3.

1 INTRODUCTION

Structural members are usually classified according to the types of loads that they support. For instance, an axially
loaded bar supports forces having their vectors directed along the axis of the bar, and a bar in torsion as discussed in
the next chapter supports torques (or couples) having their moment vectors directed along the axis. In this chapter, we
begin our study of beams (Fig. 3-1), which are structural members subjected to lateral loads, that is, forces or moments
having their vectors perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
The beams shown in Fig. 3-1 are classified as planar structures because they lie in a single plane. If all loads act in that
same plane, and if all deflections (shown by the dashed lines) occur in that plane, then we refer to that plane as the
plane of bending.

In this chapter we discuss shear forces and bending moments in statically

determinate beams, and we will show how these quantities are related to
each other and to the loads. Finding the shear forces and bending moments is
an essential step in the design of any beam. We usually need to know not
only the maximum values of these quantities, but also the manner in which
they vary along the axis. Once the shear forces and bending moments are
known, we can find the stresses, strains, and deflections, as discussed later in
next chapters.

Fig 3.1 beams loaded by

lateral forces
3.2 TYPES OF BEAMS, LOADS, AND REACTIONS
Beams are usually described by the manner in which they are supported. For
instance, a beam with a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other
(Fig. 3-2a) is called a simply supported beam. The essential feature of a pin
support is that it prevents translation at the end of a beam but does not prevent
rotation. Thus, end A of the beam of Fig. 3-2a cannot move horizontally or
vertically but the axis of the beam can rotate in the plane of the figure.
At end B of the beam (Fig. 3-2a) the roller support prevents translation in the
vertical direction but not in the horizontal direction; hence this support can
resist a vertical force (RB) but not a horizontal force. Of course, the axis of the
beam is free to rotate at B just as it is at A. The vertical reactions at roller
supports and pin supports may act either upward or downward, and the
horizontal reaction at a pin support may act either to the left or to the right.
The beam shown in Fig. 3-2b, which is fixed at one end and free at the other,
is called a cantilever beam. At the fixed support (or clamped support) the
beam can neither translate nor rotate, whereas at the free end it may do both.
Consequently, both force and moment reactions may exist at the fixed
support.
The third example in the figure is an over hanging beam (Fig. 3-2c). This
beam is simply supported at points A and B (that is, it has a pin support at A
and a roller support at B but it also projects beyond the support at B. The
overhanging segment BC is similar to a cantilever beam except that the beam
axis may rotate at point B.

Fig.3-2 Types of beams: (a) Simple beam, (b)

Cantilever beam, (c) beam with an overhang

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 1

3.2.1 Types of loads
Several types of loads that act on beams are illustrated in Fig. 3-2. When a load is applied over a very small area it may
be idealized as a concentrated load, which is a single force. Examples are the loads PI, P2, P3, and P4 in the figure.
When a load is spread along the axis of a beam, it is represented as a distributed load, such as the load q in part (a) of
the figure. Distributed loads are measured by their intensity, which is expressed in units of force per unit distance (for
example, Ne wtons per meter). A uniformly distributed load, or uniform load, has constant intensity q per unit distance
(Fig. 3-2a). A varying load has an intensity that changes with distance along the axis; for instance, the linearly varying
load of Fig. 3-2b has an intensity that varies linearly from q1 to q2. Another kind of load is a couple, illustrated by the
couple of moment M1 acting on the overhanging beam (Fig. 3-2c).
Note: we assume in this discussion that the loads act in the plane of the figure, which means that all forces must have
their vectors in the plane of the figure and all couples must have their moment vectors perpendicular to the plane of the
figure.
3.2.2 Reactions
Finding the reactions is usually the first step in the analysis of a beam. Once the reactions are known, the shear forces
and bending moments can be found, as described later in this chapter. If a beam is supported in a statically determinate
manner, all reactions can be found from free-body diagrams and equations of equilibrium.
Examples

