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htm

Analysis of Drilled, Cast In-Situ Single Piles in

Axial Loading

Joshua Omer
Research Fellow, Faculty of Technology, University of Glamorgan,
Pontypridd, CF37 1DL, United Kingdom
jromer@glam.ac.uk

and

Ray Delpak
Professor, Faculty of Technology, University of Glamorgan,
Pontypridd, CF37 1DL, United Kingdom rdelpak@glam.ac.uk

ABSTRACT
A semi-analytical method is developed for predicting the load-settlement behavior
of vertically loaded piles formed in weak rocks and cohesive soils. The aim is to
have a simpler and more cost-effective alternative to the traditional load transfer
(t-z) method, whereby the data required from various depths, are not only difficult
to interpret from routine site investigations but also costly to develop from
sophisticated field tests. The proposed method is based on formulating generic
functions to uncouple shaft and base transfer mechanisms. The functions are
developed through analysis of field performance data from instrumented pile tests.
After combining the generic functions with the basic governing equations for
soil-pile interaction, the full set of equations is solved iteratively with the aid of a
newly developed computer program. The program computes the ratio of load
sharing between the shaft and the base, at every stage of loading, leading to
determination of the axial force distribution and load-settlement variation. Using the
program, load-settlement predictions are carried out for 3 CFA piles formed in
mudstone. Also, parallel predictions are made using the t-z approach and another
Published method. In every case, it is shown that the proposed method yields the
most accurate predictions.

KEYWORDS: piles, settlement, cohesive soils, weak rocks.

INTRODUCTION
Although numerical methods such as boundary element and finite element analyses are sufficiently
powerful to account for complex stress transfer mechanisms in pile-soil systems, the sophisticated
parameters required are seldom obtainable from a standard site investigation. Therefore, many

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engineers of-ten resort to alternative methods such as the load transfer (t-z) method, which still has a
drawback in that load transfer curves are not only expensive to develop from trial piles but also
difficult to interpret from in-situ/laboratory soil tests.

In this paper, semi-analytical solutions for shear transfer and load-settlement response are developed
in order to provide a practical and cost-effective alternative to the t-z method. Governing equations
for pile-soil interaction are first developed, by uncoupling shaft and base resistances. Through
analysis of a large database of instrumented pile tests formed in weak rocks/clays, relationships are
formulated to represent shaft and base transfer characteristics. The method takes into consideration
spatial variations in shear load transfer with depth, due to changes in the intensity of applied pile
head load.

METHODOLOGY OF ANALYSIS
The governing equations for an axially loaded pile can be written as follows, after Randolph and
Wroth (1978):

(1)

(2)

(3)

where P(z) = axial force in pile at depth z; f s(z) = local unit shaft resistance mobilised at depth z;
w(z)= vertical displacement of pile at depth z; Ds = pile shaft diameter; and Ep = elastic modulus of
pile material.

It is usually very difficult to model and predict the shaft resistance versus depth variations, even for
piles in homogeneous soil media. This is because shaft resistance mobilization is influenced not
only by the pile and soil properties but also by the following: (i) pile-soil interface geometry and
slip characteristics, (ii) method of pile installation, (iii) stresses acting on the pile-soil interface and
(iv) pile loading procedure and speed. Examination of a large database of pile tests shows that f s(z)
can be approximated based on the assumption that the shear modulus, Gs of the soil varies as a
parabolic function of depth:

(4)

where A, B, C are constants. For a particular pile head load, the mobilised shaft resistance can be
related to the shaft settlement Ds through the function:

(5a)
(5b)

where f us=maximum average unit shaft resistance; Dsc = critical shaft settlement (Ds value
corresponding to f us). For a given pile, Dsc is related to Ds, pile length, L, the mean shear strength of
the soil around pile shaft, cu and two empirical constants A1 and A2. Hence:

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(6)

The values of A1 and A2 are expected to be influenced by factors such as pile-soil interface
properties, pile installation effects, rate of loading and correlation between shear strength and shear
modulus of soil.

Corresponding to the shear modulus variation model in Equation 4, the variation, with depth, of the
limiting shear stress at the pile-soil interface is assumed to be

(7)

Equations (1)-(3) lead to the following general solutions:

(7)

(8)

where the basic coefficients a1, a2, a3 and a4 and the constant C1 are determined by iteration, by
satisfying simultaneously the force equilibrium and displacement compatibility conditions of the
pile-soil system. From analysis of a hypothetical pile, typical plots of f s(z) and P(z) versus z are
shown in Figures 1-2.

