An

Internship Report on

==== INDUSTRIAL VALVES ====

Submitted
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

Electronics and Communication Engineering

By

V.SHARATH CHANDRA
18R11A04P6

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal Dist, Hyderabad– 501 301
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, accredited by NAAC and
NBA,New Delhi)

2018-2022
GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

6
 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the internship report titled Industrial valves being submitted by
V.Sharath Chandra, bearing roll number 18R11A04P6, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and
Communication Engineering is a record of bonafide work carried out through online
mechanism.

Mrs. Nagalakshmi

Assistant professor

Prof. O.V.P.R. Siva Kumar Prof. B. Hari Kumar

Coordinator, Internship HOD

EXAMINER

CERTIFICATE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We, the students of ECE department of Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology would
like to convey heartfelt thanks to Dr. S. Udaya Kumar, Principal of the college for the wonderful
guidance and encouragement given to us to move ahead in the execution of this internship.

We are highly grateful to the great personality in the field of Electronics, none other than
Prof. B. Hari Kumar, Head of the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering of GCET
for guiding and taking care of our career in this field.

We are very happy for being guided by Mrs.Nagalakshmi for her able guidance given to us to complete
our technical work successfully

Mrs. Nagalakshmi

Assistant Professor

Lastly, we would thank our coordinator Mr. O.V.P.R. Siva Kumar, Professor of ECE, Mrs. Nagalakshmi
(Assistant Professor) and members of the Internship Evaluation Committee for giving us valuable
suggestions to complete internship as per schedule.

Above all, we are very much thankful to the management of Geethanjali College of Engineering and
Technology which was established by the high-profile intellectuals for the cause of Technical Education
in modern era.

With Regards

V.SHARATH CHANDRA

18R11A04P6

Serial HEADING Page No

0No
A ABSTRACT

B LIST OF FIGURES

C LIST OF TABLES

D SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

1. Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Organization background

1.2 Objective of the internship

1.3 Domain of the internship

2. Chapter 2. Technical details of the internship

2.1 Classification of valves

2.2 Mode of operation of different valves

2.3 Introduction to types of valves

2.4 Types of valves based on their functions

2.5 Types of valves

2.5.1 Ball valve

2.5.2 Butterfly valve

2.5.3 Globe valve

2.5.4 Gate valve

2.5.5 Plug valve

2.5.6 Diaphgram valve

2.5.7 Reducing valve

2.5.8 Needle valve

2.5.9 Check valve

2.5.10 Relief & Safety valve

 2.6 Important attributes of valves

2.7 Equivalent lengths and k values for various kinds of fittings

2.8 Golden rules for valves

2.9 Valves malfunctions

2.10 Valves safety

2.11 Skills acquired during the internship

3 Chapter 3. Results

4 Chapter 4. Conclusion

5 Chapter 3. Future scope

E REFRENCES

ABSTRACT
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.No Figures Pg.

 No
1 Introduction to valves
4.1 Ball valve

4.2 Lubricant-seal system in a ball valve

4.3 Butterfly valve

4.4 Typical flanged end butterfly valve

4.5 Wafer butterfly valve

4.6 Butterfly valve- welding end on one end

4.8 Globe valve

4.9 A typical large globe valve with flanged ends

4.10 Gate valve

4.11 Rising-stem solid-wedge gate valve for 250-psig steam service

4.12 Non-rising stem gate valve for 250-psig steam service

4.13 Split-wedge gate valve

4.14 Double-disc rising-stem flanged-end gate valve for 150-psig service

4.15 Double-disc non-rising-stem gate valve

4.16 Parallel-seat gate valve showing weided construction for high-temp

service with weided-in seat ring

4.17 Conduit valves

4.18 Plug valves

4.19 Diaphgram valve

4.20 Reducing valve

4.21 Operation of reducing valve

 4.22 Check valve

4.23 Swing check valve

4.24 Lift check valve

4.25 Wye-pattern lift check valve

4.26 Tilting-disc check valve

4.27 Folding -disc check valve

4.29 Needle valve

4.30 Relief and safety valve

LIST OF TABLES
S.No Tables Pg.No
2 Block diagram for mode of operations of various valves

3 Block diagram of types of valves based on their functions

4.7 Table for Cv values of butterfly valves

4.28 Application of check valves

4.31 Parameter specification & specification of safety valve

4.32 Equivalent lengths and k values for various kinds of fitting

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS IN INDUSTRIAL VALVES

Symbols Abbreviations
DN Nominal diameter
NPS Nominal pipe size
Cv Valve Coefficient
GPM Water Flow Rate in Gallons per Minute
Delta p Differential pressure
Kv The valves volumetric flow rate of water at NTP with Pressure drop of
1 bar and is expressed in m^3/h
K constant
L Length
D Diameter
6
Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1Organization Background:
Efco india is certified by the API (american petroleum institute), for repair, reprepare and
service of valves. Efco india offers valve reconditioning and testing services. Their expertise lies
in the area of ' in situ ' repair of any type of valve - gate, globe, ball or safety. Efco india's service
centres at hyderabad, jamnagar, uran and kakinada are equipped with ' state-of-the-art ' portable
and stationary valve repair machines. Engineers, trained by efco germany, supervise their mobile
service teams. Efco india also undertakes ' in situ flange facing ' work. The versatile efco - tdf
portable facing machine is used for precision turning and facing of sealing surfaces in cylinders,
pumps and vessels. Efco india carried out on line testing of safety & relief valves with the
legatest - a pc based testing equipment. Efco india offers online lubrication and sealing services
for both reactive and preventive maintenance services of high pressure valves in oil drilling
platforms and in cross country pipelines.

Efco india offers a turnkey ldar programme to contain fugitive emission. In the recent past, efco
india has provided technical consultancy for setting up valve repair shops in neighbouring
countries. Over the past 12 years, efco india has provided in situ valve repair and other services
to a number of large public / private sector companies all over india and in neighbouring
countries. We provide world-class service and cost effective solutions for your Valve -
reconditioning needs. Efco germany is the world's largest preparer of valve reconditioning &
Testing equipment.

Efco product range comprises transportable & stationary repair machines for valves, flanges
and pipelines as well as surface lapping machines, mobile workshops, consumables and valve
repair workshop planning / consultancy.

