Riser Design

RISER DESIGN, or risering, deals with the development of suitable reservoirs of feed metal
in addition to the desired casting shape so that undesirable shrinkage cavities in the casting
are
eliminated or moved to locations where they are acceptable for the intended application of
the casting. When metals solidify and cool to form a casting, they generally undergo three
distinct stages of volume contraction, or shrinkage.
Exceptions to this shrinkage behavior of some graphitic cast irons are noted later in
this article. These stages, shown schematically in Fig. 1, are:
_ Liquid shrinkage: The liquid metal loses volume as it gives up superheat and cools
to its solidification temperature. _ Solidification shrinkage: The metal freezes,
changing from a liquid to a higher-density solid. For pure metals, this contraction will
occur at a single temperature, but for noneutectic alloys, it will take place over some
temperature range or freezing interval._ Solid shrinkage: The solid casting cools
from its solidification temperature to room temperature.
Solid shrinkage, also called patternmaker’s shrinkage, is accommodated by making the
pattern
and, therefore; the mold cavity, somewhat larger than the desired dimensions of the final
casting. Liquid shrinkage and solidification shrinkage are the concern of risering practice.
In the absence of risers, a casting would otherwise solidify as shown in Fig.
Visible signs of shrinkage-induced casting defects include internal shrinkage voids, surface
deformation or dishing, and surface puncture.
These defects will vary with different alloys; for example, internal shrinkage may be
more dispersed, or alloys with strong skinforming behavior may not exhibit surface
deformation.
To eliminate these defects in the casting, a riser is added to accommodate the liquid
shrinkage and to supply liquid feed metal to compensate for the solidification shrinkage
within the casting (Fig. 3). Therefore, the shrinkage in the riser/casting system is
concentrated
in the riser, which will then be removed from the finished casting.
As illustrated in Fig. 3, the riser may be larger than the casting it feeds, because it must
supply feed metal for as long as the casting is solidifying. Various methods are used to
reduce
the size of the required riser, including chilling the casting, that is, reducing its solidification
time or insulating the riser, that is, extending its solidification time.

Optimum Riser Design

The role of the methods engineer in designing risers can be stated simply as making sure
that risers will provide the feed metal:
_ In the right amount
_ At the right place
_ At the right time
To this list can be added several other
considerations:
_ The riser/casting junction should be designed to minimize riser removal costs.
_ The number and size of risers should be minimized to increase mold yield and to
reduce production costs.

_ Riser placement must be chosen so as not to exaggerate potential problems in a particular

casting design; for example, tendencies toward hot tearing or distortion.
In practice, these considerations are often in conflict, and the final riser design and pattern
layout represent a compromise.

