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Prepared by
Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
1988
R eviewing the record of the Space Shuttle's first five years in service, one is
impressed by the varied program of onboard research in space science and
applications. The Shuttle has hosted hundreds of investigations in astronomy,
atmospheric science, Earth observations, life sciences, materials science, solar
physics, space plasma physics, technology, and other scientific disciplines -
investigations developed by scientists around the world. Equipped with the
Spacelab elements provided by the European Space Agency, the Shuttle offers
both an enclosed laboratoly and an exposed platform for investigations in space;
crewmembers conduct or monitor the experiments in a manner similar to work-
ing in a laboratoly o n the ground. The Shuttle is a valuable addition to the com-
plement of balloons, aircraft, sounding rockets, and expendable launch vehicles
that are already available to space scientists.
Individual news releases and journal articles have reported results of Shuttle-
era research o n a case-by-case basis, but this report is a comprehensive overview
of significant achievements across all the disciplines and missions in the first gen-
eration of Shuttle flights.
Although the activities reviewed and summarized in this report precede my
tenure as Associate Administrator at NASA, it is a pleasure for me to acknowledge
here the dedication and enthusiasm of the many individuals in our government
and academic institutions, as well as their many support contractors and interna-
tional associates, who have made these successes possible. As we return the
Shuttle to spaceflight, I look fonvard not only to the renewed vigor of an active
science and applications program using the Shuttle but also to the evolution of
space science toward a new research capability - Space Station.
L.A. Fisk
Associate Adminimator foy
Space Science and Applications
June 1988
iii
iv
Prologue
C.R Chappell
Associate Director fo+ Science
Marshall Space F&ht Center
V
Skylab experience to develop experi- SCienCe Missions: Half of the 24
li_x -
- n d v
ments and equipment for flights on the Shuttle flights from 1981 into 1986 &"a&,,es forSDace
Shuttle. carried major scientific payloads, 4 of ~~~
1
I __.^_
The Shuttle/Spacelab combination them Spacelabs, with more than 200 Onboard experts who conduct and monitor ex-
offers an alternative to the limitations investigations. The early science periments, maintain equipment, serve as test
of unmanned spacecraft and an excit- missions were named after the NASA subjects, evaluate data, and make decisions in
ing variation on the Skylab concept. office that sponsored the payload (such much the same way that scientists work in
By permitting scientists to serve as as the Office of Space Science/OSS) laboratories and observatories on the ground
crewmembers (payload and mission and often carried a payload with varied -
specialists) and by providing various experiments that tested the Shuttle's Enough time in space to do significant
experiment accommodations, as in the capabilities for doing space science. microgravity experiments and accumulate data
mm#
Skylab era, NASA has merged science While not all Shuttle missions have
An experiment site in the ionosphere, allowing
with manned spaceflight. Interactive, been dedicated to science, scientific the environment to be sampled and probed
"hands on" involvement is again experiments have been done on almost directly
possible as the crewmembers perform every mission. E#m
experiments, monitor and respond to Experiments have been successfiilly An obsewatoly base for a g/obal view of Earth
results, and repair equipment when conducted in disciplines as diverse as
necessary.
With access to space via the Shuttle,
life sciences, materials processing, fluid
mechanics, solar-terrestrial physics,
-and an unobscured view of the universe
modified and refined, and reflown on these missions suggest that the spec- Use of larger; more capable instruments and
another mission. Reflight allows trum of possibilities for scientific new techniques in space
investigators to use what they have research in space is virtually unlimited. 7- _I
lcarned from one mission to plan the During most of these missions, . Opportunibes to perform pint experiments
next. Furthermore, scientists can now experiment progress was monitored with separate but complementaly instruments
~-
w.Ww-- -- __
concentrate on what they do best - instantaneouslv, In ''real time," by
A testbed for new equipment and research
developing and perfecting investiga- audio and video communications with
techniques
tions - without also having to build a the onboard crew and by data trans-
spacecraft to carry them. mitted to the ground. Scientists On E m w o r k between scientists in space and on
the ground through live voice and data links
between the Shuttle and the Payload
Operations Control Centel:
3
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ground were able to begin immediate experiment does not proceed as antic- by mission; thus, an investigation may
analysis of the data from space, and ipated, scientists can intervene, change be seen in the context of similar or
they participated actively in conducting procedures, adjust equipment, and related investigations for a clearer sense
their experiments. It was not uncom- respond to the situation at hand. This of the aims and accomplishments in
mon to hear cheers and applause in the capability, not available since the each research field.