1.2 Objective of the Internship:

The main objective of this internship training programme is to learn about valves, their
function, mechanisms, pros and cons and their applications. As we know, valves are one
important part which is used in every field , so it is important to know about them.

1.4 Domain of the internship:

A Valve is a device that regulates the flow of gases, liquids or loose materials through
aperture, such as a pipe, by opening, closing or obstructing a port or passageway.

A valve controls system or process fluid flow and pressure by performing any of the following
functions:

1
  Stopping and starting fluid flow

 Varying (throttling) the amount of fluid flow

 Controlling the direction of fluid flow

 Regulating downstream system or process pressure

 Relieving component or piping over pressure

Fig 1 : Introduction to valves

There are many valve designs and types that satisfy one or more of the functions
identified above. A multitude of valve types and designs safely accommodate a wide
variety of industrial applications.

Valves are essential components of a piping system that conveys liquids, gases, vapors,
slurries etc..
 Different types of valves are available: gate, globe, plug, ball, butterfly, check,
diaphragm, pinch, pressure relief, control valves etc. Each of these types has a number of
models, each with different features and functional capabilities. Some valves are self-
operated while others manually or with an actuator or pneumatic or hydraulic is operated.

Chapter 2. Technical details of the internship:

2.1 Classification of valves

Based on the mechanical or cyclical motion of the valve closure member, valves are
classified as follows:

 Linear Motion Valves. The valves in which the closure member, as in gate, globe,
diaphragm, pinch, and lift check valves, moves in a straight line to allow, stop, or throttle
the flow.

 Rotary Motion Valves. When the valve-closure member travels along an angular or
circular path, as in butterfly, ball, plug, eccentric and swing check valves, the valves are
called rotary motion valves.

 Quarter Turn Valves. Some rotary motion valves require approximately a quarter turn, 0
through 90°, motion of the stem to go to fully open from a fully closed position or vice
versa. Refer to Table

Classification Based on Valve Size

Valve Size. Valve size is denoted by the nominal pipe size (NPS), which is equal to the
size of valve-connecting ends or the flange-end size. In the metric system, valve size is
designated by the nominal diameter (DN) of connecting pipe or the connecting flange
ends. When a valve is installed with reducers on each end, the size of the valve will be
equal to the size of the reducer-connecting ends attached to the valve. The valve size is
not necessarily equal to the inside diameter of the valve.

It is a normal industry practice to categorize valves, based upon size, in two

classification: small and large.

 Small Valves. NPS 2 (DN 50) and smaller valves are called small valves. At times, NPS
2¹⁄₂ (DN 65) and smaller valves are referred to as small valves. As such, the size
 classification can vary and, therefore, it should not be considered a uniform industry
practice.

 Large Valves. NPS 2¹⁄₂ (DN 65) and larger valves are classified as large valves. As
indicated earlier, NPS 2¹⁄₂ (DN 65) valves may be designated as small valves, depending
on the criteria used in classifying small valves.

2.2 Mode of operations of different valves

The force required to operate a valve can be carried out either manually (by hand) or
mechanically. Mechanical attachments (actuators) to a valve are usually either
electrically or pneumatically operated.

The actuators can be controlled manually (ie a technician pushing a button/switch) or by

the plant control system.
 Fig 2: Block diagram for Mode of Operations of various valves

2.3 Introduction to types of valves

 Because of the diversity of the types of systems, fluids, and environments in which valves must
operate, a vast array of valve types have been developed. Examples of the common types are the
ball valve, butterfly valve, globe valve, gate valve, plug valve, diaphragm valve, reducing valve,
needle vave, check valve and safety/relief valve. Each type of valve has been designed to meet
specific needs. Some valves are capable of throttling flow, other valve types can only stop flow,
others work well in corrosive systems, and others handle high pressure fluids. Each valve type
has certain inherent advantages and disadvantages. Understanding these differences and how
they affect the valve's application or operation is necessary for the successful operation of a
facility.

Although all valves have the same basic components and function to control flow in some
fashion, the method of controlling the flow can vary dramatically. In general, there are four
methods of controlling flow through a valve.

1. Move a disc, or plug into or against an orifice (for example, globe or needle or some types of
check valves).

2. Slide a flat, cylindrical, or spherical surface across an orifice (for example, gate and plug
valves).

3. Rotate a disc or ellipse about a shaft extending across the diameter of an orifice(for example, a
butterfly or ball or some types of check valves).

4. Move a flexible material into the flow passage (for example, diaphragm valves).

Each method of controlling flow has characteristics that makes it the best choice for a given
application of function.

2.4 Types of valves based on their functions

There are more than 100 types of valves and each valve is used based on their function as
follows
 Fig 3 : block diagram of types of valves based on their functions

2.5 Types of valves

2.5.1 Ball valve

 Fig 4.1: ball valve

Ball valves offer very good shut-off capabilities. A simple quarter-turn (90°) completely opens or
closes the valve. This characteristic minimizes valve operation time and decreases the likelihood
of leakage due to wear from the gland seal. Ball valves can be divided into two categories:
reduced bore and full bore. In reduced bore valves, the valve opening is smaller than the
diameter of the piping; in full bore valves, the valve opening is the same size as the diameter of
the piping. Full bore ball valves are often valued because they minimize the pressure drop across
the valve. Ball valves are usually only recommended for use in the fully open or fully closed
position. They are not suited to regulate flow by being kept partially open because ball valves
make use of a ring-shaped soft valve seat. When used in the partially open position, pressure is
applied to only a portion of the valve seat, which can cause it to deform. If the valve seat
deforms, its sealing properties are impaired and it will leak as a result.