Figure 1. Typical axial force versus depth variation, for various applied head loads (%) of ultimate
head capacity) plotted in a normalised form, from analysis of a hypothetical pile

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Figure 2. Typical shaft resistance versus depth variation, for various applied head loads (as in
Fig.1)
plotted in a normalized form, from analysis of a hypothetical pile

EQUATIONS FOR IDEALISED PILE

To ensure force equilibrium and displacement compatibility for the idealized pile, the following
boundary conditions must be satisfied.

(i) when z=0, P(z) equals the applied head load Ph; at pile toe level z=L (where L=pile length) and
P(z)=Pb=(1-y)Ph, where y=Ps/Ph in which Ps and Pb are the mobilised shaft and base resistances
respectively. It should be noted that y varies with Ph.

(ii) df s(z)/dz=0 when z=wL, where w is a constant (0 < w < 1) for a given Ph but varies with the ratio
Ph/Puh, where Puh is the maximum pile head load. Reese et al. (1976) Published shaft resistance
distribution plots for 4 instrumented piles formed in clay, for the full range of head loads from zero
to the ultimate value. Based on non-linear regression analysis of the shaft resistance distribution
profiles, it has been found that the best fit parabola representing f s(z) is such that dfs(z)/dz=0 when
z=wL, where w can be calibrated from pile data in terms of Ph/Puh.

(iii) positive f s values are guaranteed for all values of z as Ph increases from zero to Puh by using
the ratio fsb/fso of the unit shaft resistance at z=L to that at the surface, z=0 as a parameter to
control the shape of the f s(z) curve. Practically, fso is usually small but not zero hence fso may be
assumed to correspond to a small value of z, say z=1x10-5L. Based on examination of the pile data
reported by Reese et al. (1976), f sb/f so can be represented by three different values, depending on
the magnitude of the applied head load as a percentage of the ultimate head capacity.

Invoking the above boundary conditions, the following solutions are obtained:

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(9a)

where

(9b)

(9c)

B = 1x10-5L (9d)

Through parametric analysis using the pile data reported by Reese et al. (1976), the following values
of the parameter A are found to be appropriate for the loading ranges specified:

(9e)

An expression for the constant C1 in Equation (8) can be derived by satisfying the boundary
condition that at z=0, w(z)=((b+ep) where ep is the compression of the pile. Therefore:

(10)

As will be discussed later, the first step in applying the proposed method is to choose a suitable
range of Db values. Then the Pb values corresponding to the Db values are calculated. Hence, it is
imperative that a generic relationship between Pb and Db must be obtained. This is discussed in a
separate section ahead.

Using the condition w(z) = Db when z=L enables ep to be expressed as follows:

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(11)

The average shaft displacement Ds is the mean value of w(z) from z=0 to z=L, which is derived to
be:

(12)

It should be borne in mind that Equations (6)-(8) are only fully defined if, for a given Ph value, ( is
known from which (1 to (4 can be calculated. To calculate(, an iterative scheme can be developed,
which ensures compatibility between Equation (12) and the shear resistance versus displacement
characteristics of the soil at the particular site. A general function for shear resistance versus
displacement is presented in the following section

SHAFT TRANSFER RELATIONSHIP

Wright and Reese (1979) reported load tests on 4 large diameter bored, cast in-place piles formed in
stiff over-consolidated clay. The piles were instrumented with Mustran cells installed at several
selected levels. The results have been interpreted in order to model the relationship between
mobilised shaft resistance Ps and average shaft displacement (s. It is found that a plot of Ps/((s
versus ((s is reasonably linear, with correlation coefficients, R2, falling in the range R2=0.89-0.99.

Further, it is found that the numerical values of the gradient ms and the intercept I on the Ps/((s axis
are such that the quantity {-I2/(4ms)} represents the maximum shaft resistance, Pus whereas
{I/(2ms)}2 is the value of (s corresponding to Pus. This (s value will be referred to as the “critical
shaft settlement”, (sc. Therefore, for (s((sc, the variation of Ps with (s can be represented as follows:

For (s>(sc, it is assumed that Ps=Pus.