Feed Metal Volume

In addition to the rise volume required to satisfy liquid and solidification shrinkage in the
casting, the riser itself will be solidifying, so the total shrinkage requirement will be for the
riser/casting combination. The total feeding requirement will depend on the specific alloy,
the amount of superheat, the casting geometry, and the molding medium.
Liquid shrinkage depends on the alloy and the amount of superheat. Liquid shrinkage for
carbon steels is generally in the range of 1.6 to 1.8%/100 _C (0.9 to 1.0%/100 _F) superheat.
For graphitic cast irons, liquid shrinkage has been reported in the range of 0.68 to 1.8%/
100 _C (0.38 to 1.0%/100 _F) (Ref 2–5).
Solidification Shrinkage. Table 1 indicates that solidification shrinkage varies considerably
according to the alloy melted and that, within the graphitic cast irons, expansion may occur.
This phenomenon is often ascribed to the precipitation of the less dense graphite phase
overcoming
the contraction associated with the solidification of austenite. Theoretical calculations
indicate that such density differences cannot account for the higher reported expansion
percentages (Ref 2, 5). Practice shows that, with proper control of metallurgical and mold
conditions, expansion phenomena can be used to reduce greatly or eliminate risers; with the
liquid shrinkage accommodated by the gating system instead of the riser system (Ref 5).
Mold Dilation. Mold wall movement after a mold cavity has been filled with liquid metal
can enlarge the casting and thus increase the feed metal requirements. Such mold dilation is
a function of the molding medium, the mold filling temperature, and the alloy.
With gray and ductile irons, mold dilation may result partially from expansion pressures
within
the solidifying casting generated by the precipitation of graphite. In soft green sand molds,
such
mold dilation may produce an additional 15% feed metal requirement above that needed to
satisfy
the calculated liquid and solidification shrinkages (Ref 7). In copper-base alloys, it has been
suggested that an additional 1% volumetric shrinkage should be expected as a result of mold
cavity expansion in green sand molds (Ref 8).
Casting Geometry. The shape of a casting will affect the size of the riser needed to meet
its feed requirements for the obvious reason that the longer the casting takes to solidify,
the longer the riser must maintain a reservoir of liquid metal. For rangy, thin-section castings,
where solidification will be rapid, feed metal requirements may be smaller than what would
ordinarily be calculated. This is because a portion of the liquid and solidification shrinkages
will be
fed by liquid metal entering the mold from the gating system. Table 2 indicates the effect of
differences
in casting geometry on minimum riser volume requirements for steel castings.

Riser Location
To determine the correct riser locations, the designer should make use of the concept of
directional solidification. If shrinkage cavities in the casting are to be avoided, solidification
should proceed directionally from those parts of the casting farthest from the riser, through
the intermediate portions of the casting, and finally into the riser itself, where the final
solidification
will occur. Shrinkage at each step of solidification is thus fed by liquid feed metal
being drawn out of the riser.
The ability to achieve such directional solidification will depend on:
_ The alloy and its mode of solidification
_ The mold medium
_ The casting design
Two distinct types of castings must be considered:
castings with uniform wall thickness and
castings with wall sections of varying thickness.

Progressive and Directional Solidification.

Figure 4 illustrates the interplay of progressive and directional solidification in a casting.
With the mold cavity filled, solidification will generally proceed from the mold wall, where
a skin of solid metal will form. As heat is lost to the mold, that skin will grow progressively
inward. Two conditions serve to change the rate of this growth. At the casting edge, where
the
greater surface area allows more rapid transfer of heat to the mold, the solidification rate will
be faster. At the riser, where the mass of the riser provides more heat, and where heat
transfer
to the mold is reduced at the internal angle of the riser/casting junction, the rate of skin
formation
will be reduced. This combination of edge effect, or end effect, and riser effect
provides directional solidification.
If the wedge-shaped pattern of the solidification front begun at the casting edge can be
maintained,
a channel of liquid feed metal should be available throughout its progress toward the
riser. If, however, the parallel advancing walls progressively solidifying in the intermediate
zone begin to meet, movement of liquid feed metal will be restricted, and centerline
shrinkage
will result.
Solidification Mode. The ability to promote and sustain directional solidification will depend
greatly on the manner in which an alloy solidifies.
Alloys can be classified into three types based on their freezing ranges:
_ Short: liquidus-to-solidus interval <50 _C
(<90 _F)
_ Intermediate: interval of 50 to 110 _C (90 to
200 _F)
_ Long: interval >110 _C (>200 _F)
This classification is not precise, but the general solidification mode of each type is illustrated
in
Fig. 5 to 8.
For pure metals (Fig. 5), in which the freezing range approaches zero, the solidifying casting
walls progress inward as a plane front.
Short-freezing-range alloys (Fig. 6) will show a strong tendency toward skin formation, and
the fronts of the crystals solidifying inward (start of freeze) will not advance much faster
than their bases (end of freeze). Such relative, short crystalline growth helps keep liquid