3.3 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

When a beam is loaded by forces or couples, stresses and strains are created
throughout the interior of the beam. To determine these stresses and strains,
we first must find the internal forces and internal couples that act on cross
sections of the beam. As an illustration of how these internal quantities are
found, consider a cantilever beam AB loaded by a force P at its free end (Fig.
3-3a). We cut through the beam at a cross section mn located at distance x
from the free end and isolate the left-hand part of the beam as a free body
(Fig. 3-3b). The free body is held in equilibrium by the force P and by the
stresses that act over the cut cross section. These stresses represent the action
of the right-hand part of the beam on the left-hand part. At this stage of our
discussion we do not know the distribution of the stresses acting over the
cross section; all we know is that the resultant of these stresses must be such
as to maintain equilibrium of the free body.
From Statics, we know that the resultant of the stresses acting on the cross
section can be reduced to a shear force V and a bending moment M (Fig. 3-
3b). Because the load P is transverse to the axis of the beam, no axial force
exists at the cross section. Both the shear force and the bending moment act in
the plane of the beam, that is, the vector for the shear force lies in the plane of
the figure and the vector for the moment is perpendicular to the plane of the
figure.
Fig 3-3 Shear force V and Bending
Moment M in a beam

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 2

 Sign Conventions
Let us now consider the sign conventions for shear forces and bending
moments. It is customary to assume that shear forces and bending
moments are positive when they act in the directions shown in Fig. 3-
3b. Note that the shear force tends to rotate the material clockwise and
the bending moment tends to compress the upper part of the beam and
elongate the lower part. Also, in this instance, the shear force acts
downward and the bending moment acts counterclockwise.
The action of these same stress resultants against the right-hand part of
the beam is shown in Fig. 3-3c. The directions of both quantities are
now reversed the shear force acts upward and the bending moment
acts clockwise. However, the shear force still tends to rotate the
material clockwise and the bending moment still tends to compress the
upper part of the beam and elongate the lower part. Therefore, we must
recognize that the algebraic sign of a stress resultant is determined by
how it deforms the material on which it acts, rather than by its
direction in space. In the case of a beam, a positive shear force acts
clockwise against the material (Figs. 3-3b and c) and a negative shear
force acts counterclockwise against the material. Also, a positive
bending moment compresses the upper part of the beam (Figs. 3-3b
and c) and a negative bending moment compresses the lower part.
To make these conventions clear, both positive and negative shear
forces and bending moments are shown in Fig. 3-4. The forces and
moments are shown acting on an element of a beam cut out between
. Fig 3-4 Deformations of a beam element caused by two cross sections that are a small distance apart.
(a) Shear forces (b) Bending moments

The deformations of an element caused by both positive and negative shear forces and bending moments are sketched in
Fig. 3-4. We see that a positive shear force tends to deform the element by causing the right-hand face to move
downward with respect to the left-hand face, and, as already mentioned, a positive bending moment compresses the
upper part of a beam and elongates the lower part.
NOTE: when writing equations of equilibrium we use static sign conventions, in which forces are positive or negative
according to their directions along the coordinate axes.
3.4 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOADS, SHEAR FORCES, AND BENDING MOMENTS
The relationships between loads, shear forces, and bending moments are quite useful when investigating the shear
forces and bending moments throughout the entire length of a beam, and they are especially helpful when constructing
shear-force and bending-moment diagrams, as discussed in the next section.
As a means of obtaining the relationships, let us consider an element of a beam cut out between two cross sections that
are distance dx apart (Fig. 3-5). The load acting on the top surface of the element may be a distributed load, a
concentrated load, or a couple, as shown in Figs. 3-5a, b, and c, respectively. The sign conventions for these loads are
as follows:
• Distributed loads and concentrated loads are positive when they act downward on the beam and negative
when they act upward.
• A couple acting as a load on a beam is positive when it is counterclockwise and negative when it is clockwise.
If other sign conventions are used, the only changes will be in the signs of the terms appearing in the equations derived
below.
The shear forces and bending moments acting on the sides of the element are shown in their positive directions in Fig.3-
5.In general, the shear forces and bending moments vary along the axis of the beam. Therefore, their values on the right-
hand face of the element may be different from their values on the left-hand face. In the case of a distributed load (Fig.
3-5a) the increments in V and M are infinitesirnal, and so we denote them by dVand dM, respectively. The
corresponding stress resultants on the right-hand face are V + dV and M + dM. In the case of a concentrated load (Fig. 3-