Payload Operations Control Center as Skylab era, gives LIS a new chance to These results herald the advances
results came streaming in with hints of make discoveries that are beyond our that are expected when scientists re-
discovery. reach on Earth. sume experiments on the Space Shuttle
For a weck or more, excitement Many scientists have invested a large and later attain a permanent presence
built as teams of scientists and mission part of their careers in developing in space on the Space Station.
support personnel on the ground experiments for flight. After flight, they
worked with the orbiter crew to take reap the rewards of a well-deserved
advantage of the unique research period of analysis t o glean new under-
opportunities in space. The onboard standing from the mass of data
specialists concentrated on getting the acquired on their mission. With expect-
maximum yield from every precious ancy, painstaking study, occasional
minute. By the end ofa mission, miles disappointment, and eventual revela-
of videotape, dozens of samples, hum tion, they are using space as the
dreds of photographs, and millions ultimate laboratory and observatory.
upon millions of bits of data were This report summarizes some of the
accumulated for study. significant results from Spacelab and
O n the Shuttle and Spacelab, scien- other science missions on the Shuttle
tific research has even greater immedi- during its first 5 years in service. To
acy and intensity than that experienced create a coherent picture, the results
in a laboratory on the ground. If an are discussed by discipline rather than
Spacelab and Other Major Science Payloads on the Shuttle
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Chapter 2
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Living and Working in Space ORIGINAL PAGE
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environment. This knowledge can be to ensure the safety and comfort of PhySiQlQgy: M e r more than 25 years
transferred to the medical and biologi- people living and working in space, of spaceflight, life scientists remain
cal communities to improve the quality enabling even longer stays in space, eager to study the body and its healthy
of life on Earth. If cells can reproduce and to explore the fiindamental nature but somewhat changed functioning in
and synthesize materials normally or of life in the universe. Shuttle experi- space. Through centuries of evolution,
better in weightlessness, some of their ments have begun to confirm some the human body has adapted to
products that are ofcommercial and generally held hypotheses and also have gravity’s demands in countless subtle
pharmaceutical importance may be surprised investigators with unexpected ways. In the absence of gravity, the
produced in purer forms in orbit. results. At this point, we have gleaned body undcrgoes noticeable physiologi-
Many important biological molecules only nuggets of information, pieces of cal changes: blood and body fluids are
have never been structurally analyzed a puzzle that must be worked out redistributed, affecting the circulatory
before, but in microgravity it may be during future comprehensive investiga- and endocrine systems; muscles and
possible to produce protein crystals, tions. The harvest of life sciences data bones begin to deteriorate; and some
for example, that are large and pure from the Shuttle and Spacelab missions sensory signals are scrambled.
enough for more precise analysis. contains the seeds for more complex, Scientists are seeking to understand
This vigorous inquiry into the na- long-term experiments aboard the the various bodily responses to space-
ture of life meets NASA’s major goals: Space Station. flight. Many Shuttle/Spacelab experi-
ments attempt to test o r confirm
theoretical explanations of how the
body reacts in space and why. In
microgravity, the body is in a state of
“free fall” and reacts as if there is no
gravity. According to one current hy-
pothesis, the absence of gravity results
in a redistribution of fluids to the
upper body; this adversely affects the
homeostatic mechanisms that control
the cardiovascular, endocrine, and
metabolic systems. A reduction of
forces on the body niay explain the
muscle and bone degradation that has
been observed in space crews and
animal test subjects.
