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A Historical View of Woman in Music Education Careers

Author(s): Sondra Wieland Howe


Source: Philosophy of Music Education Review, Vol. 17, No. 2, Women and the Work of Music
Education (Fall, 2009), pp. 162-183
Published by: Indiana University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40495498
Accessed: 23-12-2015 09:52 UTC

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A HISTORICALVIEW OF WOMEN IN
MUSIC EDUCATION CAREERS
SONDRAWIELANDHOWE
Wayzata,Minnesota
howex009@umn.edu

Abstract: Womenmusiceducatorsin theUSA havebeenactivein publicand


private schools, and community
churches, organizations.In thenineteenth
century, JuliaE. CranefoundedtheCraneInstitute ofMusic,thefirst institu-
tionto trainmusicsupervisors;and womendevelopedkindergarten programs
throughout the US. In the"privatesphere,"womentaughtin homestudios
and Sundayschools,and publishedchildren's songsand hymns. In 1907,the
MusicSupervisors NationalConference (whichbecametheMusicEducators
NationalConference) wasfoundedundertheleadership ofFrancesE. Clark,
althoughonlythirteen womenhavebeenpresident ofMENC between1907
and 20 Ì0. In thetwentieth womenhaveeditedmusictextbook
century, series
and servedon editorialboardsofmusiceducationjournals.Thissurvey ofna-
tionallyprominent musiceducators
showstheimportance ofqualityeducation,
guidingpersonalphilosophies,positive mentors,
supportive and leadership op-
portunitieswithintheprofessionfordevelopingsuccessful
lifetimecareers.

Throughout Americanhistory
womenhavetaughtmusicin theirhomesand
butwomen'sexperiences
communities, aremissingfromthehistorical
narrative.
Womenhave taughtsingingin nursery and
schools,churches, public schools.

© Philosophy
ofMusicEducationReview,17,no. 2 (Fall 2009)

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 163

They havetaughtin home studios,community musicschools,and conservato-


ries.They have directedinstrumental ensembles,publishedtextbooks, taught
college courses,led organizations, and done research. What did these women
thinkoftheirmusicteachingas a careerand wayoflife?Did theyhavea guid-
ingphilosophy directingtheirlives?Did theyreflect on theirsuccesses,frustra-
and
tions, disappointments? Does the traditional historicalaccountincludetheir
significance?
While scholarshave begun to writethe biographiesof some outstanding
womenin musiceducation,thereis no literature on howthesewomenviewed
theircareers.Musicologists sincethe 1980shavepublishednumerousbookson
womencomposers,making"invisiblewomen"visibleand highlighting women
composers who were exceptions in their historical period. Music educatorsneed
to uncover women music teachers of the as are
past they developing feminist
theoriesin musiceducation.JaneRolandMartincommentsthatsome willac-
cuse scholarsofbeingelitistiftheyconcentrate on theexceptionalwomenofthe
past,but we need to know theseexceptional women to learnhowtheysolvedthe
"dilemmaofbeinglivingcontradictions" so we do notreinvent thepast.1
Musiceducatorsin publicschoolsand universities in thetwenty-first
century
arequestioning thedemandsoftheprofession as theystruggle withdifficultwork
loads,trytobalanceworkand family responsibilities,and worry aboutcolleagues
leavingtheprofession because of"burnout."It is essentialto lookat thepastto
see howmusicteachershavedefinedtheircareers.Has theprofession changed,
or have educatorsstruggled withthesesame issuesbefore?For some women
and men,musicteachingmayjustbe a job or an occupationto earna living,
but thisessaywillconcentrate on examplesofAmericanmusiceducatorswho
have pursuedlong-term professional careersof teachingwhilecontributing to
theimprovement oflocal and nationalmusiceducationthrough organizational
leadershipand writing.
This paperwilllookat somesuccessful, productive womenmusiceducators
to see ifthereare modelsfora careerpattern thathas enabledthemto succeed.
Whatdoes it takeforwomenin musiceducationto become successfulleaders
and shapersoftheprofession? Mostlikelythesuccessfuleducatorcame froma
supportive familywhereshe learnedtoplayinstruments, sang,and performed in
encouraging environments. Thiseducatorreceivedan excellentpost-high school
educationincludinggeneraleducationcourses,musicstudy,and teachertrain-
ingwithsupportive advisersand mentors. Atsome pointthiseducatorprobably
felta senseofmissionordevelopeda philosophy tosustaina long-term career.As
thismodeleducatormovedthrough differentstages of a career(teachingvarious
age groups,performing, accepting administrative and writing),
responsibilities,
thereweremany mentors plussupportive family relationships. educatorwas
This

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164 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

involvedin community publishedarticlesand books,and held posi-


activities,
tionsofleadershipin stateand nationalorganizations.As thissuccessfulcareer
progressedthrough severaldecades, therewas productivecritiquefromencour-
agingcolleaguespluspositiveacknowledgement ofsuccess fromthemusicedu-
cationprofession.
As we listento thestoriesof musiceducatorsof thepast,we
can testthismodelforaccuracyand see howwomencoped withtheproblemsof
discrimination
and isolation.
NINETEENTH-CENTURY MODELS
In thenineteenth century,therewerefewopportunities forstudying music
educationin institutions. Prospective teacherstook short-term coursesin sum-
merinstitutes or normalschools,studiedvoiceand instruments withindividual
teachers,orwereself-taught. Womenwererestricted in traveltoconventions and
did nottravelas itinerantsingingmasters. Textbookpublishingand supervisory
positionsin publicschoolmusicweredominatedbymen.These men had little
formaleducation,taughtin variousurbanschool districts, supervisedfemale
classroomteachers,and traveledaroundthe countryattendingmusic confer-
ences.Forexample,LutherWhitingMason (1818-1896) wasa self-taught musi-
cian fromruralMaine,without a collegedegree.He taughtmusicin Baltimore,
Maryland;Louisville,Kentucky; and Cincinnati,Ohio, beforesupervising music
in theprimary gradesand training teachersin the Bostonpublic schoolsfrom
1864to 1878.He taughtin Japanfortwoyearsand traveledto Europefourtimes
to collectmaterialforhis musictextbooks. Mason had a supportive family.He
wasable totravelbecausehiswife,HannahEllisAllen,stayedin Maine withhis
twodaughters and caredforthefamilyproperty. Mason'scareerwas successful
because he had an independenceto pursuehis goals withoutspendingmuch
timewithhisfamily.2
JuliaEttieCrane (1855-1923), founderof the Crane Institute of Music in
Potsdam,New York,was an exceptionaleducator.3She attendedthe district
schoolsin Potsdamand graduatedfromthePotsdamNormalSchool. She stud-
ied piano as a child and had manyopportunities to playand singin schools,
and
churches, singing schools.She laterstudiedvoice in LondonunderManuel
Garcia, teacherof Jenny Lind. Crane in
taught publicschoolsin Shippensburg,
Pennsylvania, and then in her privatevoice studioin Potsdamfortwo years.
When she accepteda positionteachingmusicat the PotsdamNormalSchool
in 1884,she had alreadysetcleargoalsforhercareer.She wantedtoexpandthe
musicprogram in thePotsdamNormalSchool so thegraduates wouldbe as well
prepared to teach music in the elementary as
grades they were to teachreading
or history.
Since Dr. Cook,principaloftheNormalSchool,wasverysupportive,
Cranebegana musicsupervisor's program. She continuedthePotsdamtradition