Construction of a Ball Valve

Major components of the ball valve are the body, spherical plug, and seats. Ball valves are made
in three general patterns: venturi port, full port, and reduced port. The full-port valve has an
inside diameter equal to the inside diameter of the pipe. In the venturi and reduced-port styles,
the port is generally one pipe size smaller than the line size. Stem sealing is accomplished by
bolted packing glands and O-ring seals. Valves are also available with a lubricant-seal system
that is similar to that available for plug valves. A typical lubrication system is illustrated in Fig.
2.
 Fig. 4.2: Lubricant-seal system in a ball valve

A ball valve may be unidirectional, bidirectional, or multi-directional, depending on the number

of valve ports and the number of valve seats. Therefore, ball valves are referred to as 2-way, 3-
way, 4-way, or 5-way multi-port valves. A 2-way ball valve with a single seat will be
unidirectional with the flow direction indicated. Even a 3-way, 4-way, or 5-way ball valve can be
unidirectional when flow must enter through a designated port. A 2-way ball valve provided with
two seats, one on the upstream side and the other on the downstream side of the ball, is termed a
bidirectional valve. Multiple-port ball valves permit flows in more than one direction, thus
eliminating the need for several valves.

Ball valves are manufactured in several different body configurations: top entry, side entry, split
body, and three-piece body. The valve ends are available as butt welding, socket welding,
flanged, threaded, soldering, or brazing ends.

Ball valves are manufactured in high- and low-pressure classifications. The advances in ball
valve designs have made it possible to use these valves in high pressure and high-temperature
applications.

Types of ball valves:

  Floating
 Trunnion Mounted
 3 Way
 Top entry
 Side entry or split body
 Three-piece body

Applications of ball valves: The following are some typical applications of ball valves:

1. Air, gaseous, and liquid applications requiring bubble-tight service

2. Low point and high-point vents in liquid, gaseous, and other fluid services
3. Instrument root valves
4. Cooling water and feed water systems
5. Steam service

Advantages: A ball valve is generally the least expensive of any valve configuration and has low
maintenance costs. In addition to quick, quarter turn on-off operation, ball valves are compact,
require no lubrication, and give tight sealing with low torque.

Disadvantages: Conventional ball valves have relatively poor throttling characteristics. In a

throttling position, the partially exposed seat rapidly erodes because of the impingement of high
velocity flow.

2.5.2 Butterfly valve

 Fig 4.3 : Butterfly valve

In butterfly valves, the flow is regulated through a disc-type element held in place in the center
of the valve by a rod. Similar to ball valves, valve operation time is short because the valving
element is simply rotated a quarter turn (90°) to open or close the passageway.

Butterfly valves are characterized by their simple construction, lightness in weight, and compact
design. Their face-to-face dimension is often extremely small, making the pressure drop across a
butterfly valve much smaller than globe valves (see below). Materials used for the valving
element and sealing can limit their applications at higher temperatures or with certain types of
fluids. Butterfly valves are often used on applications for water and air, and in applications with
large pipe diameters.

Butterfly valves are produced with metal-to-metal seats, soft seats, and with fully lined body and
disc. The soft seats permit bubble-tight shutoff and the full lining enhances erosion and corrosion
resistance.
 Fig. 4.4: Typical flanged-end butterfly valve

Butterfly valves are suitable for low-pressure and low-temperature applications as well as high-
pressure and high-temperature applications. The term high-performance butterfly valve is
intended to signify their suitability for moderate- to high pressure and temperature services.

Construction of a Butterfly Valve:

A butterfly valve has a short circular body, a round disc, shaft, metal-to-metal or soft seats, top
and bottom shaft bearings, and the stuffing box. The valve body may have flanged enda, lugs, or
wafer style (Fig. 4.5) configurations to be installed between pipe flanges. The welding ends (Fig.
4.6) butterfly valves are usually large and have butt-welding ends. Sometimes butterfly valves
are manufactured in rectangular or square configurations.
 Fig. 4.5: Wafer butterfly valve

Fig. 4.6: Butterfly valve - welding end on one end

The wafer-style butterfly valves are usually available in sizes NPS 12 (DN 300) or smaller. The
limitation on size is essentially imposed by the difficulty of holding the larger weight valve in
place between the flanges. The lug and flanged-end butterfly valves are available in all sizes and
pose no problem in installation between flanges except for the normal problems associated with
warped-flanged surfaces and uneven torquing of bolts.

Types of Butterfly Valves:

 Low Pressure or Concentric Butterfly Valves: In low pressure and low temperature
designs of a butterfly valves, the disc and shaft axes are concentric.

 High-Performance or Eccentric Butterfly Valves: The disc in high performance butterfly

valves is offset from the center of the valve, and the shaft is also offset from the center of
the disc. The offsets provided allow the disc to move eccentrically uninterrupted away
from or toward the valve seat.

Advantages of Butterfly Valves:

The following summarizes the advantages of butterfly valves:

1. The compact design requires considerably less space, compared to gate, globe, or other valves.
2. Light in weight.
3. Quick acting; as a quarter-turn valve, it requires less time to open or close.
4. It is available in large sizes, ranging from NPS 1¹⁄₂ (DN 40) to over NPS 200 (DN 5000).
5. They have low-pressure drop and high-pressure recovery.
6. Provide bubble-tight service.

Disadvantages of a Butterfly Valve:

1. Throttling service is limited to low differential pressure.

2. Throttling is restricted to a 30- to 80-degree disc opening. Location of valve, pipe routing,
free, and closed discharge are to be considered while using a butterfly valve in a throttling
application.
3. Cavitation and choked flow are two potential concerns.
4. The disc movement is unguided and affected by flow turbulence.

Typical Applications of Butterfly Valves:

Concentric or low-pressure and low-temperature butterfly valves, the high-performance butterfly

valves, cover a wide range of applications. These applications include:
1. Cooling water, air, gases, and other similar applications, such as fire protection, circulating
water, etc.

2. Corrosive services requiring lined valves

3. Food processing, chemical, and pharmaceutical services
4. Slurry and similar services
5. High-pressure and high-temperature water and steam services
6. Vacuum service
 4.7: table for Cv values of butterfly valves

2.5.3 Globe valve

 Fig 4.8: Globe valve

The globe valve is suitable for use on a wide variety of applications, from flow rate control to
open/close operation. In this type of valve, flow rate control is determined not by the size of the
opening in the valve seat, but rather by the lift of the valve plug (the distance the valve plug is
from the valve seat). One feature of globe valves is that even if used in the partially open
position, there is less risk of damage to the valve seat or valve plug by the fluid than with other
types of manual valves. Among the various configurations available, needle type globe valves
are particularly well suited for flow rate control. Other points to consider about globe valves is
that the pressure drop across the valve is greater than that of many other types of valves because
the passageway is S shaped.
 Fig. 4.9: A typical large globe valve with flanged ends

Globe valves larger than NPS 12 (DN 300) are an exception rather than the rule.
Larger valves would require that enormous forces be exerted on the stem to open or close the
valve under pressure. Globe valves in sizes up to NPS 48 (DN 1200) have been manufactured
and used.