Another physiological response to
spaceflight that remains a mystery is
the discomfort similar to motion sick-
ness that about half of space crews
experience during their first few days in
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space. Scientists theorize that normal was tested during Shuttle mission 51-D be flown again with complementary
sensory and motor cues from the ves- in April 1985 when real-time images of instruments on a mission dedicated to
tibular system in the inner ear, the four crewmembers’ hearts revealed life sciences research.
eyes, and the nervous system are al- major cardiovascular adjustments dur- Since changes in the heart appear to
tered in microgravity and may conflict. ing the first day of spaceflight. The left be linked directly to fluid shifts, it is
For example, the eyes may send one side of the heart (which propels blood important to track the time course of
message about body orientation while through the circulatory system) fluid shifts in microgravity. One way to
the inner ear sends another. As the reached its maximum size, as did the measure changes in the amount of fluid
person adapts to microgravity, the blood volume it pumps, on the first in the upper body is to measure corre-
brain learns to reinterpret or ignore day; the right side of the heart (which sponding changes in the circulatory
confusing signals. collects blood returning from the rest system. As fluid volume increases, sci-
None of the findings to date proves of the body) was smaller than when entists have predicted that more pres-
that the body’s responses are patho- imaged preflight. By the second day sure than usual should be exerted on
logical. Some appear to be appropriate of the mission, the entire heart was the upper body veins; as upward fluid
and effective ways to adapt to a new smaller and subsequent changes pro- flow decreases, the pressure should
environment. Others such as the im- gressed more slowly. The reduction in equalize. Spacelab 1 investigators tried
mune response and muscle and bone the left heart volume remained un- to determine the degree and rapidity of
degradation must be studied in greater changed for at least 1 week after return the fluid shift by measuring central
detail during longer missions. Scientists to Earth. venous pressure in the arm veins of
must not only identify detrimental From these observations, investiga- four crewmembers. Before this mis-
responses but also find ways to prevent tors concluded that the cardiovascular sion, no direct measurements of ve-
such responses so that crews can be system adjusts quickly to fluid shifts nous pressure were available to test the
qualified for long-term space missions and blood volume loss during space- hypothesis.
aboard the Space Station and through- flight. Results from a French echocardi- Surprisingly when venous pressure
out the solar system. ograph flown on the 5 1-G mission was measured 22 hours into the mis-
confirmed the U.S. observations on the sion, it was lower, not higher, than
card~OVaSCu/arm e m ; On Earth, 51-D mission. More extensive tests are preflight measurements. One hour
the parts of the cardiovascular system needed to determine if the decrease in after landing, venous pressures were
(the heart, lungs, and blood vessels) heart volume is associated with any high for all four crewmembers, indicat-
work together in a stable state of equi- reductions in heart performance. A ing fluid shifts associated with the
librium. In weightlessness, blood and U.S. echocardiograph is scheduled to body’s readaptation to Earth.
other fluids are redistributed to the
head and upper body. In response to
the fluid shift, the body’s normal
homeostatic mechanisms appear to
adjust the operation of the heart and
other parts of the body.
For Spacelab research, an instru-
ment was developed to record changes
as the heart adjusts to microgravity.
Called an echocardiograph, the instru-
ment generates two-dimensional
images by interpreting high-frequency
sound waves directed at the heart. It
Y
1iving and Working in Space
This experiment was repeated using spend about 2 hours seated in the Hematology and Immunology: Red
four different subjects on the Spacelab Shuttle on the launch pad. To confirm blood cells, which are the focus of the
D1 mission with measurements made this hypothesis, investigators want to hematology studies, transport oxygen
as early as 20 minutes after launch. make measurements during this wait- throughout the body. Spaceflight stud-
Even with early measurements, the ing period along with measurements of ies indicate that red blood cell mass is
venous pressure was still lower than the hormones that regulate fluid balance. reduced in microgravity. Several theo-
preflight measurements, confirming A novel device for noninvasively meas- ries as to why this happens have been
the Spacelab 1 results. The investigator uring venous pressure may help clarify developed. One of the most generally
was astonished at the low pressure level the profile of fluid shifts by enabling accepted is that bone marrow hnction
so early in the mission before any more frequent and convenient meas- is inhibited; this results in the suppres-
dehydration was possible. urements. Limited measurements with sion of erythropoietin, a hormone that
From these results, investigators the device, which was tested on the stimulates red blood cell creation.
concluded that the fluid shift is a 61-C mission, confirm the Spacelab 1 A Spacelab I investigation studied
highly dynamic process that may occur and Spacelab D1 results. the relationship between decreases in
even before launch when crewmembers erythropoietin and red blood cell mass
by analyzing blood samples from four
crewmembers taken before, during,
and after flight. While there was a sig-
nificant decrease in red blood cell mass
and reticulocytes, erythropoietin
seemed not to vary significantly. More
studies are needed to determine if the
body destroys red blood cells or if
other mechanisms influence red blood
cell counts.