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 165

ofqualitypreparation ofteachersand developedtheoretical and practicalmate-


rialformethodsclasses.4In additionto teaching,Crane was activein national
organizations: theMusic DivisionoftheNationalEducationAssociation and the
Music Supervisors NationalConference.Her writings on musicteachingem-
phasizedtheimportance oftheemotionalaspectofthechildand thetherapeutic
valuesofmusic.5
The availablematerialson Crane do notrevealherpersonalfeelingsabout
hercareer,butshe wasclearaboutthequalitiesnecessary fora teacher'ssuccess.
A teachershouldhave a spiritof humility. A successfulteachershouldbe an
excellentmusician,and shouldunderstand musichistory, theory, and pedagogy.
A supervisor mustunderstand theneedsofthecommunity and continueto seek
moreeducation.Crane workedundersupportive presidents at Potsdamand the
Crane School ofMusic is thriving today.6
Womenhavealwaysbeen encouragedto workwithyoungchildrenas an ex-
tensionoftraining childrenin thefamily, and womenwereinvolvedin develop-
the
ing kindergarten in the United States. The kindergarten, createdin Germany
by Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel, was a compromise between home-centered and
institutionalchild rearing.Teachertrainingwas partof the kindergarten, and
manyAmericanwomenwentto Germanyto studythemovement.Margarethe
MeyerSchurzfoundedthe first kindergarten in 1855 in Wisconsin.Elizabeth
PalmerPeabody,an educatorin Boston,spreadthekindergarten in theEnglish-
speakingcommunity. Susan Elizabeth Blow led the kindergartens and teacher-
trainingprograms in St. Louis. Annie Lyon Howe studied at the Rockford Female
Seminary in Illinois and the Chicago Froebel Association. She spentforty years
in Japan,promoting Froebel'sprinciples and trainingkindergarten teachers.7
Since womenin thenineteenth century wereexpectedtostayin the"private
sphere" of the home, most of theircontributions to musiceducationwerecon-
finedto thehome,youngchildren,and women'sorganizations and institutions.
Womenstudiedprivately, taught in home and
studios, publishedcompositions in
women'smagazinesliketheGodey'sLady'sBook.Womenwereactivein writing
children'ssongsand hymns;forexample,Anna B. Warnerwrote"JesusLoves
Me" and FrancesJaneCrosbywrotethe textsforover9,000 hymns.Women
taughtmusicin femaleacademies,one-roomschool houses,Sundayschools,
and churchcharity schools.8Societyencouragedwomento pursuemusicin the
privatesphere,especiallyiftheywereunmarried. Ifwomen,marriedor unmar-
ried,needed to contribute financially to theirfamily,itwasconsideredproperto
teachmusicprivately or topublishchildren'ssongsand hymns.These contribu-
tionsofwomenin homesand churchestrainedmusiciansand benefited public
school musicprograms. Martincommentsthatthe contributions of the home
are today"reliedon byschooland societybutrefusedpublicrecognition."9 Cer-

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166 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

tainlythetraditionalaccountofthehistoryofmusiceducationdoes notrecog-
nize musicin thehomeand community, teachingthatenablesthepublicschool
musicprograms to succeed.

MUSIC SUPERVISORS EARLY IN THE TWENTIETH


CENTURY
The periodof 1890to 1920sawtheemergenceofmodernwomenwhowere
oftencollege-educated, oftenunmarried, and self-supporting.10
Since educated
womenwere excludedfrommanymale professions, theypursuedcareersin
teaching,nursing, and social work whilewomen with less educationworkedin
blue-collarjobs,offices,and in servicepositions.As womenmovedfromprivate
topublicspaces,manynewfemale-dominated institutions
weredeveloped-wom-
en's colleges,settlement houses,and reform associations.
Culturaland political
organizations helpedwomen,and thesuffrage movement finally
brought women
therightto votein 1920. Beginningin the 1890s,femalemusicteacherssuper-
visedmusicin cityschoolsand wereactivein local and statemusicorganizations.
Theyhad opportunities tostudymusicin normalschoolsand summerinstitutes.
Since traintransportation was good,womentraveledto nationalmeetings, and
became involvedin organizing events,presenting papers,and performing.
In 1907 music supervisors met in Keokuk,Iowa, underthe leadershipof
FrancesElliot Clark (1860-1958). This groupbecame the Music Supervisors
NationalConference(MSNC), changeditsname to the Music EducatorsNa-
tionalConferencein 1934,and todayis MENC: The NationalAssociationfor
Music Education.11 Clarkhad an amazing,longcareerin manyareasofmusic
education.She wouldbe calleda "singleMom" todaybecausesheraisedherson
afterherhusbandand daughter died.She graduatedfromTri-State NormalCol-
legein Indianaand receivedan honorary doctoratefromTempleUniversity. She
taught in several
Midwestern statesand was the supervisor ofmusic in Milwau-
kee,Wisconsin.Mostofhercareerwasspentat RCA Victor(1911-1947) where
shepromoted theuse ofrecordings in publicschools.In additiontowriting many
articlesin professional
journals, wasactivein nationalorganizations
she through-
outherlife:as an officer in theDepartment ofMusic EducationoftheNational
EducationAssociation (NEA), first leaderoftheMSNC, and founderoftheNa-
tionalFederation ofMusic Clubs.12
In 1950 Clarkreflected on thefirst decade ofthecenturywhensupervisors
"werenotacceptedas 'musicians'bytheprofessionals, noras 'educators'bythe
13She wasenthusiastic
intellectuals." aboutthecamaraderieofthesupervisors at
Keokukas theyplannedthefutureoftheMSNC: "We'dneverhad suchan op-
portunity, sucha richexperienceof'close family' withoutoutsiders. It wasgood,
better,¿esi."14Thiswasa friendly,supportive groupofeducatorswhosharedtheir

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 167

experiences.Clarkwas a rolemodel formanymusiceducatorsbecause of her


longcareerat RCA and involvement in manyprofessional organizations.
Forty ofthesixty-nine founding members ofMENC werewomen.15 Frances
Lee ArnoldgraduatedfromtheAmericanInstitute ofNormalMethodsand su-
pervisedthemusicin thegradeschoolsand directedmusicin theCentralHigh
SchoolofOmaha,Nebraska.BirdieAlexander(1870-1960)wasthemusicsuper-
visorin Dallas,Texas.She workedon theformation oftheTexasStateTeachers
Association and taughtinsummerprograms attheUniversity ofTexasand North-
western University in Evanston, Illinois.16
Alice CareyInskeep(1875-1942),edu-
catedat Iowa StateNormalSchool and in Chicago,taughtin Ottumwa,Iowa,
whenClarkwas the musicsupervisor. Inskeepspentmostof hercareeras the
musicsupervisor in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. She also taughtat Iowa StateNormal
School,Coe College,and in summerinstitutes. She wasactiveon variouscom-
mittees ofMSNC, includingthefirst EducationalCouncil.17Henrietta G. Baker
(1869-1960), MSNC president1912-1913,was thesupervisor of musicin the
Baltimorepublicschoolsand was thehead oftheDepartment ofSchool Music
at PeabodyConservatory. ElizabethCasterton(1877-1946),née MaryElizabeth
Borland,waspresident ofMSNC 1913-1914and supervisor ofmusicin Roch-
ester,NewYork.18 These earlymembers of MENC were educated in and taught
in normalschools.They held a variety ofpositionsin public schoolsas school
systems expanded with a growing demand formusicteachers.
Elsie M. Shawe(1866-1962)isan exampleofa musicsupervisor witha long,
successful careerin musiceducation.She wasthesupervisor ofmusicinthepub-
lic schoolsofSt. Paul, Minnesota,from1898to 1933.19She attendedVisitation
Conventin St. Paul,and studiedpiano,organ,voice,and theory privatelyin St.
Paul and Chicago.Herbrother had moreopportunities and studied in New York
and Berlin.He performed in the UnitedStates,Europe,and SouthAmerica,
and taughtin a musicstudioin St. Paul. Elsie'smother, Antoinette LinckShawe
wasan important rolemodel.Antoinette wasan organist and choirdirectorat St.
Mary's Catholic Church in St. Paul, and Elsie and her mother were involved
in themusicprograms at St. Mary'sforoversixtyyears.In the St. Paul public
schools,Elsie Shawe supervisedthe elementary classroomteachers,taughtin
theTeachersTrainingSchool,conductedchoirsand orchestras, and expanded
themusiccurriculum intothehighschools.In additionto herteachingand per-
forming, Shawe was active in statemusicorganizations, theNEA Department of
Music Education,and theMusic Supervisors NationalConference,servingon
committees and writing shortjournalarticles.
Attheage ofsixty-seven Shaweretired fromtheSt. Paul PublicSchools,kept
houseforherbrother and mother, and stillremainedactivein musicat St.Luke's
CatholicChurchin St.Paul.AswithCrane,wedo notknowhowShawereflected