Globe valves are extensively employed to control flow. The range of flow control, pressure drop,
and duty must be considered in the design of the valve to avert premature failure and to assure
satisfactory service. Valves subjected to high-differential pressure-throttling service require
specially designed valve trim. Generally the maximum differential pressure across the valve disc
should not exceed 20 percent of the maximum upstream pressure or 200 psi (1380 kPa),
whichever is less. Valves with special trim may be designed for applications exceeding these
differential pressure limits.

Types of Globe Valves

 Tee Pattern globe valves :have the lowest coefficient of flow and higher pressure drop.
They are used in severe throttling services, such as in bypass lines around a control valve.
  Wye Pattern globe valves :among globe valves, offer the least resistance to flow. They can
be cracked open for long periods without severe erosion. They are extensively used for
throttling during seasonal or startup operations.

 Angle Pattern globe valves : turns the flow direction by 90 degrees without the use of an
elbow and one extra weld. They have a slightly lower coefficient of flow than wye-
pattern globe valves. They are used in applications that have periods of pulsating flow
because of their capability to handle the slugging effect of this type of flow. Refer to Fig.
B.

Construction of a Globe Valve

Globe valves usually have rising stems, and the larger sizes are of the outside screw-and-yoke
construction. Components of the globe valve are similar to those of the gate valve. This type of
valve has seats in a plane parallel or inclined to the line of flow.

Maintenance of globe valves is relatively easy, as the discs and seats are readily refurbished or
replaced. This makes globe valves particularly suitable for services which require frequent valve
maintenance. Where valves are operated manually, the shorter disc travel offers advantages in
saving operator time, especially if the valves are adjusted frequently.

The principal variation in globe-valve design is in the types of discs employed. Plug-type discs
have a long, tapered configuration with a wide bearing surface. This type of seat provides
maximum resistance to the erosive action of the fluid stream. In the composition disc, the disc
has a flat face that is pressed against the seat opening like a cap. This type of seat arrangement is
not as suitable for high differential pressure throttling.

The conventional disc, in contrast to the plug type, provides a thin contact between the taper of
the conventional seat and the face of the disc. This narrow contact area tends to break down hard
deposits that may form on the seats and facilitates pressure-tight closure. This arrangement
allows for good seating and moderate throttling.

In cast-iron globe valves, disc and seat rings are usually made of bronze. In steel-globe valves for
temperature up to 750 F (399 C), the trim is generally made of stainless steel and so provides
resistance to seizing and galling. The mating faces are normally heat-treated to obtain differential
hardness values. Other trim materials, including cobalt-based alloys, are also used.
Advantages of a Globe Valve

The following summarizes the advantages of globe valves:

1. Good shut-off capability

2. Moderate to good throttling capability
3. Shorter stroke (compared to a gate valve)

Disadvantages of a Globe Valve

The following are some shortcomings inherent in globe valves:

1. Higher pressure drop (compared to a gate valve)

2. Requires greater force or a larger actuator to seat the valve (with pressure under the seat)
3. Throttling flow under the seat and shutoff flow over the seat

Typical Applications of Globe Valves

The following are some of the typical applications of globe valves:

1. Cooling water systems where flow needs to be regulated
2. Fuel oil system where flow is regulated and leak tightness is of importance

3. High-point vents and low-point drains when leak tightness and safety are major consideration

2.5.4 Gate valve

 Fig 4.10: gate valve

The gate valve is the type of valve most often used in industrial piping. The significant feature of
the gate valve is less obstruction to flow, with less turbulence within the valve and very little
pressure drop. When the valve is wide open, the wedge is lined entirely out of the waterway.
providing a straightway flow area through the valve. The gate valve should be specified when
pressure drop is to be avoided. Also, gate valves should never be used for throttling purposes;
only in the fully open or closed positions. If kept in an intermediate or partially open position,
the bottom of the wedge and the seat will become badly eroded in a short time. Also, the wedge
will tend to chatter and cause noise in the line.

A gate valve can be used for a wide variety of fluids and provides a tight seal when closed. The
major disadvantages to the use of a gate valve are:

It is not suitable for throttling applications. It is prone to vibration in the partially open state. It is
more subject to seat and disk wear than a globe valve. Repairs, such as lapping and grinding, are
generally more difficult to accomplish.

Advantages of Gate Valves

1. They have good shutoff characteristics.
2. They are bidirectional.
3. The pressure loss through the valve is minimal.

Disadvantages of Gate Valves

The following are some of the disadvantages of gate valves that must be considered when
selecting a gate valve for an application:

1. Gate valves are not quick opening or closing valves. Full-stem travel to open or close a gate
valve requires many turns of its hand wheel or an actuator.
2. Gate valves require large space envelope for installation, operation, and mainte- nance.
3. The slow movement of the disc near the full-closed position results in high-fluid velocities,
causing scoring of seating surfaces, referred to as wire drawing. It also causes galling of sliding
parts.
4. Repair or machining of valve seats in place is difficult.

Construction of a Gate Valve

Gate valves consist of three major components: body, bonnet, and trim.

The body is generally connected to the piping by means of flanged, screwed, or welded
connections. The bonnet, containing the moving parts, is joined to the body, generally with bolts,
to permit cleaning and maintenance. The valve trim consists of the stem, the gate, the wedge, or
disc, and the seat rings.

Types of a gate valve

Two basic types of gate valves are the manufactured-wedge type and the double-disc type, and
there are several variations within each of these types. A third type of gate valve, called conduit
valve, is shown in Fig. A.