Another important type of cell,
lymphocytes (white blood cells), may
also be altered in microgravity. Lym-
phocytes help the body resist infection
by recognizing harmful foreign agents
and eliminating them. Some evidence
from previous space studies suggests
that the number and effectiveness of
white blood cells are reduced in space
crews, and thus the ability to fight in-
fection is altered. However, astronauts
have not shown an increased suscepti-
bility to disease, and lymphocyte
counts return to normal a few weeks
after landing.
An experiment flown on Spacelab 1
and repeated on Spacelab D1 contrib-
uted substantially to the understanding
,
I s', :_ of the immune system's operation in
space. Before white blood cells can
recognize a harmful substance and
multiply to eliminate it, the cells go
through a process called activation in
which they identifi the foreign sub-
stance, differentiate to enable the pro
PAG
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- 7 6 at4
duction of. the appropriate antibody,
10
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CO L0 R P ki 0TOG RAP H
and finally proliferate to produce suffi- control cultures on the centrifuge and
cient amounts of the antibody. on the ground. Since cells on the 1-g
Immune cells cultured during centrifuge responded normally, it
Spacelab 1 lost almost all ability to appears that microgravity is the domi-
respond to foreign challenge. Cultures nant factor inhibiting cell activation in
grown in space and controls grown on space. In addition, activation of lym-
the ground were injected with mito- phocytes from the crewmembers was
gen, an agent that causes lymphocytes markedly depressed in samples taken in
to activate and reproduce rapidly to flight as well as in samples drawn an
fight infection. Proliferation of the hour after landing; the activation proc-
flight lymphocytes was less than three ess in crewmembers' white blood cells
percent of that for ground lympho- did not fully return to normal until 1
cytes. Although the flight cells were to 2 weeks after landing.
clearly alive, they did not activate and These two experiments made it clear
respond to the stimulus. that microgravity almost completely
This experiment was repeated on inhibits the process of lymphocyte
the D1 mission with cultures exposed activation. In conjunction with other
to microgravity, cultures on a 1-g cen- Spacelab D1 results indicating in-
trifuge, and with blood taken from the creased proliferation and antibiotic
crewmembers during the mission. resistance of bacteria in microgravity,
Cultures grown on the 1-g centrifuge, these results suggest a risk of infectious
which simulates terrestrial gravity, were disease, which must be taken seriously
important controls because other fac- in planning spaceflights. The next step
tors besides microgravity (such as is to discover which stage of the activa-
radiation) were still candidates for al- tion process is affected and determine
tering the cells' response. The samples if the effect can be prevented.
taken from the crew were important A complementary Spacelab 1 experi-
because only cultures of lymphocytes ment indicates that immunoglobulins
had been studied during Spacelab 1. (key antibodies) appear to function
The Spacelab D1 results confirmed normally in space. In blood samples
the Spacelab 1 results: cell activation in from four crewmembers, only minor
the cultures exposed to microgravity fluctuations in quantity were measured
was depressed when compared to with no significant effects recorded
during the 10-day flight. From these
results, one might conclude that
activated lymphocytes continue to
produce antibodies during prolonged
weightlessness and are not affected by
microgravity. However, microgravity
may impair the lymphocyte activation
process, altering the immune system's
ability to respond to challenges.
I1
Living and Working in Space
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Living and Working in Space
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15
Living and Working in Space
Fundamental Biology: By studying life fight infection. Even the study of the preserving specimens in orbit. The D1
in a microgravity environment, scien- simplest life forms such as bacteria can mission was the first Spacelab mission
tists can see functions that are masked demonstrate how cells respond to in which specimens were Yixed” in
by gravity on Earth. Space is a good microgravity and other conditions of orbit; this fixation allows specimens to
laboratory for determining what role the space environment. Spacelab is be preserved while they are under the
gravity plays in certain basic life proc- ideally suited for cellular studies be- influence of microgravity and elimi-
esses. These experiments contribute cause samples are small enough to be nates influences such as accelerations
significantly to our understanding of observed and manipulated in relatively during landing and adaptation upon
life as well as to the fundamental bank large numbers, and they can be pre- return to Earth. To further isolate the
of biological and medical knowledge. served and returned to Earth for effects of microgravity from other
detailed analysis. space conditions (radiation, vibrations,
Celhlaf Functions: The functions and The Spacelab D1 Biorack experi- launch, and landing), most of the D1
processes of single cells as well as trans- ments have provided striking evidence experiments used controls in 1-g cen-
actions between cells often lead to of the effects of gravity on bacteria, trifuges that simulate terrestrial gravity;
changes on a larger scale in an organ- unicellular organisms, and white blood thus, effects seen in microgravity speci-
ism. This was evident in the white cells. Fourteen cell and developmental mens that are not seen in 1-g speci-
blood cell experiments described ear- biology experiments were carried mens may be more strongly linked to
lier, which suggested that responses by aboard the Biorack, a reusable facility gravity.