Based on studies with model piles, Bea (1975) found that (sc is proportional to shaft diameter Ds.
Whitaker and Cooke (1966) reached the same conclusion, based on a large number of full-scale load
tests on bored piles formed in clay. BS 8004 (1986) states that (sc is proportional to Ds and
recommends that (sc should be taken as 1-5% Ds, for piles in clay. It is suggested that (sc should be
expressed as (sc=nDs, where n is a constant, which is determined by the properties of the soil and of
the pile-soil interface. To determine the constant n, plots of f usDs/(sc (where f us=maximum average
unit shaft resistance) versus average undrained strength cu, along the pile shaft, were plotted using
Wright and Reese (1979) data. The graphs are reasonably linear with a strong correlation coefficient
R2=0.985 on average. Therefore n can be expressed as follows:

where the units of (sc and Ds are metres, f us and are in MN/m2. Hence combining Equations
(12)-(13), it is possible to relate Ps to (s as follows:

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(14)

For a given site, cu can be measured using conventional methods based on laboratory soil tests
and/or in-situ tests such as SPT (standard penetration tests) or CPT (cone penetration tests). To
determine f us, where data from static load tests are available, Eurocode 7 (1995) and BS 8004
(1986) recommend that use should be made of calculation formulae, which are based on established
correlation between the load test results and field/laboratory test findings.

BASE TRANSFER RELATIONSHIP

Different base transfer functions, relating unit base resistance fb and base movement (b, have been
proposed. Vijayvergiya (1977) suggested that fb varies as a power function of (b. Hirayama (1990)
and Carrubba (1997) suggested a two-constant hyperbolic relation between fb and (b, for bored piles
and rock-socket piles. For clays and weak rocks, examination of pile database shows that base
transfer response can be modeled realistically in (a) two phases for “clean” bases (b) three phases
for situations where highly compressible soil debris or rock fragments is present immediately
beneath the piles base (“unclean” bases).

Figure 3 shows normalised base transfer curves for some instrumented piles in Mercia mudstone
(TP3, TP4 and TP5) and clay (SA, HBT and PR3). The plots illustrate the variation Pb/Pub with
(b/(mDb), where Pub is ultimate base resistance; Db is pile base diameter and m is a constant. The
product mDb is the critical base displacement, which is the value of (b corresponding to Pub. From
the load test results, where ultimate base capacity was very closely approached (piles TP5 and
HBT), it has been estimated that m=0.20-0.22 for the piles formed in weathered Mercia mudstone
and m=0.06-0.11 for the piles in clay. The shapes of the curves for piles TP3-TP5 (Fig. 3) strongly
suggest unclean base conditions. The remaining piles are regarded as having “clean” bases.

Figure 3. Normalised base transfer curves for bored piles installed in Mercia mudstone and clay

It can also be seen that, for the intervals 0(Pb/Pub(( (clean bases) and ((Pb/Pub(( (unclean bases), the
plots are reasonably linear for values ((0.2 and ((0.4. Typically, the slope Sg of the linear segment
can be expressed as Sg=(Nb, where is the average SPT “N” value at the pile base level. By back

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analysis of pile test results and borehole data, it has been established that, for weathered Mercia
mudstone, ((0.03. Details of the formulation of the general base transfer functions, based on
satisfying the Pb-(b boundary conditions, is described by Delpak et al (2000). The derived functions
for the three phases are:

(15c)
for ((Pb/Pub(1

where A2 is defined by the following transcendental function, which can be solved using Newton’s
(or bisection) method:

(16)

The remaining constants are then calculated as follows:

(17)

The ultimate unit base resistance, f ub, through which Pub is calculated, can also be determined using
laboratory soil tests and/or in-situ tests. It is again emphasized that, where possible, f ub should be
derived from calculation rules based on established correlation between the results of static load
tests and the results of field/laboratory tests.

ALGORITHM FOR PILE ANALYSIS

The pile dimensions, pile elastic modulus and the required soil parameters must be known. Values
(N in number) of (b, ranging from zero to a maximum of 10%Db, are then generated. Equal (b
increments of say, 10%Db/N are used for a pile whereby the load resistance is more or less
uniformly shared between the shaft and base, for most of the loading range. In other cases, there can
be a great difference between the rates of increase of shaft and base resistance with increasing
settlement. In such a situation, a reasonable spread of data points in the calculated load-settlement
curve can be obtained by taking (b increments as follows:

of 10%Db/N for the first N/4 values, then

1/3 of 10%Db/N for the next N/4 values, next

of 10%Db/N for the subsequent N/4 values, then

of 10%Db/N for the following N/8 values, finally

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10%Db/N for the last N/8 values.