Wedge Type

There are four types of wedges: solid, hollow, split, and flexible wedge. The solid wedge is a
single-piece solid construction. It does not compensate for changes in seat alignment due to pipe
end loads or thermal fluctuations. As such it is most susceptible to leakage. Except for NPS 2
(DN 50) and smaller, solid-wedge discs are generally not recommended for use in applications
having temperatures in excess of 250 deg F (121 deg C). Solid-wedge gate valves are considered
the most economical. Almost all small, NPS 2 (DN 50) and smaller, gate valves are solid-wedge
gate valves. Solid-wedge gate valves are generally used in moderate to lower pressure-
temperature applications. It is common practice to use cast iron or ductile iron solid-wedge gate
valves in cold or ambient water lines.

A hollow wedge is a variation of solid wedge with the exception of a hole in the center. The
hollow wedge travels along the stem when the threaded stem is rotated, thus opening or closing
the valve port.

The flexible wedge is also one-piece construction like a solid wedge, but areas behind the seating
surfaces are hollowed out to provide flexibility. This construction compensates for changes in
seat alignment for improved seating while maintaining the strength of a solid wedge in the
middle. This design offers better leak tightness and improved performance in situations with
potential for thermal binding.

The split wedge consists of two-piece construction which seats between the tapered seats in the
valve body. The two pieces of split wedge seat flat against the valve seats as the stem is moved
downward, and they move away from the valve seats when the stem is pulled upward.

In the wedge or disc-wedge types either a tapered solid or tapered split wedge is used. In the
rising stem valves (Fig. 4.11), 
 Fig. 4.11: Rising-stem solid-wedge gate valve for 250-psig steam service

the operating threads are out of direct contact with the fluid or gas. The non-rising stem type
(Fig. 4.12) 
 Fig. 4.12: Non-rising stem gate valve for 250-psig steam service

is preferred where space is limited and where the fluid passing through the valve will not corrode
or erode the threads or leave deposits on the threads. Also, the non-rising stem valve is preferred
for buried service. When the valve is closed, the gate disc is wedged on both sides against the
seat. In split-wedge gate valves (Fig. 4.13), 
 Fig. 4.13: Split-wedge gate valve

the two-piece wedge disc is seated between matching tapered seats in the body. This type is
preferred where the body seats might be distorted due to pipeline strain.

In the rising-stem type of valve, the upper part of the stem is threaded and a nut is fastened
solidly to the hand wheel and held in the yoke by thrust collars. As the hand wheel is turned, the
stem moves up or down. In the non-rising stem valve, the lower end of the stem is threaded and
screws into the disc, vertical motion of the stem being restrained by a thrust collar. The rising-
stem valve requires a greater amount of space when opened.

However, it is generally preferred because the position of the stem indicates at once whether the
valve is open or closed. Non-rising stem valves are sometimes provided with an indicator for this
purpose.

Double-Disc Type

In the double-disc parallel-seat valves (Figs. 4.14,4.15 and 4.16), 

Fig. 4.14: Double-disc rising-stem flanged-end gate valve for 150-psig service
Fig. 4.15: Double-disc non-rising-stem gate valve
Fig. 4.16: Parallel-seat gate valve showing welded construction for high-temperature service
with welded-in seat ring

the discs are forced against the valve seats by a wedging mechanism as the stem is tightened.
Some double-disc parallel seat valves employ a design which depends mainly upon the fluid
pressure exerted against one side of the disc or the other for its tightness. The major advantage of
this type is that the disc cannot be jammed into the body, an action that might make it difficult to
open the valve. This is particularly important where motors are used for opening and closing the
valve.

Unlike the wedge in a wedge-gate valve, which only comes into contact nearly closed, each disc
in the parallel seat valve slides against its seat while the valve is being opened or closed.
Consequently, these components must be made of metals, which do not gall or tear when in
sliding contact with each other. The double-disc parallel-seat gate valve is often favoured for high-
temperature steam service because it is less likely to stick in the closed position as a result of
change in temperature.

Conduit Gate Valve

Fig. 4.17: Conduit valves

It is also referred to as a slide valve or parallel slide. The disc surfaces are always in contact with
the body seats. Like the double-disc or parallel-seated gate valve, its disc seats against the
downstream seat, depending on the flow direction. The inside diameter of a conduit gate valve is
equal to the inside diameter of the connecting pipe. These valves are used in pipelines where pigs
are run through the piping to perform cleaning of built up deposits or debris. The typical
applications of conduit valves include dirty river water with suspended solids or water with
sludge or debris.

Conduit gate valves require a large-space envelope because of their longer disc proportions to
accommodate both the blank and the spacer halves of the disc assembly. The valve is closed by
moving the blank half downward to block the valve port. The spacer is accommodated in the
sump part of the valve body.
Conduit valves with Teflon (PTFE) seats can be used for low to intermediate temperatures (to
450 For 232 C). Metal-seated valves may be used for temperatures up to 1000 F (538 C).

Typical Gate Valve Applications

Socket or butt-welding end-gate valves in air, fuel gas, feedwater, steam, lube oil, and other
systems are typical applications. Threaded-end gate valves may be used in air, gaseous, or liquid
systems. Concern for leakage from threaded connection can be addressed by seal welding the
threaded connection or by using thread sealants, as appropriate. In low-pressure and low-
temperature systems such as fire protection systems’ water piping or water distribution
pipelines, flanged gate valves are commonly used.

2.5.5 Gate valve

Fig 4.18: plug valve

A plug valve is a rotational motion valve used to stop or start fluid flow. The name is derived
from the shape of the disk, which resembles a plug. The simplest form of a plug valve is the
petcock. The body of a plug valve is machined to receive the tapered or cylindrical plug. The
disk is a solid plug with a bored passage at a right angle to the longitudinal axis of the plug. In
the open position, the passage in the plug lines up with the inlet and outlet ports of the valve
body. When the plug is turned 90° from the open position, the solid part of the plug blocks the
ports and stops fluid flow.

Plug valves are available in either a lubricated or non-lubricated design and with a variety of
styles of port openings through the plug as well as a number of plug designs.

Plug Valve Types and Their Uses

 Although there are many types of plug valves, there are four general categories, each with their
own benefits.