these cells to microgravity may alter equipped with incubators, coolers/ Several Spacelab D1 experiments
the human immune system’s ability to freezers, and a glovebox for safely studied bacteria, the simplest life form
on Earth. Under favorable conditions,
these single-celled organisms, not
much more than one thousandth of a
millimeter in length, reproduce rapidly
by repeated cell divisions. This rapid
reproduction makes bacteria excellent
for studying cell development and
proliferation.
Two Biorack experiments confirmed
an observation made on several previ-
ous flights: bacteria reproduce more
rapidly in space. This finding suggests
that in space humans may be exposed
to greater risks of infection. This addi-
tional risk also is suggested by another
D1 experiment with E. coli, a common
pathogenic organism. Under micro-
gravity conditions, the bacteria showed
an increased resistance to antibiotics.
The fact that microgravity seems to
influence bacteria reproduction also
may prove useful. Some bacteria have a
primitive form of sexual behavior in
which two cells exchange genetic mate-
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16
rial through a physical bridge between paramecia and one with green algae, The response to the spaceflight
them. A laboratory technique derived revealed that, as with bacteria, micro- environment varied depending on the
from this phenomenon can be used to gravity increased the rate of cell prolif- stage of development of the eggs.
introduce human genes - for example, eration. In microgravity, the paramecia When eggs at late stages of develop-
genes needed for insulin production - increased four times faster than the ment were hit by a radiation particle,
into bacteria that then can synthesize a controls. The investigator hypothe- they tended to develop normally.
useful product. A Spacelab D1 experi- sized that since the paramecium is a However, a significant reduction or
ment showed that this transfer of genes swimming cell, it may use less energy delayed hatching occurred in eggs that
can occur three to four times faster in for movement in microgravity and use were in an early developmental stage
microgravity than in 1-g; in space, the extra energy for other activities when hit by a particle. Development
bacteria may be able to produce bio- such as cell proliferation. was impaired to a lesser extent in those
logical products more rapidly. eggs that were developed in micrograv-
Cell differentiation, the process by Developmental ~ ~ O C e s s e SMicro-
: ity but were not hit by a particle.
which originally similar cells acquire gravity may affect the development of Hatching was normal for both hit and
different capabilities, was studied life from embryo to adult. One Biorack non-hit eggs on the 1-g centrifuge,
aboard Spacelab. In higher organisms, experiment with the much-studied indicating a difference in radiation
this process leads not only to the pro- fruit fly revealed that microgravity response depending on gravity envi-
duction of cells as different as skin and reduced the rate of development of ronment. During development of the
nerve cells but also to the production eggs to 10 percent of the normal rate. larvae, additional damage - such as
of cancer cells from normal cells. Surprisingly, the total number of eggs reduced life span and increased body
Under certain conditions, many laid was higher, but the hatching and abnormalities - was observed in indi-
bacteria become dormant by forming development rates were reduced. The viduals hatched from radiation-exposed
spores, which are genetically identical lifetime of each fly also was measured. eggs in the microgravity samples.