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168 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

on herlengthy,busycareer.We onlyknowsome of thethoughts of thosewho


wroteabouther.She wasproud,austere,and independent, butwarmtochildren.
Atherretirement,thelocal newspaperdescribedShawein an article,"St. Paul's
FirstLady of Music,"emphasizingher workwithteachers:"Perhapsthe most
importantofherinfluenceshasbeen theone exertedall theseyearsoverthework
oftheteacherfortheyare theones who carryon, and on whomthechildren's
Shawe's workin St. Paul was carriedon byMathildaAgnes
welfaredepends."20
Heck, who was herassistantfrom1921-1933and supervisor 1933-57. School
teachingwasan excitingcareerwithfinancialsecurity
forwomenin thefirst half
ofthetwentiethcentury.These women were independent, althoughtheyusually
sacrificed
marriageand childrenfortheircareers.

LEADERSHIP OPPORTUNITIES IN THE TWENTIETH


CENTURY
Womenhad increasedopportunities fora qualityeducationin thetwentieth
century. Manywereencouragedbyfriends and familyto continuetheircareers
in musiceducation,butwomenneededleadershipopportunities, at thenational
level,to makean impacton theprofession. Throughout the twentieth century,
some womenwereactivein nationalmusicorganizations. Beforethe MSNC
was established, womenwereactivein the Departmentof Music Educationof
theNationalEducationAssociation (NEA).21Theyservedas officers, committee
and
members,performers, presentedpapers. These active womenweremusic
supervisorsofpublicschoolsystems, teachersin normalschools,and professors
in universities.
Manyoftheseeducatorswereactivein bothNEA and MSNC.
In theearlyyearsoftheMSNC, whenClark,Baker,and Castertonpresided,
themaintaskforthepresident wasto organizetheconferences whichincluded
schooldemonstrations, and
concerts, speeches.Although women had been in-
volvedin MENC committees and held officersin thedivisions,thereare only
thirteen womenMENC presidents in one hundredyears(1907-2010).22Focus-
ing on the top leadershipin a hierarchicalorganization like MENC does not
revealthetrueimpactofwomenin musiceducationbecause womenmakeup
themajority of elementarymusicteachersand womenare supervisors in pub-
lic schoolsand artsorganizations, independent studio teachers,patrons,and
volunteers.
Althoughsome scholarsclaim it is elitistto researchoutstanding women,
JaneRolandMartin,a specialistin thephilosophy ofeducation,writesthatthe
studyofexceptionalwomenis oftenrelevantto one'sowntime.
.... reflection
onthelifestories
ofthosefewwhohaverisenfrom theranks
canenhanceourunderstanding oftheplight
ofthemajority.
... To be igno-
rant ofhowtheeducated
women ofthisandearlier
times
solvedthedilemma

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 169

ofbeingliving
contradictions
is tobe condemned ourlivesand
toreinvent
ourwork fromonemoment tothenext.23

Threeoutstanding MENC presidents in themiddleofthecentury wereMa-


belle Glenn (1881-1969),Lilla Belle Pitts(1884-1970),and Marguerite Vivian
Hood (1903-1992).Theywereall unmarried womenwhoobtainedan excellent
education,taughtin a varietyofschoolsettings,trainedteachersat theuniversity
level,publishedtextbooksand journalarticles,and workedhardin musiceduca-
tionorganizationsat thestateand nationallevels.Theyreceivedrecognition for
theiraccomplishments and livedlonglives.
Mabelle Glenn waseducatedat Monmouth(Illinois)College Conservatory
and receivedan honorary musicdoctoratefromtheChicago Musical College.
She wasa supervisor ofmusicin Bloomington, ofmusicin
Illinois,and director
KansasCity,Missouri.Glennwaspresident ofMSNC (1928-1930) when a new
constitutionwasadoptedand held manypositionsofleadershipwithinMSNC/
MENC. She publishedbookson musicappreciation, psychology, glee club col-
lections,and wasan editorofthetextbook seriesOur SingingWorldand Worldof
MusicpublishedbyGinn.24
Glenn'swritings showherenthusiasm forhercareerand thehighidealsshe
promoted. In 1930 she expressed concern forthe changesin societyand the
importance ofmusic.

Weareliving thatisundergoing
ina world andaccelerated
extensive change.
Ourtimesarechanging as timeneverchangedbefore.Schoolsmustmeet
dailyandchangeofthought
newsituations mustgoaheadtoshowtheway.
In thechangeofthought among leadersin education, a
musicis finding
definite
place.25

Glennwantedmusiceducatorstoencouragecreativeart,teachstudents to listen
to tastefulmusic,and trainstudents to makeprofitable use oftheirleisuretime.
"Helpingto equip the individualso thathe willsupplementhis hoursof labor
witha richrecreational lifeis the taskthatthe workersin generaleducation
wouldassignto musiceducationists today.This is theirchallenge."26
Pittsstudiedat theChicagoConservatory ofMusic,Northwestern University,
and Columbia Teachers College. She taughtin Louisiana,Texas,and New Jer-
sey,and wason thefaculty ofColumbiaTeachersCollegeand FloridaStateUni-
versity.She wasan MENC president (1942-1944) and on theBoardofDirectors
oftheMetropolitan Opera Guild. She wrotenumerousarticlesencouraging pa-
trioticsongs,emphasizing theimportance ofnew and
technologies, urging edu-
catorstoexpandthecurriculum to be morerelevanttothechangingworld.27
In the 1940sPittswrotethatthemostimportant changeseffecting thought
and practicein musiceducationwere"expansion,multiplicity, stepped-up tern-

