the pulmonary circuit. True

i. The right atrium receives blood from the pulmonary circuit. False
La auricular izquierda recibe sangre del circuito pulmonar.

j. Blood always enters the heart by veins and leaves the heart through arteries. True

k. The atrio-ventricular valves help to retain blood in the atria. False

Las válvulas auriculo-ventriculares evitan que la sangre regrese a las aurículas.

l. There are three valves in the right atrio-ventricular orifice. False

Hay una válvula en el orificio auriculoventricular derecho, la válvula tricúspide.

m. The mitral valve is composed of a serous membrane. True

n. The semi-lunar valves prevent the blood pressure in the arteries from exceeding the
blood pressure in the ventricles. True

 Rewrite the following sentences replacing the underlined words, with expressions from
the text, which have the same meaning.

1. The heart is situated between the lungs.

The heart is located between the lungs.

2. The sinu-atrial node initiates heart action.

The sinu-atrial node initiates pumping action.

3. The heart muscle proper is referred to as the myocardium.

The heart muscle proper is known as the myocardium.

4. The endocardium lines the inside of the heart completely.

The endocardium lines the inside of the heart entirely.

5. Blood flows along the pulmonary artery to the lungs.

Blood pass freely from along the pulmonary artery to the lungs.

6. Blood is purified in the lung capillaries.

Blood is cleansed in the lung capillaries.

7. The oxygenated blood enters the left atrium.

The oxygenated blood flows the left atrium.

8. Blood in the contracting ventricle forces upwards the flaps of the tricuspid valve.
Blood in the contracting ventricle pushes upwards the flaps of the tricuspid
valve.

9. The arterial valves close when the pressure in the arteries is greater than the
pressure in the ventricles.

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 The flaps of endocardium close when the pressure in the arteries exceeds the
pressure in the ventricles.

10. The mitral valve prevents the return of blood into the left atrium.
The mitral valve prevents the reflux of blood into the left atrium.

Heart Action

The contraction and relaxation of the heart is called the heartbeat. The heartbeat is
myogenic, that is to say it is an inherent property of heart muscle, not dependent on the
central nervous system. This has been demonstrated in various ways. For example, strips
of cardiac muscle contracting that have not nervous tissue will beat indefinitely when
immersed in a solution of certain salts. It has also been shown that a chick embryo heart
begins to beat before it is innervated.
Certain parts of the myocardium have the special function of controlling heart action. A
small collection of these specialized cardiac muscle fibres, known as the sinu-atrial node, is
found in the wall of the right atrium, near the entrance of the venae cavae. The sinu-atrial
node acts as a pacemaker, initiating the phase of contraction and controlling its regularity.
Another collection of specialized heart muscle often referred to as the Bundle of His, passes
from the septal wall of the right atrium down the septum into both ventricles, transmitting to
the ventricles the impulse from the atrium. Thus the rhythm of ventricular contraction is
made to follow the rhythm of atrial contraction.
A complete heartbeat lasts approximately 0.8 second. For about 0.4 second the heart is
relaxed. This is known as the period of diastole. During the period of diastole, the atrio-
ventricular valves are open and the arterial valves are closed. The heart therefore fills with
blood at the same time as it expands from its previous contraction. Blood flows into the two
atria and through the open atrio-ventricular valves into the ventricles. Then the period of
systole begins. The atria both contract, forcing more blood into the ventricles. The phase of
atrial systole lasts about 0.1 second. The impulse to contract is conducted along the Bundle
of His to the ventricles and the period of ventricular systole, lasting about 0.3 second,
begins. When the ventricles begin to contract, the atrio-ventricular valves are closed by the
upward movement of the blood. The ventricular pressure rises until it is greater than the
pressure in the aorta and the pulmonary artery. Then the arterial valves open and, as the
contraction continues, blood is ejected from the ventricles into the arteries. At the end of the
period of systole, the ventricles begin to relax, the ventricular pressure drops below the
arterial pressure, and the arterial valves close. Almost immediately the ventricular pressure
becomes less than the atrial pressure, the atrio-ventricular valves open, and the period of
diastole begins again.
Since all of the blood goes round both the pulmonary and the systemic circuits, each
ventricle must pump the same amount of the blood out. The volume pumped out by one
ventricle at a single beat (the stroke volume) varies from about 70 cc. at rest to about 200
cc. during exertion. The left ventricle, which propels blood round the whole body, has to
pump with much more force than the right ventricle, which sends blood only to the lungs
and back. The left ventricle in fact pumps at a pressure of about 120 mm. of mercury, while
the right ventricle pumps at about 25 mm.
Although the stroke volume increases during exertion, the volume of blood pumped out per
minute is more significantly increased by a faster rate of heartbeat. The normal heart rate,
with each beat lasting about 0.8 second, is about 70 beats per minute. This can be
increased when necessary to about 200 beats per minute, with the result that cardiac output
can vary from 5 litres per minute at rest to as much as 40 litres per minute. When the heart
rate is increased, it is the diastolic phase in particular, which is shortened.

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Answer the questions in Spanish:

1. What do the results of the two experiments described in paragraph 1 indicate?

Los dos experimentos indican, que los latidos del corazón no dependen del sistema
nervioso central, es miogénico.