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 3

 5b) or a couple (Fig. 3-5c) the increments may be finite, and so they are denoted V1 and
M1. The corresponding stress resultants on the right-hand face are V + V1 and M + M1.
For each type of loading we can write two equations of equilibrium for the element:
one equation for equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction and one for equilibrium
of moments. The first of these equations gives the relationship between the load and the
shear force, and the second gives the relationship between the shear force and the
bending moment.
Distributed Loads (Fig. 3-5a)
The first type of loading is a distributed load of intensity q, as shown in Fig. 3-5a.
Equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction (upward forces are positive) gives

Fvert = 0 V − qdx − (V + dV ) = 0
dV
= −q (3 .1)
dx
From this equation we see that the rate of change of the shear force at any point on the
axis of the beam is equal to the negative of the intensity of the distributed load at that
same point. (Note: If the sign convention for a distributed load is reversed, so that q is
positive upward instead of downward, then the minus sign is omitted in the preceding
equation.)
Some useful relations are immediately obvious from Eq. (3-1). For instance, if there is
no distributed load on a segment of the beam (that is, if q = 0), then dV/dx = 0 and the
shear force is constant in that part of the beam. Also, if the distributed load is uniform
along part of the beam (q = constant), then dV/dx is also constant and the shear force
changes linearly in that part of the beam.
Fig 3-5 Element of a beam used in deriving
the relationship between loads, shear
forces, and bending moments

A useful relationship pertaining to the shear forces at two different cross sections of a beam can be obtained by
integrating Eq. (3-1) along the axis of the beam. To obtain this relationship, we multiply both sides of Eq. (3-1) by dx
and then integrate between any two points A and B on the axis of the beam; thus,
B B
dV = − qdx
A A
B
V B − V A = − qdx (3.2)
A
= - (area of the loading diagram between A and B)
In other words, the change in shear force between two points along the axis of the beam is equal to the negative of the
total downward load between those points. The area of the loading diagram may be positive (if q acts downward) or
negative (if q acts upward).
Because Eq. (3-1) was derived for an element of the beam subjected only to a distributed load (or to no load), we cannot
use Eq. (3-1) at a point where a concentrated load is applied (because the intensity of load q is not defined for a
concentrated load). For the same reason, we cannot use Eq. (3-2) if a concentrated load P acts on the beam between
points A and B.
Let us now consider the moment equilibrium of the beam element shown in Fig. 3-5a. Summing moments about an axis
at the left-hand side of the element (the axis is perpendicular to the plane of the figure), and taking counterclockwise
moments as positive, we obtain

dx
M =0 − M − qdx − (V + dV )dx + M + dM = 0
2

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 4

Discarding products of differentials (because they are negligible compared to the other terms), we obtain the following
relationship:
dM
=V (3.3)
dx
This equation shows that the rate of change of the bending moment at any point on the axis of a beam is equal to the
shear force at that same point. For instance, if the shear force is zero in a region of the beam, then the bending moment
is constant in that same region.
Equation (3-3) applies only in regions where distributed loads (or no loads) act on the beam. At a point where a
concentrated load acts, a sudden change (or discontinuity) in the shear force occurs and the derivative dM/dx is
undefined at that point.
Integrating Eq. (3-3) between two points A and B on the beam axis gives

B B
dM = Vdx (3-4a)
A A
The integral on the left-hand side of this equation is equal to the difference (MB - MA) of the bending moments at points
B and A. To interpret the integral on the right-hand side, we need to consider V as a function of x and visualize a shear-
force diagram showing the variation of V with x. Then we see that the integral on the right -hand side represents the area
below the shear-force diagram between A and B. Therefore, we can express Eq. (3-4a) in the following manner:

B
M B − M A = Vdx (3-4b)
A

= (area of the shear-force diagram between A and B)

This equation is valid even when concentrated loads act on the beam between points A and B. However, it is not valid if
a couple acts between A and B. A couple produces a sudden change in the bending moment, and the left-hand side of
Eq. (3-4a) cannot be integrated across such a discontinuity.