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170 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

pos, inter-Americanism, internationalism, and cooperativeinteraction."28 She


was impressedwiththe phenomenaldevelopmentin musiceducationdespite
shortages ofmaterials,financialcuts,and thecurtailment oftravelduringWorld
WarII. Accordingto Pitts,the majorachievementsof the decade werecoop-
erationwiththePan-American Union,an appreciation ofAmericanfolkmusic,
strongrelationships between musicology and music education,and the estab-
lishmentofa Code ofEthicsbetweenMENC and theAmericanFederationof
Musicians.29
Hood (1903-1992) waseducatedat Jamestown College (NorthDakota) and
theUniversity ofSouthernCalifornia.She wastheMontanaStateSupervisor of
Music,supervisor in Ann Arbor,Michigan, and a facultymember at theUniver-
sityofMontana,University ofSouthernCalifornia, and UniversityofMichigan.
She was an MENC president(1950-1952), on the MENC ResearchCouncil,
and the first womanchairperson of theeditorialboardof theMusic Educators
Journal. She was particularly interestedin educationforruralAmericaand she
workedon musiceducationradiobroadcasts. 30
In 1952Hood respondedtocriticism oftheprofession byencouraging educa-
torsto movebeyondthe job of musicteaching,continuetheireducation,and
takepositionsofresponsible leadershiptoplan forthefuture. Ifteacherswanted
recognition, theyneededtoactively participateincivic,musical,and educational
organizations. She urged,"Theremustbe voluntary participationin theactual
workofour ownprofessional organization and a real contributionofactivity
in
theseotherrelatedareasin ourcommunity, stateand nationallife."31
Glenn,Pitts,and Hood had long impressive careersand wroteenthusiasti-
cally aboutthe professionand the futureof music education.32Theyfolloweda
male careerpatternof hardwork,extensivetravel,strongleadershipskills,and
highenergy.Theirwritings discusstheirthoughts on the importanceof music
education,buttheydidnotreflect on thepersonalsacrifices theyhad to maketo
compete in a worldof male expectations.
After Hood therewereonlytwowomenMENC presidents beforethe 1990s-
FrancesM. Andrews(1970-1972) and MaryE. Hoffman(1980-1982). But this
wasa periodoffeminist activism!The women'sliberationmovementgrewand
theNationalOrganization forWomen(NOW) wasestablishedin thelate 1960s.
CongresspassedTitleIX oftheHigherEducationAct,women'sstudiescourses
began,and women'smusicfestivals flourished in the 1970s.Women'spolitical
organizations werestillthriving in the 1980s,butthesefeminist movements did
notseemtoeffect themusiceducationprofession.33
Andrews and Hoffman, liketheir"foremothers," werewelleducated,pursued
impressive careers,and were strong national leaders. Andrews(1908-1976) re-
ceiveda master'sdegreeand doctoratefromthe Pennsylvania State University

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 171

whereshe remainedon thefaculty from1943to 1973.In MENC she waspresi-


dentoftheEasternDivision,a memberoftheMusic EducationResearchCoun-
cil,and an editorial associatefortheJournal ofResearchin MusicEducation.She
published books on juniorhigh music and curriculum development.34 Hermain
accomplishment as MENC president(1970-1972) was the implementation of
the Goals and ObjectivesProject.Aftera turbulent timeforeducationin the
1960s,MENC plannedtheGO Projectto identify areasofconcern,explorethe
relevanceofthecurriculum, and develop"philosophicaland practicalbasesfor
thelong-term guidanceofmusiceducation."35
Hoffman(1926-1997) receiveda BS degreefromLebanon ValleyCollege
and a master's fromColumbiaTeachersCollege. She taughtin publicschoolsin
Delaware,Pennsylvania, and Connecticut, and wassupervisor ofmusicin Phila-
delphiaand Milwaukee.She taughtgraduatecoursesatColumbiaTeachersCol-
lege,TempleUniversity, and theUniversity ofIllinois(1979-1997).Hoffman was
an authorofthetextbooks WorldofMusic,SilverBurdett Mi/szc,and TheMusic
Connection.DuringherMENC presidency (1980-1982), twonationalconfer-
ences wereheld,and MENC establishedthe SocietyforGeneralMusic and
celebrateditsseventy-fifth anniversary.36
Eunice Boardman,Hoffman's colleagueattheUniversity ofIllinois,describes
Hoffman's enthusiasm formusiceducation:"She was an excellentteacherand
a reallygood musician.I enviedher ear and abilityto takethatmusicianship
and translate it intoclassroompractice.. . . She was veryeffective and verydy-
namic."37 According to Boardman, Hoffman was a leader in three areas: as a
professional in her work in MENC, especiallypromoting lifelonglearning;as a
writer oftextbooks; and as a day-to-day teacherand supervisor ofteachers.
It is astonishing thattherehavebeen onlytwo women MENC presidents in
theforty-year periodfrom1952to 1992.This showsa phenomenallackofisola-
tionoftheorganization fromthefeminist movements in society,and probably re-
flectsdiscrimination withinMENC. The 1950swasa conservative period when
womenworkedin traditional femaleoccupationsas secretaries, nurses,teachers,
or stayedat home and volunteered, but the women'smovementflourished in
the 1960s. Music and education have traditionallybeen feminine disciplines,
butMENC has been led bymen,following patriarchal valuesofthenineteenth
century. The MusicTeachersNationalAssociation (MTNA), an organization of
independent musicteachersfoundedin 1876,did nothavea womenpresident
until1970.38How did Andrewsand Hoffmancope in thisclimate?They con-
formedto theMENC expectations forleaders,based on valuesdefinedbypast
male leadership.
Duringthetwenty-year period1990-2010,fiveofthetenMENC presidents
have been women:DorothyA. Sträub,CarolynnA. Lindeman,JuneHinck-

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172 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

ley,LynnM. Brinckmeyer, and BarbaraL. Geer. Sträub(born 1941, MENC


president1992-1994)is themusiccoordinator forthe FairfieldPublic Schools
in Connecticutand a violistin the GreenwichSymphonyand the Greater
Bridgeport Symphony. She receiveda BME and MME fromIndianaUniversity.
Sträub, one of only twoAmericanStringTeachersAssociation membersto serve
as MENC president, haswritten articleson teachingstrings and she has received
awardsfromtheAmericanStringTeachersAssociation and theNationalSchool
OrchestraAssociation. Duringherpresidency theNationalArtsStandardswere
developedand MENC movedintonewheadquarters.39
Lindeman(born1940,MENC president1996-1998)waseducatedat Ober-
lin College Conservatory ofMusic,theMozarteumAcademyin Salzburg,San
FranciscoStateUniversity, and receiveda DMA degreefromStanfordUniver-
sity.She was a professor at San FranciscoStateUniversity from1973to 2005 and
activein variousnationaland international
is currently organizations. Lindeman
has concentrated on generalmusicand teachereducation.DuringherMENC
presidency she promotedthenationalstandards and advocacywithSträubas a
mentor.She is theserieseditorforStrategies forTeachingSeriesand has numer-
ous publications. she
Although acknowledges thatwomenhavefaceddiscrimi-
nationin academia,she believesthata "women'sstyle"is oftenimportant in
40
developingsocialopportunities withinorganizations.
Hinckley (1943-2007, MENC president1998-2000)waseducatedat Louisi-
ana Polytechnic Institute,StetsonUniversity, and receiveda Ph.D. fromFlorida
StateUniversity. Hinckleytaught in schools in Virginiaand New York.She was
theMusic and Fine ArtsSupervisor at BrevardCountySchool Districtin Flor-
ida and an artseducationspecialistforthe FloridaDepartmentof Education.
A strongadministrator, Hinckleyconceptualizedand implementedthe Vision
2020 Projectand theHousewright Symposiumon theFutureofMusic Educa-
tion.She publishedbookson middle-level generalmusic,and manyarticleson
musiceducation.41
Brinckmeyer (MENC president 2006-2008)is an associateprofessor ofmusic
and directorofchoralmusiceducationatTexasStateUniversity. Educatedat East-
ernNewMexicoUniversity andtheUniversity ofKansas(Ph.D.),shetaughtinNew
Mexicobeforemovingon to highereducationin thePacificNorthwest.42 Brinck-
meyer's termincludedcelebrations fortheone-hundredth anniversaryofMENC.
Geer (MENC president 2008-2010) was educatedat St. AndrewsPresbyterian
College (North Carolina) andtheUniversity ofNorthCarolina.She wasthemusic
consultantintheWinston-Salem/Forsyth SchoolSystemin NorthCarolina.
These fiveleadershavediverseeducationalbackgrounds, a varietyofteach-
ingexperiences, leadershiptraining at the regionaland national level,and de-
manding careers. These women were all born 1940 or laterand were probably