feed metal in contact with all the solidifying surfaces. Such strong progressive solidification
in these short-freezing-range alloys promotes the development of directional solidification
along any temperature gradients in the solidifying casting. For example, in carbon steel,
gradients
of only 0.022 to 0.045 _C/mm (1 to 2 _F/in.) in plates and 0.135 to 0.269 _C/mm (6 to
12 _F/in.) in bars are sufficient to produce a shrinkage-free casting section through directional
solidification.
For long-freezing-range alloys (Fig. 7), the development of directional solidification is difficult.
Although a thin skin may initially form on the mold walls, solidification does not proceed
progressively inward. Rather, it develops throughout the solidifying casting at scattered
locations, forming equiaxed islands. This mushy or pasty mode of solidification results in the
development of numerous small channels of liquid metal late in solidification. Feeding
through these channels is restricted, and dispersed shrinkage porosity occurs throughout
the casting.
Such solidification is typical of many commercial copper-base alloys, in which the difficulty in
feeding caused by shrinkage porosity is aggravated, especially in thick sections, by the high
thermal conductivity of the alloys, which helps maintain a nearly uniformtemperature
throughout
the solidifying casting. To promote directional solidification in such alloys may require
temperature
gradients as high as 1.46 _C/mm (65 _F/in.), which can usually be achieved only by severely