Concentrated loads (Fig. 3-5b)

Now let us consider a concentrated load P acting on the beam element (Fig. 3-5b). From equilibrium of forces in the
vertical direction, we get
V - P - (V + V1) = 0 or V1 = -P (3-5)
This result means that an abrupt change in the shear force occurs at any point where a concentrated load act~. As we
pass from left to right through the point of load application, the shear force decreases by an amount equal to the
magnitude of the downward load P.
From equilibrium of moments about the left-hand face of the element (Fig. 3-5b), we get

-M-P(dx/2) - (V+ V1)dx+M+M1 = 0

M1=P(dx/2)+Vdx+V1dx

Since the length dx of the element is infinitesimally small, we see from this equation that the increment M1 in the
bending moment is also infinitesimally small. Thus, the bending moment does not change as we pass through the point
of application of a concentrated load.
Even though the bending moment M does not change at a concentrated load, its rate of change (dM/dx) undergoes an
abrupt change. At the left-hand side of the element (Fig. 3-5b), the rate of change of the bending moment (see Eq. 3-3)
is dM/dx = V. At the right-hand side, the rate of change is dMldx = V+ V1 = V - P. Therefore, at the point of application
of a concentrated load P, the rate of change dM/dx of the bending moment decreases abruptly by an amount equal to P.

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 5

loads in the Form of Couples (Fig. 3-5c)
The last case to be considered is a load in the form of a couple Mo (Fig. 3-5c). From equilibrium of the element in the
vertical direction, we obtain V1 = 0, which shows that the shear force does not change at the point of application of a
couple.
Equilibrium of moments about the left-hand side of the element gives

− M + M o − (V + V1 )dx + M + M 1 = 0
Disregarding terms that contain differentials (because they are negligible compared to the finite terms), we obtain,
M1 = -Mo (3-6)
This equation shows that the bending moment decreases by Mo as we move from left to right through the point of load
application. Thus, the bending moment changes abruptly at the point of application of a couple.
Equations (3-1) through (3-6) are useful when making a complete investigation of the shear forces and bending
moments in a beam, as discussed in the next section.
3.5 SHEAR-FORCE AND BENDING-MOMENT DIAGRAMS
When designing a beam, we usually need to know how the shear forces and bending moments vary throughout the
length of the beam. Of special importance are the maximum and minimum values of these quantities. Information of
this kind is provided by graphs in which the shear force and bending moment are plotted as ordinates and the distance x
along the axis of the beam is plotted as the abscissa. Such graphs are called shear-force and bending-moment
diagrams. To provide a clear understanding of these diagrams, we will explain in detail how they are constructed and
interpreted for -a single concentrated load case in a simple beam.
Let us begin with a simple beam AB supporting a concentrated load P (Fig. 3-6a). The
load P acts at distance a from the left-hand support and distance b from the right-hand
support. Considering the entire beam as a free body, we can readily determine the
reactions of the beam from equilibrium; the results are

Pb Pa
Ra = Rb =
L L

Next we cut through the beam to the left of the load P and at a distance x from support
A. Then we construct a free body diagram of the left hand part of the beam, and we find
from equilibrium that

Pb Pbx
V = Ra = M = Ra x = (0 < x < a)
L L

Next we cut through the beam to the right of the load P and from equilibrium of the left
hand part of the beam we obtain:

Pb − Pa
V = −P=
L L
(a < x < L)
Pbx x
M = − P ( x − a ) = Pa 1 −
L L
The Equations for the shear force and bending moments (Eqs.3.7 and 3.8) are plotted
below the sketches of the beam. Figure 3-6d is the shear-force diagram and Fig.3-6e is
the bending-moment diagram.