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 173

encouragedby thefeministmovementof the 1960sand 1970sto pursuetheir


careerambitions.Hopefullytherewillbe a balance betweenfemaleand male
leadershipin MENC inthetwenty-first
century. itisdoubtful
Nevertheless, ifthe
will
organization change because ofincreasedtiesto and
industry a focuson the
influenceofgovernment on
legislation education.

TEXTBOOK PUBLISHING
Textbookpublishinghas been an important aspectofwomen'smusiceduca-
tioncareers.Manywomen,whosupervised publicschoolmusicprograms, taught
teachertraining courses,andstayedinvolvedinnationalorganizations,stillfound
timein theirbusylivestopublishtextbooks.43In thenineteenthcentury thethree
major textbookserieswere the NationalMusic Course editedbyLuther Whiting
Mason,theNormalMusicCourseeditedbyJohnW. Tuftsand Hosea Holt,and
theNaturalMusicCourseeditedbyFrederick RipleyandThomasTapper.These
textbooks wereeditedbymale musicteachers who werebasicallyself-taughtmu-
sicians.Womenwereinvisibleon thetitlepages,buttheywereofteninvolvedin
editingand translating behindthescenes.Theyalso publishedhymns, booksof
and
songs, teaching manuals.
MaryStanleyShindler(Mrs. Dana Shindler),a Cincinnatiwoman,trans-
latedHohmann'sPraktischer LehrgangintoEnglishand thisbecame the basis
forMason's National Music Course. Shindleris mainlyknownforherpopular
songbookspublishedby OliverDitson in Boston:The Northern Harp, Sacred
and Moral Songs(1841), The SouthernHarp,Sacredand Moral Songs(1841),
The Song Book forPrimaryand AdvancedSchools (1858), and The Western
Harp:A CollectionofSundayMusic (1860). AdeliaL. Loughlintranslated texts
fromFrenchand GermanforMason's revisionof the NationalMusic Course
in 1886.44Emma Thomas,supervisor of music in the Detroitpublic schools,
publishedSongsforChildren(AmericanBook, 1897) and Mrs. F. S. Brewster
publishedSong StoriesforChildrento accompanyThomas'book.45 Translating
and publishinghymnsand songswasacceptablebecause theworkwas done in
the"private sphere"ofthehome.
threedecadesofthetwentieth
In thefirst centurytherewas a largedemand
formusictextbooks as publicschoolsexpanded,so womenhadnewopportunities
to edittextbook series.EleanorSmith(1858-1942) was thefirst senioreditorof
a musictextbook series.She publishedtheModern Music Series(SilverBurdett,
1901-1905)and The EleanorSmithMusic Course(AmericanBook Company,
1908-1911).Smithemphasizedthe importanceof selectingqualitymusicfor
childreninsteadofexercises.

toreadmusicthrough
.... theycanbe taught beautiful
theuseofsimple,

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174 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

melodies, and songsmadefortheoccasion,and that


insteadofexercises
makes
practice a deeperimpressionon thechildifit is securedthrough
melodies
thatappealtohim,andawaken inhimthetruespirit ofsong.46

Smithwasa prolificcomposerofchildren'ssongsand an important follower


of FriedrichFroebel'sphilosophy.Educatedin Chicago and Berlin,she was in
chargeoftheDepartment ofVocalMusic attheChicago NormalSchool,Direc-
torof Hull House Music School (1893-1935),and head of the Music Depart-
mentat the University of Chicago. She was a musicteacherin the Chicago
Kindergarten College and FroebersKindergarten School. In additionto hertwo
textbookseries,she publishedmusicforearlychildhoodand hymnsforSunday
schools.Since therewasa need forgoodmaterialforkindergartens followingthe
Froebelmethod,Smithcomposedthesixty-six in
songs Songs ofa LittleChild's
Day, withtextsbyEmiliePoulsson.Poulssonwastheauthorofa bookofeighteen
fingerplayswhichfollowing theFroebelmethod.47
AsthechairmanoftheMSNC Committeeon SundaySchool Music in 1911,
Smithwasinterested in providing
qualitymusicforSundaySchools.
Atthattimeitwasagreedthatthere
wasa cryingneedforgoodsacredmusic
forchildren;
thatonaccountofthepoorqualityofbothmusicandpoetryin
generalusein SundaySchools,thereligious
andartistic
idealsofchildren
andthatthesupervisor
suffered, s workonschooldayswasoften neutralized
on Sundays.48

TheChildren s Hymnalwaspublishedin 1918,editedbySmith,Farnsworth, and


Fullerton.49Manyofthehymnsin thishymnalwerewritten bySmithand other
womencomposersincludingHelen Goodrich,GertrudeMadeira Smith,and
AnnaBancroft.
Anotherimportant editorof theseearlydecades was M. TeresaArmitage
who was thesenioreditorof theLaurelMusic Series(1908-1929) and A Sing-
ingSchool (1939-1959),bothpublishedbyC. C. Birchardin Boston.There is
littlebiographicalinformationaboutArmitage,exceptthatshewasfromChicago
and wasthevicepresident oftheNationalEducationAssociation Department of
Music Educationin 1923.
Graduallymoreeditorswereused in each textbookseries.Mabelle Glenn
publishedmusic appreciationtextbooks withEdith M. Rhettsand Margaret
Lowry.50 Glenn and French
Virginia publishedbooksforglee clubs.51
TheWorld
of Music (Ginn, 1936-1952) had fourmain editors:Glenn, Helen S. Leavitt,
VictorL. F. Rebmann,and Earl L. Baker.This seriesincludedbooksforgrades
K-7, plusteachingmanuals,a pianocourse,and musicappreciation. Additional
femaleeditorsforsomeofthebooksin theseriesincludedHood, Bess Daniels,
Elise K. Annis,JanetMatthews, and SarahY. Cline.

