 Produced when high

speed electron is slowed

down and/or stopped
 Present an external
hazard. Can be reduced
by;
◦ Time
◦ Distance
◦ Shielding
◦ Engineered controls
(interlocks)
◦ Monitoring (GM Meter)
◦ Administrative controls
(Standard operating
procedures)
 "Analytical x-ray machine" is
◦ A general term which refers to instruments that produce x-rays for
the purpose of analyzing materials or structures such as x-ray
diffractometers (XRDs) and certain spectrometers (x-ray
photoelectron spectrometers).
 To comply with State and Federal law, instruments not
normally considered to be analytical x-ray machines,
such particle accelerators, can also be classified as
such. These instruments are capable of producing x-
rays as a by-product of their function.
 Specific hazards of analytical x-ray equipment can
include:
◦ Exposure to an intense, localized primary x-ray beam
◦ Exposure to diffracted and/or scattered portions of the primary
x-ray beam (includes x-ray leakage)

Sli
de
4
 Accessible area have exposure rates not exceeding
2 mR/hr (any area outside of the barrier or shield
routinely occupied by personnel).
 Maintain a log book of major changes to the
system shielding, enclosures, and configurations.
 Engineered protection system shall be maintained
◦ Failsafe interlocks on removable protective barriers
◦ Exposure rate below 2 mR/hr at 5 cm form any surface
◦ Key control on the production of x-rays
◦ A console power on indicator (must be operational and
used)
◦ Warning light adequate to warn anyone present in the room
that x-rays are being produced.
 2. Scattered Radiation

3. Leakage 1. Primary Beam

Sli
de
6
 Cu

50 x (40) x (20) 29 = 279 R/sec

(7.5)2 74
Mo

Exposure Rate: 50 x (36) x (20) 42 = 363 R/sec

(7.5)2 74
Ag
50 x (kV) x (mA) Z = R/sec
(cm)2 74 50 x (40) x (20) 47 = 452 R/sec
(7.5)2 74
Cu
Characteristic Intensity:
50 x (50) x (20) 74 = 889 R/sec
Proportional to: (kVp - kVc)1.6 (7.5)2 74

Sli
de
7
 Fingers are at risk.
◦ Significant injuries
have occurred with
diffraction x-rays.
 Large exposures
may occur.
 Skin and eyes may
receive exposures.
1. Primary Beam
The critical radiation exposure problem with analytical X-ray equipment is the primary
beam. Exposure to the primary beam can cause localized acute exposure.
Consequently, the analytical operator must never intentionally place any part of their
body in the primary beam. Typically, these beams are relatively “soft” X-rays resulting
in maximal energy deposition in epithelial tissues. Erythema or reddening of the skin
can occur when skin is acutely exposed to 300 R (much less than a second). Radiation
burns may occur from longer exposures.
2. Scattered Radiation
When the primary beam intersects a material such as a sample or elements of the X-ray
unit including the beam stop, some of the radiation is scattered out of the primary
beam. While these radiation fields are considerable less intense than the primary
beam, they still represent a potential hazard. Scattered radiation fields can be
measured by the analytical operators with a survey meter.
3. Leakage
Some radiation may leak around the rube housing structure. State law requires that
source housing construction shall be that when all the shutters are closed the leakage Sli
de
radiation must not exceed that of radiation limits for the general public. 9
 Poor equipment configuration
◦ Ex. Unused beam ports not covered
 Manipulation of equipment when energized
◦ Adjustment of samples or alignment of cameras
when x-ray beam is on
 Equipment failure
◦ Shutter failure
◦ Warning light failure
 Inadequate training or violation of
procedure
◦ Incorrect use of equipment
◦ Overriding interlocks
Sli
de
10
 Know location and/or presence of all
primary and diffracted beams AT ALL TIMES
 Provide and inspect shielding
 Do not perform maintenance (without
confirming that the tube is not energized)
 Perform check of safety devices at least once
per month
 Survey unit whenever moved or
reconfigured.
 DON’T PUT YOUR BODY PARTS IN THE
BEAM!!
Sli
de
11
If an exposure is suspected, do the following:

1. Report all potential exposures of this kind

immediately to your supervisor and/or person
responsible for the analytical unit.

2. The supervisor in turn needs to immediately notify

the Radiation Safety Officer so that evaluation,
corrective action and if necessary, medical
evaluation can be initiated. Sli
de
12
 Analytical x-ray machines are regulated at
the state level by the New York State
Department of Health
 Regulations governing x-ray machines and
other radiation producing machines can be
found in NYS Sanitary Code 16
 Federal Regulations are found in 29 CFR
Subchapter J.

Sli
de
14
 Engineering Controls  Administrative
◦ Visible indication of Controls
energized beam (light) ◦ Labels/signs
◦ Visible indication of ◦ Info on radiation
open shutter (light) hazards, safe working
◦ Safety devices tested practices, effects of
and logged at least radiation exposure
monthly must be available near
◦ Primary beam should unit
be terminated ◦ Know how to report
◦ Interlocks, devices to overexposure
prevent exposure to ◦ State/Federal “Notice
personnel to Employees”

Sli
de
15
 Authorized by the
Radiation Safety Officer

 Ensures that only

qualified individuals
use the equipment

 Maintains the
equipment in
compliance with safety
requirements
 Used to establish
controls over
hazards
 Informs workers
of conditions and
techniques with
work
 Workers are
responsible to
follow procedures

Slide 17
 Time

• Distance

• Shielding
 Devices
◦ Interlocks
◦ Key control
◦ Shielding
 Procedures
◦ Operating
instructions
◦ Training
◦ Surveys
◦ Exposure monitoring
 Interlocks don’t work.
 Radiation is observed
during surveys.
 Unqualified people
operating the system.
 Redness of the skin,
normally to the hand.
 Warning light is not
operational.
 Perform the pre and
post operational
checks.
 Record the results.
 Make sure warning
lights are working.
 Wear your
dosimeter.
 Instruments record
low readings.
 Only Trained personnel shall be permitted to operate an analytical unit.
 Be familiar with the procedure to be carried out.
 Never expose any part of your body to the primary beam.
 Turn the X-ray beam OFF before attempting to make any changes to the
experimental set-up (except for beam alignment)
 While the beam is on DO NOT attempt to handle, manipulate or adjust
any object (sample, sample holder, collimator, etc.) which is in the direct
beam path (except for beam alignment procedures).
 Examine the system carefully for any system modifications or
irregularities.
 Follow the operating procedures carefully. DO NOT take short cuts!
 Never leave the energized system unattended in an area where access in
not controlled.
Sli
de
23
 Survey the area frequently to evaluate scatter and leakage radiation
fields.
 Never remove auxiliary shielding without authorization from the owner
of the analytical equipment or Radiation Safety Officer.
 Never bypass safety circuits, such as interlocks.
 Report all unusual occurrences to the owner of the analytical unit for
possible corrective actions.
 Only authorized, trained individuals as specified by the unit’s owner and
the Radiation Safety Office may repair, align or make modifications to
the X-ray apparatus.

Sli
de
24
 If you don’t use it,
it will not provide
useful information.
 Wear it properly.
 Don’t wear another
persons film badge.
 If you need
additional devices,
contact the RSO.
 See handout - USB policy
 Responsibilities
 Open and closed beam XRD systems
 Also review article 10 Principles and 10
Commandments of Radiation Protection
 See handout on definitions