Fig.3-6 Shear force and bending

moment diagrams for a simple
beam with a concentrated load

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 6

Certain characteristics of the shear-force bending-moment diagrams may now be seen.
The slope dV/dx of the shear force diagram is zero in the regions (0 < x < a) and (a < x < L) which is in accord
with the Eq.(3.1). also in these same regions the slope dM/dx of the bending moment diagram is equal to
V(Eq.3.2).
At the point of application of the load P there is an abrupt change in the shear-force diagram (equal in magnitude
to the load P) and a corresponding change in the slope of the bending moment diagram.
To the left the load P, dM/dx = Pb/L; to the right, dM/dx is negative and equal to –Pa/L.
Now consider the area of the shear-force diagram. As we move from x = 0 to x = a, the area of the shear-force diagram
is (Pb/L)a, or Pab/L. This quantity represents the increase in bending moment between these same two points (see Eq.
3.4b). From x = a to x = L, the area of the shear-force diagram is -Pab/L, which means that in this region the bending
moment decreases by that amount. Consequently, the bending moment is zero at end B of the beam, as expected.
If the bending moments at both ends of a beam are zero, as is usually the case with a simple beam, then the area of the
shear-force diagram between the ends of the beam must be zero provided no couples act on the beam.
The maximum and minimum values of the shear forces and bending moments are needed when designing beams. For a
simple beam with a single concentrated load, the maximum shear force occurs at the end of the beam nearest to the
concentrated load and the maximum bending moment occurs under the load itself. Similar characteristics can also be
observed for other loading condition and this is left as an exercise for the student.
3.5a. Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams Using the Semi-Graphical Method
The discussions and conclusions in sections 3-4 and 3-5, can efficiently be used to
plot load intensity, shear force and bending moment diagrams through considerations
of areas and slopes only. Depending on the static information originally given and the
required diagrams, the problem is solved by going forward (integration), or
backwards (differentiation).
If the load intensity diagram is given, the shear force and bending moment
diagrams are plotted by going forward; that is plotting the immediate higher
diagram by computing the areas of the present diagram. Thus, the shear force
diagram is drawn by computing appropriate areas of segments in the given
loading intensity diagram. And the bending moment diagram is drawn after
calculating appropriate areas of segments on the shear force diagram.
If the complete bending moment diagram is given the shear force and the load
intensity diagram are plotted by going backwards. The shear force diagram is
plotted by calculating the appropriate slopes of the bending moment diagram
and the load intensity diagram is plotted by calculating the appropriate slopes
of the shear force diagram.
Note: The above points may be exercised using diagrams on Fig.3-7.
Fig.3-7

3.5b. Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams Using Discontinuity Functions

The procedure of drawing shear force and bending moment diagrams which was outlined and used in sec.3-5 becomes
time consuming and cumbersome, when the number of discontinuities in the external loading configurations, to which
the beams are subjected, is substantial. The semi-graphical method which was presented in sec.3-5a is one method of
overcoming this handicap. As an alternative to the semi-graphical method, and which will enable us to work
algebraically only is using discontinuity functions.
The unique feature of discontinuity functions is that they permit the writing of a discontinuous function by a single
expression, whereas the more conventional approach requires that a discontinuous function be described by a series of
expressions, one for each region in which the function is distinct. For instance, if the loading on a beam consists of a
mixture of concentrated and distributed loads, we can write with discontinuity functions a single equation that applies
throughout the entire length, whereas ordinarily we must write separate equations for each segment of the beam
between changes in loading. In a similar manner, we can express shear forces and bending moments of a beam by one
equation each, even though there may be several changes in loads along the axis of the beam. These results are
achievable because the functions themselves are discontinuous; that is, they have different values in different regions of
the independent variable.