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 175

Pittswas thesenioreditorforOur SingingWorld(Ginn, 1949-1969)which


includedbooksforeach gradefromkindergarten to highschool,witheditions
forstudents and teachers, and pianoaccompaniments. The editorsworking with
PittswereGlenn,LorrainE. Watters, and Louis Wersen.Womensenioreditors
in the 1950s includedRose Marie Grentzer'sBirchardMusic Series(Summy-
Birchard,1958-1963),SisterMaryLourdes'To God through Music (Gregorian
InstituteofAmerica,1953-1959),and SisterCecelia's WeSingand PraiseSeries
52
(Ginn, 1957-1962). Beginningin the 1960stherewas increasedcompetition
amongpublishers and manywomensenioreditors:Boardman'sExploring Music
(Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966-1971),Georgiana Petersons Getting Know
to
Music (Allynand Bacon, 1966-1968),LorraineE. Watters'Magic of Music
(Ginn, 1966-1970),BeatriceLandeck'sMakingMusic YourOwn (SilverBur-
dett,1964-1971),and MaryHelen Richards'Threshold toMusic (Fearon,1964-
1968).The 1970sbrought ElizabethCrook'sMusic(SilverBurdett, 1974-1985),
RosemaryHallurn'sNew Dimensionsin Music (AmericanBook, 1970-1976),
and MaryVal Marsh'sSpectrum ofMusic (Macmillan,1974-1978).
The publishingenvironment has changedconsiderably in the twenty-first
The
century. major music textbookseriesare publishedbygiganticglobalcor-
porations withlargestaffsin locations, itis impossibleto understand
several and
the contributions of specificindividuals. The recentbrochureforMacmillan/
McGraw-Hill's Spotlighton Music liststwenty authors(75% women),a Kodály
Consultant,nineteencontributing writers,and tenconsultants.53 The brochure
forSilverBurdett's Making Music listsnineteen authors,twenty-nine contrib-
critic
utingauthors,fifty-five readers,fifty-four cultural and
advisors, thirty-one
teacherson an advisory panel.54Womenare wellrepresented on theselists,but
it is notpossibleto tellexactlyhowmanywomenare listedbecause thenames
arenotall gender-specific. In additionto theeditorslistedin brochures and text-
books,thereare in-houseeditors,and additionaleditors,designers, production
artists,and marketing personnelwhoare out-sourced. meansof
Our traditional
doing researchon textbooks willhaveto change to understand thisnew publish-
ingenvironment.

RESEARCH AND EDITING


While manywomenand men have pursuedsuccessfulcareerscombining
teaching,nationalleadership,and textbookpublishing,musiceducatorsneed
additionalperseveranceand supportto sustaincareersin researchand editing.
In thesecondhalfofthetwentieth centurytherehavebeen manyopportunities
foreducatorsto editjournalsand serveon editorialcommittees.Mostof these
educatorshavebeen universityprofessors pursuingresearch
in largeuniversities,
as partoftheiracademiccareers.

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176 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

Two ofthenineeditors(orchairpersons) oftheJournal ofResearchin Music


Education(/RME) have been women:Cornelia Yarbrough(2000-2005) fol-
lowedbythecurrent chair,WendySims.AllenP. Britton wasthefounding editor
(1953-1972), followed by six men (1973-2000). Ella Wilcox has made major
contributions to thejournalas an associateeditorwithherpatienceand "an en-
cyclopediaofeditorialwisdom,and she continuesto workforMENC."55
/RME beganwithan editorialcommittee(all men) plus editorialassociates.
Pittswas an editorialassociatefromthefirst issuein 1953 to 1962,followedby
Andrewsand Sally Monsour(1963-1968). Beginningin 1970,therewas one
editorialcommittee and thewomenincludedMonsour(1970-1974),Gretchen
Hieronymous (1972-1978),and JuneThomsenJetter (1978-1984). Six women
joined the editorialcommittee in the 1980s: Yarbrough(1980-1986), Laura
Dorow (1980-1984), HarrietI. Hair (1982-1988), PatriciaJ. Flowers(1984-
1990),Cecilia Wang(1984-1990),and Sims(1986-1992).Fifteenwomenjoined
theeditorialcommittee in the 1990sand fourfrom2000 to 2005.
Thereis muchinteresting materialforresearchon thistopic.Lookingat the
percentage of women on the /RME EditorialCommittee,womencomprised
25% oftheCommitteein 1985,23.5% in 1990,50% in 1995,53% in 2005,and
35.3% in 2005.56What percentageof the committeehas been femalein vari-
ous decades since 1953 and are theretrendsforthefuture?Is therea relation-
shipbetweenthepercentageof womenon the committeeand articleswritten
bywomen?Aretheretypesof researchtopicspublishedwhenthereare more
womenon the committee? Are womenand men comingfromsimilarinstitu-
tionsand areasofthecountry? How do othermusiceducationjournalscompare
to/RME?
The Bulletinof HistoricalResearchin Music Educationwas foundedby
GeorgeN. Hellerat theUniversity ofKansasin 1980.In 1999itbecametheJour-
nal ofHistoricalResearchin MusicEducation(/HRME),editedbyJereT. Hum-
phreysat ArizonaStatewithHelleras FoundingEditorEméritas(2000-2004)
and MarieMcCarthyas BookReviewEditor.The current editoris MarkFonder
at IthacaCollege, withShellyCooper as Book ReviewEditorand threemale
EditorialAdvisors. This male leadershiphas reflected thegenderbalance in the
HistorySpecial Research InterestGroup which was founded byHellerin 1978.
The chairsof HistorySRIG weremale untilthe 1990swhenSondraWieland
Howe (1996-1998), Marie McCarthy(1998-2000), and CarolynLivingston
(2000-2002) wereelectedchair.HalfoftheEditorialCommitteeof]HRME is
currently female.
The Bulletinof theCouncilforResearchin Music Education,publishedat
theUniversity ofIllinois,waseditedbyRichardColwellfrom1963to 1990.After
Colwell, three oftheeditorshavebeen women:MarilynPflederer Zimmerman

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 177

(1990-1995), Eunice Boardman(1993-1999), and Deborah Sheldon (2000-


2001).The current AdvisoryCommitteeis42% female.The Philosophy ofMusic
EducationReviewwasfoundedbyEstelleR. Jorgensen at IndianaUniversity with
AssistantEditorIrisM. Yoband BookReviewEditorMaryReichling, butthecur-
renteditorialconsultantsare only17.6%female.
Whatare thegendertrendsamongMENC educators?In a briefsurveyre-
portedin TeachingMusic itwasfoundthatwomenoutnumber men twoto one
in thegeneralmusic,choral,privatestudio,and keyboard areas.Men outnum-
berwomenin band,administration, and jazz. Lookingat teachinglevels,men
outnumber womenat thecollegeand university levels.57Althoughwomenhave
manyopportunities todayto obtain fill
graduatedegrees, powerfulleadership
roles,conductresearch, and editimportant journals,theyare stillbasicallycon-
tainedin certainareasofthemusiceducationprofession. to know
It is difficult
ifwomenareexcludedfrompositionsofleadershipbecauseofdiscrimination or
thedifficultyofchangingtraditional ideas ofappropriate rolesforwomen.Per-
hapswomenmakeconsciouschoicestoselectcertainlessprestigious areasofthe
like with
profession, working young children. Theymay avoid the extra
responsi-
bilitiesneededto moveahead in a competitive worldbecauseoftheproblemsof
balancingcareerand family, issuesthathavenotbeen solvedbysociety.