The authors have produced a new interactive computer program, in graphical user interface format,
for calculating load-settlement and axial force distribution. The program determines the correct (
value for each (b value as follows: First, Pus and Pub are computed from f us and f ub respectively.
Then Puh is evaluated from Puh= Pus+Pub; n is calculated using Equation (13), hence (sc is found
from (sc=nDs. For every (b value:

Calculate Pb from Equations 15(a)-(c), appropriate for the regime of (b, after re-arranging as
necessary

(i) Assume (s=(b

(ii) If (s<(sc then carry out stePs 4-16, otherwise skip to step 17

(iii) Calculate Ps from Equation (14)

(iv) Obtain Ph from Ph=Ps+Pb

(v) Calculate ( from (=Ps/Ph

(vi) Evaluate the constant A from Equation 9(e), knowing Ph/Puh

(vii) Compute the current value of ( knowing Ph/Puh

(viii) Determine the constant C from Equation 9(b)

(ix) Calculate (4, (1, (2 and (3 (in that order) from Equation 9(a)

(x) Determine ep from Equation (11)

(xi) Evaluate the constant C1 from Equation (10)

(xii) Compute (s using Equation (12)

(xiii) If the absolute value of the difference between the assumed and calculated (s values (from
stePs 2 and 13 respectively is greater than, say 0.01mm then repeat stePs 3-14, using the last
calculated (s value as the assumed value, until convergence is achieved.

(xiv) Obtain (h from (h=ep+(b

(xv) Compute the axial force distribution from Equation (7) using, say 20 equal increments of depth,
z. This is the final step for (b values for which (s<(sc.

(xvi) For all (b values, Ps=Pus

(xvii) Carry out stePs 5-13 and 15-16.

LOAD TRANSFER ANALYSIS

Shaft t-z relation

Hyperbolic t-z curves are widely used and the most appropriate representation, which takes into
account the roughness of the pile-soil interface, is that proposed by Kim et al. (1999). The mobilised
unit shaft resistance f s(z) at depth z is related to the local pile displacement w(z) at that depth
through the following expression:

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(18)

where f us(z)=ultimate unit shaft resistance at depth z; Ds=pile shaft diameter; K and ( are numerical
constants determined by the roughness of the pile-soil interface. Based on test results from
instrumented piles subjected to uplift loading in weathered rocks, Kim et al. (1999) established the
following K and ( values: (a) Rough interface: K=3.86 (mm)-0.5, (=1.0 (non-dimensional) (b)
Smooth interface: K=6.26 (mm)-0.5, (=1.35. For the continuous flight auger (CFA) piles analysed in
this paper, it is appropriate to adopt the parameters relating to a rough pile-soil interface.

Base p-y relation

Hyperbolic functions are also widely used to model base p-y curves for cohesive soils and soft
rocks. Analysis of base transfer data from the pile tests reported by Wright and Reese (1979) shows
that a suitable p-y model is of the form:

(19)

where Eb=deformation modulus of the soil within the influence zone beneath the pile base level. For
weathered rocks, BS 8004 (1986) recommends that Eb should be estimated from Eb= jMr(c (in
MPa) where j=mass factor (j=0.2 from Table 4 of BS 8004 for group 2/3 rocks); (c=uni-axial
strength (MPa); Mr=250. Using the correlation cu=5-6 times SPT “N” (kN/m2) suggested by Stroud
(1989) and, by convention, (c =2cu hence (c=12Nb kN/m2.

The authors have developed a second computer program, based on the t-z method (Coyle and Reese,
1966), in windows format. The pile to be analysed is divided into 10-12 segments, limiting segment
lengths to 1.2m. Correspondingly, the soil around the pile shaft is divided into 10-12 layers. The
layers can have different values of K,(, and SPT “N” or CPT-qc. These parameters must be input
into the program. The program includes empirical correlations for calculating the f us(z) values for
the specified soil layers.

THREE METHODS APPLIED TO CFA PILES

Three continuous flight auger (CFA) piles, formed in weathered mudstone, were analyzed using the
proposed method (UoG program), t-z analysis and the method suggested by Fleming (1992). The
piles, which are 0.6 m in diameter and 23 m in length, were installed and tested in the year 2000 as
part of a large scale building development in South Wales, UK. The calculated load-settlement
curves for the piles are compared with the measured data in Figures 4-6.