1. Lubricated Plug Valve

 As the name suggests, a lubricated valve uses a lubricant usually made up of a base oil and
viscosity improver (like amorphous or fumed silica) that is injected under pressure between the
plug face and body seat to reduce friction and seal ports. Valve manufacturers generally
recommend lubricant suitable for the process fluid, and the valves often must be resealed after
only a few cycles, and in some cases, after every cycle. Considered a high maintenance plug
valve, they are often used in applications that have infrequent operations. Lubricated plug valves
perform well in processes that utilize fluids which carry mildly abrasive particles such as dirty
upstream applications, gas pipeline systems that need bypass valves, and as blow-down valves
on valve stations and kicker valves.

2. Non-Lubricated Plug Valve

This plug valve utilizes a tapered or cone-shape that acts as a wedge and presses a polymeric
sleeve against the body cavity. The use of the sleeve reduces friction between the plug
mechanism and body.  Non-lubricated plug valves are often used instead of lubricated ones in
applications where maintenance needs to be kept to a minimum, such special services in sulphur,
hydrogen fluoride, or where liquids could be trapped or solidify and potentially jam the valve.
However, non-lubricated plug valves are limited by temperature and chemical compatibility of
the non-metallic materials they are made of.

The three main types of non-lubricated plug valves are:

o Lift-type plug valve

o Elastomer sleeved plug valve

o Fully lined plug valve

3. Eccentric Plug Valve

The design of this plug valve uses a half plug that is advantageous for applications needing a
higher seating force with minimal friction from open to closed position. The torque seated valves
also feature improved shut off capabilities. Eccentric plug valves are used for a wide range of
flow control and isolation applications including clean and dirty water, sewage, sludge and
slurries, air, and other services.

4. Expanding Plug Valve

 This complex plug valve uses multiple components that allow the valve to mechanically expand
and give it a true double block and bleed function in one valve. The plug valve uses a mechanism
that rotates between the open and closed position and protects both seals from the flow path.
During rotation there is no contact between body and seals, and slips expand onto the body seat
when the valve is closed to avoid causing any wear or abrasion to the seals. They are often used
to prevent product contamination in applications that do not require a double isolation.

In conclusion, plug valves have a number of useful applications, and new technology and designs
are sure to give them an even wider variety of applications within many processes. And if you
need more information on different types of valves, check out this piece on check valves or the
rest of the site.

2.5.6 Diaphgram valve

 Fig 4.19: diaphgram valve

Diaphragm valves use a 'pinching' method to stop

the valve flow using a flexible diaphragm. They are available in two types: weir and straight-
way. The most commonly seen of the two is the weir-type. This is because the straight-way type
requires additional stretching of the diaphragm, which can shorten the diaphragm's life-span. One
of the major advantages of using diaphragm valves is that the valve components can be isolated
from the process fluid. Similarly, this construction helps prevent leakage of the fluid without the
use of a gland seal (packing) as seen in other types of valves. One the other hand, the diaphragm
becomes worn more easily and regular maintenance is necessary if the valve is used on a regular
basis. These types of valves are generally not suited for very high temperature fluids and are
mainly used on liquid systems.

NOTE: There exists a valve for steam systems that goes by a similar name. It is an automated
valve with a diaphragm type actuator. This is often shortened to just 'diaphragm valve', so when
a valve is referred to by this name, care must be taken to verify which type of valve it is.
2.5.7 Reducing valve

Fig 4.20: reducing valves

Reducing valves automatically reduce supply pressure to a preselected pressure as long as the
supply pressure is at least as high as the selected pressure. The Principle parts of the reducing
valve are the main valve; an upward-seating valve that has a piston on top of its valve stem, an
upward seating auxiliary (or controlling) valve, a controlling diaphragm, and an adjusting spring
and screw. Reducing valve operation is controlled by high pressure at the valve inlet and the
adjusting screw on top of the valve assembly. The pressure entering the main valve assists the
main valve spring in keeping the reducing valve closed by pushing upward on the main valve
disk. However,

some of the high pressure is bled to an auxiliary valve on top of the main valve. The auxiliary
valve controls the admission of high pressure to the piston on top of the main valve. The piston
has a larger surface area than the main valve disk, resulting in a net downward force to open the
main valve. The auxiliary valve is controlled by a controlling diaphragm located directly over the
auxiliary valve.

Pressure reducing valve is a type of pressure control valve. This type of valve is used to maintain
constant reduced pressure in a pipeline where the flow is fluctuating. This type of valve (which is
normally open) is used to maintain reduced pressures in specified locations of hydraulic systems.
The high incoming pressure is reduced to a constant pressure level to protect the important
instrument.

Construction & Working:

The principal parts of the reducing valve are the main valve; an upward-seating valve that has a
piston on top of its valve stem, an upward-seating auxiliary (or controlling) valve, a controlling
diaphragm, and an adjusting spring and screw.

A pressure-reducing valve uses a spring-loaded spool to control the downstream pressure. If the
downstream pressure is below the valve setting, the fluid flows freely from the inlet to the outlet.

Fig.4.21: operation of a reducing valve

Reducing valve operation is controlled by high pressure at the valve inlet and the adjusting screw
on top of the valve assembly. The pressure entering the main valve assists the main valve spring
in keeping the reducing valve closed by pushing upward on the main valve disk

However, some of the high pressure is bled to an auxiliary valve on top of the main valve. The
auxiliary valve controls the admission of high pressure to the piston on top of the main valve.
The piston has a larger surface area than the main valve disk, resulting in a net downward force
to open the main valve. The auxiliary valve is controlled by a controlling diaphragm located
directly over the auxiliary valve.

The controlling diaphragm transmits a downward force that tends to open the auxiliary valve.
The downward force is exerted by the adjusting spring, which is controlled by the adjusting
screw. Reduced pressure from the main valve outlet is bled back to a chamber beneath the
diaphragm to counteract the downward force of the adjusting spring.

 
Applications:

 Air compressor

 Aircraft and aerospace

 Oxyfuel welding and cutting

 Used in inlet flow of load in pressure reactor

 Mining industries

2.5.8 Check valve

Fig 4.22: check valve

Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping system. These valves are
activated by the flowing material in the pipeline. The pressure of the fluid passing through the
system opens the valve, while any reversal of flow will close the valve. Closure is accomplished
by the weight of the check mechanism, by back pressure, by a spring, or by a combination of
these means.