COMPARING MUSIC EDUCATION CAREERS TO CAREERS


IN OTHER FIELDS
In additionto thefieldofmusiceducation,otherfieldsare concernedabout
problemsofbalancingworkand family, and thelackofwomenin thedemanding
leadership areasof the field.Since the 1990sit has become fashionableto talk
abouta glassceilingthatdiscriminates againstwomeninbusiness.NancyPatricia
Pelosidealt with the "marble ceiling"to become thefirst femalespeakerofthe
House of Representatives.58 Surveyson lawyersdetailtheobstacleswomenen-
counter.59Womenin physics, astronomy, and mathematics experienceovertand
covertdiscrimination in fieldsthatare consideredto be male.60Buttheproblem
is morecomplex.
In thefieldsofeducationand music,womenhavealwayshad numerousop-
portunities because theseareas are consideredto be extensions of activitiesin
the home. As we survey the lives of many successfulwomen music educators
throughout the twentieth centuryand look at femaleleadershiptoday,it may
seemas ifthereareno "musicalceilings," no genderbiases,and no discrimination
in musicteaching.Nevertheless, womenareconcentrated in certainareas(early
childhood,generalmusic,studioteaching)and researcharticleshaveshownthat
thereare problemsofdiscrimination, and problemscontinuebecausepedagogy
does notchangeto reflect genderviewpoints.

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178 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

Martin,writing in thefieldofphilosophy ofeducation,discussestheroleof


womenin academiawithbotha negativeand positiveperspective. Womenpaya
for
price joining academia because theybecome estrangedfrom each otherand
distancethemselves from"women'slivedexperience"as theyadoptthelanguage
ofacademia.Theydevaluewomen'straditional occupationsand avoidresearch
topics relatedto women. Martin describeshighereducationas a hostileclimate
forwomenprofessors withtheharassment offeminist scholars.She remainsop-
timisticwhenshe recallsthatwomen'ssuffrage wassuccessful,butittookmany
yearsofpersistent patienceand struggle. This same resistanceofthestatusquo
and tenaciousfightis needed to changetheacademyso it willwelcomefemi-
nistscholarship, women-friendly classrooms,and a curriculum thatincludesthe
experiences of women. As women to
struggle make changes,theyneed to cite
otherwomen'sresearchand reflect on thehistoryofwomen."The writings and
lifeworkofexceptionalwomenof the pastcan have breathtaking relevanceto
one'sowntime."61

HUMANE MODELS FOR THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY


A historicalsurveyof nationallyprominent musiceducatorsshowsthe im-
of
portance quality education, guidingpersonalphilosophies, positivesupport-
ivementors, and leadershipopportunities withintheprofession fordevelopinga
successfullifetime career.Earlyeducatorswereself-taught and privatelytrained
and manybegantheirteachertraining in normalschools.Bythemiddleofthe
twentieth century musiceducatorsstudiedin collegesand thenpursuedgraduate
work.Todaymanyleadershaveearneddoctoratedegrees.
Music teachingcareersoftenevolvein stagesas educatorsbeginteachingin
K-12 schoolsand conductvariousensembles,thenbecome involvedin teacher
training at institutes,
normalschools,and universities. Examplesof careersin
diversestagesinclude FrancesClark(supervising musicin the Midwest,RCA
Victorin New Jersey), and Eleanor Smith(publishing,composing,workwith
kindergartens, teachingtraining).Some teachersspentmostof theircareerin
one institution(Elsie Shawein St.Paul publicschools,FrancesAndrews at Penn-
sylvaniaStateUniversity, CarolynLindemanat San FranciscoStateUniversity).
Some ofthewomendiscussedin thispaperweremarried,some had children,
butnoneofthemtookofflongperiodsoftimeas "stay-at-home Moms."It is dif-
ficultto findmaterialon womeneducators'reflection on theircareers,although
theyoftenreflect on theirtermofofficein an organization, or commenton the
skillsneededin theirspecialty.
Successful,enthusiastic musicteachershave encouragedthe nextgenera-
tionofteachersthroughtheirpublications.Fromtheearlyyearsof the MSNC
womenhavewritten articlesforjournals,givenlecturesat conferences,and ed-

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 179

itedtextbooks. In thesecondhalfofthetwentieth century, someeducatorshave


limitedtheirpublications topracticalarticles, whileothershavepursueddetailed
research,and manyhaveservedon editorialcommittees ofmajormusiceduca-
tionjournals.Throughtheirinvolvement in organizations at thelocal,state,and
nationallevels,womenhaveservedas rolemodelsforothers.
While therewill alwaysbe music teacherswho teach fora shorttimeor
keep theirinvolvement in organizations to a minimum,formanyindividuals
themusicteachingcareerhas alwaysbeen demandingas theyjuggleteaching
in theclassroom, conductingperformances, involvement in organizations,writ-
ing, and family.Careers demand long-term support from spouses,partners, and
extendedfamilies,althoughthesecommitments are difficultto research.The
nationallyprominent educatorsdescribedin thispaper devotedmostof their
livesto theircareers.Theyreceivedrecognition fromtheircolleagues,probably
had manyfemaleand male mentors, and spenttimementoring futuregenera-
tionsofeducators.
The historyofmusiceducationneedstoincludethestories ofwomenso there
are historicalrolemodelsfortoday'seducators.Thereis an "underestimation of
thepotentialand experience of women and their rolesin education and society"
and thisunderestimation devalueswomenforfuturegirlsand boys.62 Although
womenhadlimitedopportunities in thepast,itis important toreflecton thelives
and thoughts ofthewomenwhosucceededand includetheirexperiencesin the
historicalnarrative,in orderto understand theprofession today,confront patri-
archalvalues,and developphilosophiesforthe future.Music educators,both
femaleand male,havemanymoreopportunities forobtaininga qualityeduca-
tionthantheydidinthenineteenth and earlytwentieth centuries.Theyneedthe
supportoffamilyand mentorswithintheprofession. And theyneed leadership
opportunities from the local to the stateand nationallevelsto obtainskillsto
makea positiveimpacton theprofession.

NOTES
•JaneRoland Martin,ComingofAge in Academe:Rekindling Women'sHopes and
the
Reforming Academy(New Yorkand London: Routledge, 2000), 145.
2SondraWielandHowe,LutherWhiting MusicEducator(War-
Mason: International
ren.ML: HarmonieParkPress.1997).
3CharlesW. Lahey,"JuliaCrane,"ThePotsdamTradition: A History and a Challenge
1966), 123-50; and "AboutCrane,"www.potsdam
(New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts,
.edu,accessedSeptember13,2006.
4See JuliaEttieCrane, Music Teachers'Manual (Potsdam:Courierand Freeman
Print,1892),3rdedition.
5Lahey, ThePotsdamTradition,131-33.

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180 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