2. What is the function of the Sinu-atrial node?

El nódulo Sinusal tiene la función de iniciar la fase de contracción del corazón y
controlar su regularidad por lo que actúa como un marcapasos.

3. What is the function of the Bundle of His?

La función que tiene el Haz de His es la de transmitir el impuso a los ventrículos
desde las aurículas, para que estas se contraigan y sigan el ritmo de la contracción
auricular.

4. During the period of diastole, does blood leave the heart?

No, durante el periodo de diástole el corazón se llena de sangre.

5. Is the heart relaxed or contracted during the period of systole?

Durante el periodo de sístole el corazón está contraído.

6. When does the stroke volume increase?

El volumen aumenta durante el esfuerzo.

7. Why does the left ventricle pump at a higher pressure than the right ventricle?
El ventrículo izquierdo tiene que bombear la sangre con más fuerza porque impulsa
la sangre alrededor de todo el cuerpo, en cambio el ventrículo derecho, envía
sangre solo a los pulmones y a la espalda.

8. Do variations in cardiac output depend more on stroke volume or on heart rate?

Las variaciones del gasto cardíaco dependen más de la frecuencia cardíaca.

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UNIDAD DIDACTICA 2
TEMA 6

The Lungs

The lung is a magnificent organ that performs a multitude of vital functions every second of our
lives. Breathing is the most essential of these functions. It is the process by which oxygen in
the air is brought into the lungs and into close contact with the blood, which absorbs it and
carries it to all parts of the body. At the same time the blood gives up waste matter (carbon
dioxide), which is carried out of the lungs with the air breathed out.
The lungs are located inside the upper part of our chest on either side of the heart, and they
are protected by the ribcage. The breastbone (sternum) is at the centre front of the chest, and
the spine is at the centre of the back of the chest.
The inside of the chest cavity and the outside of the lungs are covered by the pleura, a slippery
membrane that allows the lungs to move smoothly as they fill up with and empty out air when
we inhale and exhale. Normally, there is a small amount of lubricating fluid between the two
layers of the pleura. This helps the lungs glide inside the chest as they change size and shape
during breathing.
With each breath, our lungs are filled with air that comes into our body through the nose or
mouth. It flows down the throat (pharynx) and through the voice box (larynx). A small flap of
tissue (epiglottis) covers the entrance to the larynx, and it automatically closes when we
swallow to prevent food or liquids from getting into our airways.
Our largest airway is the windpipe (trachea). It brings air to the chest, where it branches into
two smaller airways: the left and right bronchi, which lead to the left and right lungs.
The bronchi themselves divide many times into smaller and smaller airways (bronchioles).
Because the pattern of these increasingly smaller passages looks like an upside-down tree,
this part of the system is sometimes called the bronchial tree. The airways are held open by
flexible, fibrous connective tissue called cartilage. Circular airway muscles can make the
airways wider or narrower. The smallest bronchiole is only half a millimetre across.
At the end of each bronchiole are clusters of air sacs called alveoli. Each air sac is surrounded
by a dense network of tiny blood vessels (capillaries). The extremely thin barrier between the
air and the blood allows the blood to pick up oxygen and release carbon dioxide into the
alveoli.

Answer the questions in Spanish:

1. Why are the lungs considered as magnificent organs?

Es considerado un órgano magnífico porque realiza una multitud de funciones vitales a
cada Segundo, siendo la respiración la más esencial.

2. What happen into each breathing phase?

En la inhalación el oxígeno del aire se lleva a los pulmones para que tome contacto con
la sangre que lo absorbe y lo transporta a todas las partes del cuerpo. En la exhalación,
la sangre deja los residuos (dióxido de carbono) que se extraen de los pulmones
cuando el aire expulsado.

3. How does oxygen arrive to all parts of the body?

El oxígeno llega a todas las partes del cuerpo a través de la sangre.

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4. Where are lungs found?
Los pulmones se encuentran dentro de la parte superior del pecho, a ambos lados del
corazón.

5. What is the function of the pleura?

La pleura, al ser una membrana resbaladiza que cubre los pulmones, permite que los
estos órganos se muevan con suavidad a medida que se llenan y vacían de aire
cuando inhalamos y exhalamos.

6. Why is epiglottis so important in breathing mechanism?

La epiglotis es importante en el mecanismo de la respiración, porque se cierra
automáticamente (cubriendo la entrada a la laringe) cuando tragamos, para evitar que
los alimentos o los líquidos entren en las vías respiratorias.

7. Why are bronchioles known as bronchial tree?

Los bronquiolos son conocidos como árbol bronquial, porque se van dividiendo y
haciéndose cada vez más pequeño por lo que se ven como un árbol al revés.

8. What is the function of the airway muscles?

Los músculos de las vías respiratorias pueden hacer que estas sean más anchas o
más estrechas.

9. Where does the exchange between oxygenated and deoxygenated air occur?
El intercambio entre el aire oxigenado y desoxigenado ocurre en los alveolos.

10. Name the anatomical structures involved into airway.

Nariz/Boca – Faringe – Laringe (epiglotis) – Tráquea – Bronquio – Bronquiolos -
Alveolos

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