The general types of check valves are

1.Swing check valve Piston check valve

2.Butterfly check valve

3.Stop check valve

Construction of a Check Valve

A basic check valve consists of a valve body, bonnet or cover, and a disc which is attached to a
hinge and swings away from the valve seat to allow fluid to flow in the forward direction, as in a
swing- or tilting-disc check valve, and returns to valve seat when upstream flow is stopped.
Thus, reverse flow is prevented. In folding disc check valves, the disc consists of two halves
attached in the middle. The two halves fold backward when upstream flow is initiated. Activated
by a spring, the two halves quickly close the flow path when upstream flow ceases. In the case of
lift-check valves, the disc is in the form of a piston which is moved out of the flow path by
upstream flow and returns to the valve seat by gravity to stop back flow. Ball-check valves have
a disc in the form of a ball.

Check valves are available in sizes from NPS ¹⁄₄ (DN 6) through NPS 72 (DN 1800). Other sizes
may be made available to meet specific size requirements. Depending upon the design
requirements of a piping system, a check valve may have butt welding, socket welding, threaded,
or flanged ends.

Advantages of Check Valves

They are self-actuated and require no external means to actuate the valve either to open or close.
They are fast acting. 

Disadvantages of Check Valves

The following are some of the disadvantages that are attributed to check valves:

1. Since all moving parts are enclosed, it is difficult to determine whether the valve is open or
closed. Furthermore, the condition of internal parts cannot be assessed.

2. Each type of check valve has limitations on its installation configurations.

3. Valve disc can stick in open position.

Types of Check Valves

There are several types of check valves having varying body configurations. The following are
some commonly used types of check valves: 

 Swing Check Valve

Fig. 4.23: Swing check valve

In swing check valves, the disc is unguided when it moves to fully open position or to fully
closed position. Many different disc and seat designs are available to satisfy requirements of
varying applications. Soft-seated–swing check valves provide improved leak tightness compared
to metal-to metal seating surfaces. Combination seats consisting of a metal seat ring with
resilient insert also offer better leak tight characteristics. The seating angle, the angle between the
seat and the vertical plane, may vary from 0 to 45 degrees. Vertical seats have a 0 angle. Larger
seat angles reduce the disc travel, resulting in quick closing, thus minimizing the possibility of
water hammer. Usually the seat angles are in the range of 5 to 7 degrees.

 Lift Check Valve:

 Fig 4.24: Lift check valve

Lift check valves are particularly adapted for high-pressure service where velocity of flow is
high. In lift check valves, the piston disc is accurately guided by long contact and a close sliding
fit with the perfectly centered dash pot. The walls of the piston and dash pot are of approximately
equal thickness. Large steam jackets are located outside of the dash pot and inside the piston to
eliminate sticking because of differential expansion. The seat ring is of a barrel-type design of
heavy uniform cross-section. It is normally screwed in and seal welded. The flow opening is full
port size. Refer to Figs. 4.23 and 4.24.

The seat design of a lift-check valve is similar to a globe valve. The disc is usually in the form of
a piston or a ball. The ball-lift check valves are used in highly viscous fluid service. These valves
have superior leak tight characteristics to those of swing check valves.
 Fig. 4.25: Wye-pattern lift check valve

The piston type lift check valves have a tendency to stick in the open position when service fluid
has sediment trapped above the piston. Large lift check valves are furnished with an equalizer
line between the chamber above the disc and the downstream side of the valve.

Tilting Disc Check Valve

Fig. 4.26: Tilting-disc check valve

The tilting-disc check valve is designed to overcome some of the weaknesses inherent in
conventional swing check valves. A combination of design features enables the valve to open
fully and remain steady at lower flow velocities and to close quickly upon cessation of forward
flow. The dome-shaped disc floats in the flow with fluid on both bottom and top of its surfaces,
thus it has minimum dash pot effect. It performs well in pulsating, turbulent, and high-velocity
flows. These attributes prolong the valve’s lift and reduce flow-induced dynamic loads on the
piping system.

Folding Disc Check Valves

Fig. 4.27: Folding-disc check valve

This valve is also referred to as double-disc or split disc check valve. It is manufactured in wafer-
body pattern and is available with soft or hard seats. It is very popular in low-pressure liquid and
gaseous services. Its lightweight compact construction makes it a preferable check valve when
space and convenience are important.

Vertical or In-Line Check Valve

These valves are available in two configurations: in-line ball check and fully guided disc with
soft or hard seats. In-line ball check valves can be used in both vertical and horizontal lines. The
fully guided disc inline check valves must be provided with a spring-assist closure when used in
horizontal lines. In vertical lines, the guided disc in-line check valves may or may not be
provided with spring-assist closure. The spring-assist closure not only assists in closing the valve
quickly, it minimizes the possibility of water hammer by preventing
flow reversal.
They can be used in applications having pulsating flows, such as in a discharge line of
a reciprocating compressor. Because they are compact in size, they are ideal for application in
tight spaces.

Stop Check Valve

A stop check valve can either be used as a unidirectional check valve or as an isolation (stop)
valve like a gate or globe valve. During normal operation of a system, these valves are used as a
regular check valve; however, when needed, these valves can be closed with the help of a screw-
down stem which is not fastened to the valve disc. The stem, when fully screwed down, holds the
free-floating disc against the valve seat, just as in a gate or a globe valve. These valves are
available in tee-pattern, wye-pattern, angle-pattern, and inclined pattern.

The swing-and-piston lift-disc design check valves are commonly used as stop check valves.

Application Considerations

The force of gravity plays an important role in the functioning of a check valve and, therefore,
the location and orientation of the check valve must always be given consideration. Lift and ball
check valves must always be placed so that the direction of lift is vertical. Swing checks must be
located to ensure that the disc will always be closed freely and positively by gravity.

The flow velocity of the fluid through the valve has a significant effect on the life of the check
valve. The valve should be sized such that the fluid velocity under normal conditions is sufficient
to keep the disc fully open and pressed against the stop. This minimizes disc fluttering, which is
the primary cause of valve failure. Also, a check valve should not be located immediately
downstream of a source of turbulence, such as a pump, elbow, control valve, or a tee-branch
connection.