feed metal in contact with all the solidifying surfaces. Such strong progressive solidification
in these short-freezing-range alloys promotes the development of directional solidification
along any temperature gradients in the solidifying casting. For example, in carbon steel,
gradients
of only 0.022 to 0.045 _C/mm (1 to 2 _F/in.) in plates and 0.135 to 0.269 _C/mm (6 to
12 _F/in.) in bars are sufficient to produce a shrinkage-free casting section through directional
solidification.
For long-freezing-range alloys (Fig. 7), the development of directional solidification is difficult.
Although a thin skin may initially form on the mold walls, solidification does not proceed
progressively inward. Rather, it develops throughout the solidifying casting at scattered
locations, forming equiaxed islands. This mushy or pasty mode of solidification results in the
development of numerous small channels of liquid metal late in solidification. Feeding
through these channels is restricted, and dispersed shrinkage porosity occurs throughout
the casting.
Such solidification is typical of many commercial copper-base alloys, in which the difficulty in
feeding caused by shrinkage porosity is aggravated, especially in thick sections, by the high
thermal conductivity of the alloys, which helps maintain a nearly uniformtemperature
throughout
the solidifying casting. To promote directional solidification in such alloys may require
temperature
gradients as high as 1.46 _C/mm (65 _F/in.), which can usually be achieved only by severely
chilling one portion of the solidifying casting.
Generally, the goal in risering such alloys is not to eliminate shrinkage but to ensure that it is
finely
dispersed (microporosity).
For alloys with an intermediate freezing range (Fig. 8), the mode of solidification will
combine elements of both the skin-forming and mushy solidification modes. Short-freezing-
range alloys may shift to a more intermediate mode of solidification in heavy casting
sections, in which heat loss from the casting surface will be slowed as the molding medium
heats up. As temperature gradients from the center of the solidifying section to the casting
edge are reduced, crystal growth will change from the columnar pattern growing in from
the mold walls to an equiaxial pattern dispersed throughout the still-liquid center.
The various solidification modes result in very different typical shrinkage configurations
in the casting and riser (Fig. 9 and 10) and present the methods engineer with distinctly
different
problems to overcome in riser and casting design. Selection of appropriate methods will
depend largely on the possibility of promoting directional solidification. Figure 11 illustrates
the effects of several mold and metal variables on the development of progressive and,
therefore,
directional, solidification.
Castings of Uniform Wall Thickness. The specific alloy and the section configuration will
combine to impose a limiting feeding distance (FD) over which a casting can solidify free
of centerline shrinkage. As shown in Fig. 12, total FD in a section of steel plate (thickness,
T; width, >3T) with a cooling edge is the sum of the riser effect and edge effect. Several key
points are shown:
_ The contribution from the edge effect is generally greater than that from riser effect.
_ In the absence of cooling edges, FD between risers is dramatically reduced.
_ If the maximum FD in a section is exceeded, the edge effect will give a sound edge to its
usual length, but centerline shrinkage may extend for some variable distance into the
area that would ordinarily be expected to be sound because of riser effect.
Figure 13 illustrates the same relationships in seel bars (width equals T). When compared
with Fig. 12, Fig. 13 also highlights the fact that bar-shaped sections will have shorter FDs
than
platelike sections of the same thickness.
Figure 14 shows the use of chills to extend FD. When applied to the edge of a casting section,
the chill will withdraw heat rapidly, enhancing the development of directional solidification
away from the edge. This will add to the length of the zone that will be sound due
to end effect.
In addition, if a chill is placed between risers in a casting section where there is no natural
cooling edge, it can be used to establish an artificial end effect. In this way, the distance
between
risers can be dramatically increased, thus reducing the number of risers needed to ensure
a sound casting.
Such a use of chills is illustrated for a steel flange (Fig. 15). The first attempt (Fig. 15a) at
subdividing this casting into feedable sections with riser placement based on the absence of
end effect (except at the periphery of the flange) requires eight risers (two on the hub
and six on the flange). The overlapping feeding zones of the riser (based on riser effect)
cover
the feeding requirements of most of the flange, but there still remain unfed regions (in which
centerline shrinkage would occur) that would probably require the addition of at least one
more riser on the flange.
The second subdivision of the casting (Fig. 15b), using chills to establish artificial
end effects, reduces the number of risers needed to only five (one on the hub and four on the
flange). Such an application of chills, in addition to ensuring a sound casting, can provide
economic advantages by simplifying molding and patternmaking procedures, increasing
casting
yield, and reducing riser removal costs.
It should be reemphasized that FDs in sections of uniform thickness depend on alloy
characteristics and section configuration (that is, whether barlike or platelike) to determine
how far directional solidification can be sustained.
If the walls of the progressively solidifying intermediate sections begin to come
together, disrupting and constricting the feeding
channels through which feed metal can move, centerline shrinkage will occur. Once the FD
of a section has been exceeded, the development of centerline shrinkage will not be
overcome by
increasing the size of the riser.
Feeding Distance. It should also be noted that most of the data on FD is for steel. A variety
of nomograms and tables have been widely used for decades (Ref 13–16). These served the
industry
well, but in the 1990s it was felt these FDs were overly conservative. After researching
low-alloy plate casting throughout North America, analyzing foundry results, and testing
simulation
software, the Steel Founders’ Society of America (SFSA) presented FD rules (Ref 17).
They address the section configuration (bar or plte) by expressing riser and end zone effects
as a function of width to thickness, W/T.
Multiplier’s are provided for differences in alloy composition, mold materials, pouring
superheats,
and level of casting soundness desired.
For most other metals, such precise data are not available, so their FDs are often
characterized
by their similarity (or lack of similarity) to carbon steel. One method of making this
comparison is by the calculation of centreline feeding resistance (Ref 6). This measurement
indicates that some alloys (for example, Monel) will have FDs very much like those of carbon
steel, and the methods engineer can use FD tables and nomograms established for the latter.
Some alloys, such as 18-8 steel, 12% Cr steel, 99.8% Cu, and 60-40 brass, will have
greater FDs in similar casting sections, so a multiplier can be applied to steel-base rules.
Multipliers for high-alloy steel castings have been developed for steel alloys CF-8M,
CA-15, HH, HK, and HP (Ref 18). In other alloys, such as 88-10-2 bronze, 85-5-
5-5 bronze, Al- 8Mg, and Al-4.5Cu, the centreline feeding resistance is so great that FD is
virtually
nonexistent unless severe chilling is used.
Graphitic Cast Irons. In these materials, the crystallization of the low-density graphite as
flakes or nodules should promote self-feeding behavior in the solidifying casting and allow
infinite FDs as long as the early liquid feed