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Figure 4. Measured and predicted load-settlement curves for CFA pile P1 in Mercia mudstone

Figure 5. Measured and predicted load-settlement curves for CFA pile P2 in Mercia mudstone

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Figure 6. Measured and predicted load-settlement curves for CFA pile P3 in Mercia mudstone

It is seen that the proposed method yields the most accurate predictions, especially at the anticipated
working load of 0.4Puh. Since the piles had no shaft instrumentation, the calculated load
distributions (using the proposed method and t-z method) have not been reported here. It should be
noted that Fleming’s (1992) method does not include a capability to predict axial forces in piles.

CONCLUSIONS
The semi-analytical method presented in this paper provides a reasonably accurate and practical
alternative to the load transfer method. The method has the advantage over other methods in that
only routinely available soil parameters are required. The method predicts accurately the axial load
transfer and settlement of a loaded pile. Important factors such as pile-soil interface properties, pile
installation effects, rate of loading and correlation between shear strength and shear modulus of soil
are automatically accounted for in modeling shaft load transfer. Owing to its simplicity, the
proposed method is readily adjustable to cater for a variety of soil types, and hence it is likely to be
of significant benefit to structural/foundation engineers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special appreciation is due to The Royal Society, London, UK, for generously providing an Industry
Fellowship grant (No. 533002.K5170) for 2 years to support the lead author while carrying out a
project at Lankelma Piling & Engineering Ltd, East Sussex, UK. Other thanks go to Messrs E Zon
and J Brouwer of Lankelma for their collaboration and financial contribution. The University of
Glamorgan Directorate is thanked for making various facilities available.

REFERENCES
1. Bea, R.G. (1975) “Parameters Affecting Axial Capacity of Piles in Clay”. Proceedings of the

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7th Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, Paper No. O.T.C. 2307, pp 611-623.

2. BS 8004 (1986) “Code of Practice for Foundations”. British Standards Institution, Milton
Keynes, United Kingdom.

3. Carrubba, P. (1997) “Skin Friction of Large Diameter Piles Socketed into Rock” Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 34, pp 230-240.

4. Coyle, H. M., and L.C. Reese (1966) “Load Transfer for Axially Loaded Piles in Clay”.
American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering Division, Vol. 92(SM2), pp 1-26.

5. Delpak. R., J.R. Omer and R.B. Robinson (2000) “Load-Settlement Prediction Method for
Large Diameter, Bored Cast in-situ Piles Formed in Mercia Mudstone”. Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Geotechnical Engineering Vol. 143, pp 201-224.

6. Eurocode 7 (1995) “Draft for Development: Geotechnical Design: Part 1. General Rules
(Together with UK National Application Document)”. British Standards Institution, Milton
Keynes, United Kingdom.

7. Fleming, W. G. K. (1992) “A New Method for Single Pile Settlement Prediction and
Analysis”. Geotechnique Vol. 42, No. 3, pp 411-425.

8. Hirayama, H. (1990) “Load-Settlement Analysis for Bored Piles Using Hyperbolic Transfer
Functions”. Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp 55-64.

9. Kim, S., S. Jeong, S. Cho, I. and Park (1999) “Shear Load Transfer Characteristics of Drilled
Shafts in Weathered Rocks”. American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Geotechnical
and Geo-environmental Engineering, Vol. 125, No. 11, pp 999-1010.

10. Randolph, M.F, and C. P. Wroth (1978) “Analysis of Deformation of Vertically Loaded
Piles”. American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division,
Vol. 104, No. GT12, pp 1465-1488.

11. Reese, L.C., F.T. Touma and M.W. O’Neill (1976) “Behaviour of Drilled Piers under Axial
Loading”. American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division, Vol. 102, No. GT5, pp 493-510.

12. Stroud, M.A. (1989) “The Standard Penetration Test-its Application and Interpretation”.
Institution of Civil Engineers Conference on Penetration Testing, Birmingham, United
Kingdom. Thomas Telford, London, pp. 29-49.

13. Vijayvergiya, V. N. (1977) “Load-Settlement Characteristics of Piles”. Proceedings of Port

’77 Conference, Long Beach, California, pp 269-284.

14. Whitaker, R., and R.W. Cooke (1966) “An Investigation of the Shaft and Base Resistances of
Large Bored Piles in London Clay”. Institution of Civil Engineers Proceedings of the
Symposium on Large Bored Piles, London, pp 7-49.

15. Wright, S.J. and L.C. Reese (1979) “Design of Large Diameter Bored Piles. Ground
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© 2007 ejge

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