It is recommended that manufacturer’s recommendations be followed to provide the required

straight run of pipe upstream of the check valve. Some manufacturers recommend 8-to-10 pipe-
diameter length of straight run of pipe upstream of the valve. Sometimes, the layout and the
space available may not allow compliance to manufacturer’s recommendations. Alternatives
must be evaluated and the most reasonable and feasible approach be implemented.

A swing check valve may be used in the vertical run of a pipe only when the flow is upward. In
addition, the flow velocity and the fluid pressure must be adequate to overcome the disc weight
and swing it to the fully open position. In-line ball check valves are suitable for application in
horizontal or vertical lines.
When the flow is suspected to be pulsating and low, use of a swing check valve is not
recommended. Due to the continuous flapping of the swing disc against the seat, valves suffer
considerable damage, and at times the swing discs can come loose.

Fig 4.28: Application of Check Valves

Fig 4.28 summarizes preliminary application guidelines for selection of a suitable type of check
valve. The user must evaluate specific application features to determine the right valve for the
application.

Typical Applications of Check Valves

Table 1 provides a brief summary of different types of check valves and their typical
applications. The preliminary  guidelines of this table may be used to determine the suitable
check valve for an application, considering the specifics of the application.

2.5.9 Needle valve

Fig. 4.29: needle valve

A needle valve is used to make relatively fine adjustments in the amount of fluid flow. The
distinguishing characteristic of a needle valve is the long, tapered, needle-like point on the end of
the valve stem. This "needle" acts as a disk. The longer part of the needle is smaller than the
orifice in the valve seat and passes through the orifice before the needle seats. This arrangement
permits a very gradual increase or decrease in the size of the opening. Needle valves are often
used as component parts of other, more complicated valves.

For example, they are used in some types of reducing valves. Needle Valve Applications: Most
constant pressure pump governors have needle valves to minimize the effects of fluctuations in
pump discharge pressure. Needle valves are also used in some components of automatic
combustion control systems where very precise flow regulation is necessary

2.5.10 Relief and Safety valves

4.30: relief & safety valve

Relief and safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving accidental overpressurization of
fluid systems. The main difference between a relief valve and a safety valve is the extent of
opening at the setpoint pressure. A relief valve gradually opens as the inlet pressure increases
above the setpoint. A relief valve opens only as necessary to relieve the over-pressure condition.
A safety valve rapidly pops fully open as soon as the pressure setting is reached. A safety valve
will stay fully open until the pressure drops below a reset pressure. The reset pressure is lower
than the actuating pressure setpoint. The difference between the actuating pressure setpoint and
the pressure at which the safety valve resets is called blowdown. Blowdown is expressed as a
percentage of the actuating pressure setpoint. Relief valves are typically used for incompressible
fluids such as water or oil. Safety valves are typically used for compressible fluids such as steam
or other gases. Safety valves can often be

distinguished by the presence of an external lever at the top of the valve body, which is used as
an operational check.
 4.31: parameter description & specification of safety valve

2.7. Important attributes of valves.

Flow Coefficient (Cv)

Cv relates to flow through the valve body and represents the number of gallons of water per
minute at 60oF that can pass through the valve with a 1 psi pressure drop across the valve. It is a
common method of comparing valve performance.

Valve Size

Valve sizes in both inches and millimeters generally correspond to the size of the pipes they
work with. Flanges, etc. are usually sized based on the valve size.

Pressure Rating

Valves are often rated according to ANSI classes of 150 psi, 300 psi, etc., corresponding to
standard pipeline ratings. Domestic ball valves can be rated as high as 600 psi.

Port Connections

True union refers to the connections on a valve body which allows it to be inserted in a pipeline
without moving the pipes apart. This is common for small ball valves where the pipe connections
are often threaded. Single union valves have this connection on only one side. Compression
fittings also apply mainly to small valves used with tubing of copper, plastic, etc. Flanges are
common port connections in larger valves. Connections can be brazed in many smaller valves
used for water service. Plastic valves can have socket connections for solvent welding.

Other Valve Features

Valves are often deemed as being bubble-tight, a description for valves which will not allow any
liquid passage upon closure. Certain designs are more apt to be bubble tight than others,
particularly those valves that are intended for on-off service versus those that are used mainly for
regulating flow.

2.8. Equivalent lengths and K values for various kinds of fitting.

Fig 4.32 : Equvivalent lengths and k values for various kinds of fitting

2.9 Golden rules for valves

• Golden Rule 1

Thou shalt not close a valve before opening another!!!!

• Golden Rule 2

Thou shalt not close a valve before stopping a pump!!!!

2.10 Valve malfunctions

• Valve Leaking or not sealing correctly

Causes - Wear

- Foreign material

- Corrosion

- Flange or flange bolt failure

Effect - Contamination of other streams

- Contamination of the environment

- Low pressure sequence Trips

- Bogging of pipework

Actions - Attempt to flush

- Remove and clear

- Contact maintenance and replace

• Valve not operating correctly (ball, butterfly)

Causes - Corrosion of internal

- Foreign material

- Corrosion of handle
Effect - Valve not sealing

- Low pressure sequence Trips

- High pressure sequence Trips

Actions - Attempt to flush

- Remove and clear

- Contact maintenance and replace valve

2.11 Valve safety

• High pressure systems

• Confined spaces

• Heights

• Over exertion to turn a tight valve

REFRENCES

 Valve handbook Book by Philip L. Skousen

 https://www.emerson.com/en-in/automation/services-consulting/educational-
services/valves-actuators-regulators-training

RESULT
I have come across so many topics in valve engineering like the applications,
mechanisms and malfunctions and many more through this internship

SKILL LEARNED
Learning about valves is one of the major skill I gained through this internship and also
practically learnt about their mechanisms, applications and working principles of several
valves.
SYMBOLS PURPOSE
Cv Valve Coefficient

GPM Water Flow Rate in Gallons per Minute

Delta p differential pressure

Kv The valves volumetric flow rate of water at NTP

with Pressure drop of 1 bar and is

expressed in m^3/h

K constant

L Length

D Diameter

NPS Nominal pipe size

DN Nominal diameter