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 7

Two kinds of functions, called Macaulay functions and singularity functions, will be discussed in this section.
Although these functions have different definitions and properties, together they form a family of discontinuity
functions.*
MACAULAY FUNCTIONS
Macaulay functions are used to represent quantities that "begin" at some particular point on the x axis (such as point x =
a) and that have the value zero to the left of that point. For instance, one of the Macaulay functions, denoted F1, is
defined as follows:
0 when x ≤ a
F1 ( x ) = x − a
1
=
x−a when x ≥ a
In this equation, x is the independent variable and a is the value of x at which the function "begins" The pointed
brackets (or angle brackets) are the mathematical symbol for a discontinuity function.
In general terms, the Macaulay functions are defined by the following expressions:
0 when x ≤ a
Fn ( x ) = x − a
n
=
( x − a )n when x ≥ a
n=0, 1, 2, 3...,
The preceding definition of the Macaulay functions holds for values of n equal to positive integers and zero. When n =
0, note that the function takes on the special values:
0 when x ≤ a
F0 ( x ) = x − a
0
=
(x − a )0 when x ≥ a
This function has vertical “step” at the point of discontinuity x = a; thus at x = a it has two values, zero and one. The
units of the Macaulay functions are the same as the units of xn that is, Fo is dimensionless, F1 has units of x, and so forth.
The Macaulay functions can be integrated and differentiated as follows:
d
Fn = nFn −1 n = 1,2 ,3,...
dx
x
F
Fn dx = n +1 n = 0,1,2,3,...
−∞
n +1

SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
The second kind of discontinuity functions are the singularity functions, defined by the following expressions:
0 when x ≠ a
Fn ( x ) = x − a
n
=
±∞ when x = a
n= -1,-2,-3…,
Note that singularity functions are defined for negative integer values of n, whereas Macaulay functions are defined for
positive integers and for zero.
The Macaulay functions can be integrated and differentiated as follows:

d
Fn = Fn −1 n = − 1, − 2 , − 3,...
dx
x x
n n +1
Fn dx = x − a dx = x − a =F
n +1 n = −1,−2,−3,...
−∞ −∞
* Sometimes both kinds of discontinuity functions are called singularity functions, but this usage obscures the distinctions between the two functions,
which obey different mathematical laws. Furthermore, Macaulay functions do not have singularities.

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 8

Representation Of Loads On Beams By Discontinuity Functions
The discontinuity functions discussed above are ideally suited for Representing loads on beams, such as couples, forces,
uniform loads, and varying loads. The shapes of the various loading diagrams exactly match the shapes of the
corresponding functions F-2, F-1, F0, F1, and so on It is necessary only to multiply the functions given in table3.1 (which
are the unit functions) by the appropriate load intensities in order to obtain mathematical representations of the loads.
More complicated cases of loading can be handled by superposition of these elementary ones.

Note: we will assume that loads in the form

of couples and forces are positive as shown
in the table.

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 9

3.5c. Moment Diagram By Parts
In this procedure, the bending moment of each independent load on the beam are drawn separately about an arbitrary
selected point, which is called the focus, on the beam. The focus is selected in such a way that the area and the centroid
of each of the resulting bending moment diagrams corresponding to each individual load can be easily calculated.
We must observe some basic underlying principles when constructing moment diagram by parts. First we recall from
the principle of superposition that, the resultant bending moment at any point along the axis of the beam will be equal to
the sum of the ordinates, at the same point, of the individual bending moment diagrams. Further, the value of the
resultant moment at any point would be the same regardless of the choice of the focus. From a study of the bending
moment diagrams of common types of loading, drawn separately about appropriate foci, it can be generalized that such
diagrams can always be defined by an equation of the form;
M ( x ) = kx n
Where k – is a constant
n – is a non-negative integer
Five cantilever beams each loaded differently with increasingly complex loads are considered in Table 3.2.

Dawit Hailu, Addis Ababa University 10