6Ibid.,141-43.
7SondraWielandHowe,"Germanand AmericanInfluenceson theDevelopmentof
the Kindergarten and Kindergarten Music in Meiji Era Japan/'Asia-Pacific Journal for
ArtsEducation3, no. 2 (November2005): 83-106. Foradditionalinformation on kinder-
gartens,see BarbaraBeatty, PreschoolEducationin America:The CultureofYoungChil-
drenfromtheColonialEra tothePresent(New Haven:Yale University Press,1995).
8Howe, "American Women and Music Education beforethe Civil War,"Research
Poster,MENC NationalConference,Milwaukee,Wisconsin,2008.
9JaneRoland Martin,The Schoolhome:RehinkingSchoolsforChangingFamilies
(Cambridge,MA.: HarvardUniversity Press,1992), 6. Martin,buildingon the workof
Maria Montessori, elaboratesher idea thatschoolsshouldfeellikea home withan em-
Dhasison care,concern,and connection.
10SaraM. Evans,"Womenand Modernity: 1890-1920,"BornforLiberty: A History of
WomeninAmerica(New York:The FreePress,1989), 145-73.
nFora description of the foundingof MENC, see PhillipM. Hash, "PhilipCady
Haydenand theFormationofMusic EducatorsNationalConference," Contributions to
Music Education31, no. 1 (2004): 49-68; and JohnW. Moinar,"The Establishment of
theMusic Supervisors NationalConference,1907-1910,"Journal ofResearchin Music
Education3, no. 1 (Spring1955):40-50.
12EugeneM. Stoddard,"FrancesElliottClark:Her Lifeand Contributions to Music
Education," Ph.D. diss.,BrighamYoungUniversity, 1968.
13Frances ElliottClark,"FiftyYearsof Music Educationin America:1901-1910,"
MusicEducatorsJournal 36,no. 4 (April-May 1950): 23-24.
14Ibid.
15See"MENC Foundersof 1907:The ArizonaStateUniversity MENC History Proj-
ect,"www.public.asu.edu/-aajth/history, accessedJuly9, 2009.
16Ibid.
17DebraGordonHedden,GeorgeN. Heller,JereT. Humphreys, and ValerieA. Slat-
tery,"Alice A
CareyInskeep(1875-1942): Pioneering Iowa Music Educator and MENC
FoundingMember,"Journal ofResearchin Music Education55, no. 2 (Summer2007):
129-47.
18Howe,"Leadershipin MENC: The FemaleTradition," BulletinoftheCouncilfor
Researchin MusicEducation no. 141 (Summer1999):60-61.
19Howe, "Elsie Shawe,Music Supervisor in St. Paul, Minnesota(1898-1933),"Jour-
nal ofResearchin MusicEducation32, no. 4 (Winter2004): 328-42.
20Frances Boardman,"St. Pauls FirstLady of Music,"St. Paul PioneerPress(Janu-
ary7, 1963): 10,citedin Linda FayeParker,"Womenin Music in St. Paul from1898 to
1957,"Ph.D. diss.,University ofMinnesota,1982,42-43.
21Howe, "Women'sParticipation in theNEA Department ofMusic Education,1884-
1925,"Journal ofHistoricalResearchin MusicEducation26, no. 2 (April2005): 130-43.
22Howe, "LeadershipinMENC." WomenMENC presidents areFrancesElliottClark,
HenriettaG. Baker,ElizabethCasterton, Mabelle Glenn,Lilla Belle Pitts,MargueriteV.

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 181

Hood, FrancesM. Andrews, MaryE. Hoffman, DorothyA. Sträub,CarolynnLindeman,


JuneHinckley, M.
Lynn Brinckmeyer, and Barbara L. Geer.
"Martin,ComingofAgeinAcademe,144-45.
24George Holgate,TheLifeofMabelleGlenn,MusicEducator(WestYarmouth, Mass.:
RainbowPress,1965).
25MabelleGlenn,"PublicSchool Music Comes ofAge,"Journal ofProceedingsofthe
Music Supervisors NationalConference (Chicago: Music Supervisors NationalConfer-
ence 1930),27.
28.
26Ibid.,
27GeraldL. Blanchard,"Lilla Belle Pitts:Her Contributions to Music Education,"
D.Ed, diss.,BrighamYoungUniversity, 1966.
28LillaBelle Pitts,"FiftyYearsof Music Educationin America:1941-1950,"Music
Educatorsjournal36,no. 6 (June-July 1950): 35-36, 38.
29lbid.
30AllenP. Britton, George N. Heller,and Bruce D. Wilson,"Obituary:Marguerite
VivianHood (1903-1992),"International Journal ofMusic Education19 (1992): 47-48;
ShellyC. Cooper,"Marguerite VivianHood (1903-1992): Her Lifeand Contrubutions
to Music Education,"D.M.A. diss.,ArizonaStateUniversity, Tempe,2004; and Cooper,
"Marguerite V. Hood and Music Education Radio Broadcasts in RuralMontana(1937-
39),"Journal of Research in Music Education 53, no. 4 (Winter 2005): 295-307.
31Marguerite Hood, "Music in American Education: Our HeritageDemandsAction,
Not Defense,"MusicEducatorsJournal 38, no. 4 (February-March 1952): 17-19.
32SeePatrick K. Freerand Diana R. Dansereau,"Extending the Vision:ThreeWomen
Who Saw the Futureof Music Education,"Music EducatorsJournal93, no. 4 (March
2007): 54-61.
33SeeSara M. Evans,Tidal Wave:How WomenChangedAmericaat Century's End
(New York: The Free Press,2003).
34Howe, "Leadershipin MENC," 62.
35FrancesM. Andrews, "Goalsand ObjectivesforMusicEducation,"MusicEducators
Journal 57,no. 4 (December 1970): 23.
36"Mary E. Hoffman," TeachingMusic4, no. 6 (June1997): 19.
37Anne Mischakoff Heiles, MaryHottman:Pied Piperot Music Education, sonori-
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38Nineofthefifteen president ofMTNA from1970 to 2002 havebeen women,and
twoof the nine executive directorshave been women."125 Yearsof MTNA,"American
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39Howe,"Leadership MENC," 63; and Kaye Ferguson,"DorothySträub,"www
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182 PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION REVIEW,17:2

and JuneHinckley, "WhyVision2020?"MusicEducatorsjournal(March 2000): 21-24,


66.
42"Dr.LynnBrinckmeyer AssumesPresidency ofMENC," www.menc.org/publication/
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44Howe, LutherWhiting Mason, 18,48.
45Howe,"WomenEditors," 4.
46EleanorSmith,A Primer ofVocalMusic (New York:Silver,Burdettand Company,
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47EmiliePoulssonand Eleanor Smith,Songs of a LittleChild's Day (Springfield,
Mass.: MiltonBradleyCompany,1910); and Emilie Poulsson,FingerPlays forNurs-
eryand Kindergarten (Lothrop,Lee and Shepard,1889). For biographicalinformation
on Smith,see Pamela Elrod,"Vocal Music at Hull-House,1889-1942:An Overviewof
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48Smith, "ReportoftheCommitteeon SundaySchool Hymnal,"Journal ofProceed-
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^Smith,CharlesH. Farnsworth, and C. A. Fullerton,The Children'sHymnal(New
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51Glennand VirginiaFrench,The Glenn Glee Club BookforGirls(Boston:Oliver
DitsonCompany,1929);and TheGlennGlee Club BookforYoungMen (1931).
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tury is based on theauthor s of
survey uncataloged books in theLowens Room, Michelle
SmithPerforming ArtsLibrary,UniversityofMaryland,in 2003.
siSpotlight on Music: Overview Brochure (New York: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill,
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^ProgramOverview:SilverBurdettMaking Music (N.P.: Pearson/Scott Foresman,
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"Cornelia Yarbrough, "Forum,"Journalof Researchin Music Education50, no. 1
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56Thesenumbersare based on theJournal ofResearchin Music Education33, no. 4
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and 53,no. 4 (Winter2005).
57"Gender TrendsamongMENC Music Educators," TeachingMusic 8, no. 6 (June
2001): 52-53. This articleis based on a smallsample;email to authorfromSue Rarus,
Director,MENC Research,October24, 2006.

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SONDRA WIELAND HOWE 183

58Edward Paul StarTri-


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59MarilynTuckerand GeorgiaA. Niedzielko,"Optionsand Obstacles:A Surveyof
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60MargaretWertheim, Numbersare Male, Said Pythagoras, and the Idea Persists,
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62D. G. Mulcahy,Knowledge,Gender,and Schooling:The FeministEducational
Thoughtof JaneRoland Martin(Westport, Conn. And London: Berginand Garvey,
2002), 171.

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