to the active form but fimction differ- While the female flies had the same life Another experiment studied the
ently. This makes sporulation a simple span as the control groups, the life development of the vestibular system
model for studying cell differentiation. span of the male flies was reduced by in tadpoles hatched in space. On Earth,
A Spacelab D1 experiment observed a one-third. This phenomenon needs to most species develop organs to orient
reduction in sporulation and thus dif- be studied more to determine whether themselves in a gravitational field and
ferentiation for bacteria. However, the shorter lives may be related to the gen- coordinate movements. Tadpoles
1-g centrifuge control for this experi- eral speeding-up of vital processes ob- hatched from frog embryos flown
ment failed, and therefore the experi- served in unicellular organisms. aboard the Spacelab D1 mission
ment needs to be repeated to deter- Development also seemed to be showed pronounced alteration in
mine whether the reduction was due to inhibited in suck insect eggs. During swimming behavior upon return to
microgravity or other space conditions. development, this insect passes Earth. They swam in small circles
Many organisms other than bacteria through several stages differing in around tixed centers until their behav-
consist of single cells, but the cells are radiation sensitivity. Layers of eggs at ior normalized two days after landing.
much larger (10 to 100 times the size five different stages of development Later examination of the morphology
of bacteria) and more complex, pos- were sandwiched between radiation of the tadpoles’ vestibular gravity
sessing a variety of internal structures detectors so that investigators could receptors revealed no structural de-
that perform most of the functions of detect heavy ions of high energy and formities, indicating that the vestibular
the organs of higher animals and charge as they penetrated an egg. This system developed normally for the
plants. Like bacteria, many of these allowed investigators to study the ef- embryos in space. These results corre-
organisms proliferate via repeated cell fects of microgravity and radiation on spond with earlier experiments on
division. Two experiments, one with development. amphibians and rodents.
17
Living and Working in Space
18
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19
t -.
Living and Working in Space
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ety of organisms that differed in size, nation orbits. Further study is war- isms. Knowing the exact architecture
position in the stack, organizational ranted before we embark on long-term of hormones, enzymes, and other pro-
level, developmental stage, and radia- missions at higher altitudes and teins enables scientists to bypass years
tion sensitivity were flown. These inclinations. of tedious trial-and-error experimenta-
included single cells, developing eggs, The effects of vacuum and ultravio- tion in efforts to design new and more
spores, and seeds. Some biostacks were let radiation were also studied on effective drugs and to produce im-
placed inside the Spacelab module and Spacelab 1. Spores exposed outside on proved synthetic proteins for industrial
others were directly exposed to space the pallet formed 50 percent fewer applications.
on the pallet. By comparing the tracks colonies and had 10 times more muta- Currently, X-ray crystallography is
of high-energy particles on the detec- tions than samples grown under normal the only technique available for
tors with the biological samples atmospheric conditions. elucidating the atomic arrangements
through which they passed, investiga- within complicated biological mole-
tors could correlate the effect of radia- Biological Processing In Space: cules, and this method requires well-
tion on a single cell. Results indicate Life sciences research not only prepares formed, large, single crystals of the
that single high-energy particles can us to live and work in space but also compounds being studied. On Earth,
induce dramatic changes in individual may improve life on Earth. Bioproc- convection and turbulence during
cells, such as genetic damage and essing in space is a new discipline of crystal formation disrupt the internal
death. growing importance. It is closely re- crystalline structure, and sedimentation
A related Spacelab D1 experiment lated to understanding how cells func- causes crystals to clump together in-
with stick insect eggs sandwiched tion in gravity since many of these cells stead of forming distinctly. One of the
between biostack particle detectors make useful products. Early experi- great bottlenecks in protein crystallog-
indicated that the HZE particles pro- ments have focused on developing the raphy has been the inability to produce
duced different degrees of damage at apparatus and techniques for processing large, pure crystals for analysis.
various development stages. Interest- biological substances. Fortunately, experiments aboard the
ingly, the effects of the radiation were Protein crystal growth in space has Shuttle and Spacelab missions indicate
enhanced in eggs exposed to micro- been especially interesting because of that much larger and higher quality
gravity and less damaging in eggs kept the potential applications for determin- crystals can be grown in space where
on a 1-g centrifuge. ing the three-dimensional structure of microgravity inhibits convection and
In other radiation measurements, proteins. Many of the molecules essen- crystals float fieely in solution rather
several detectors both inside and out- tial for living organisms - especially than clump together. In a Spacelab 1
side the Spacelab 1 module measured proteins and nucleic acids - have ex- experiment, two enzymes were crystal-
doses of radiation three times higher tremely complicated three-dimensional lized: beta-galactosidase (a key genetic
than those measured during other structures, many of which are ingredient) and lysozyme (a basic pro-
Shuttle missions. Although the radia- unknown. To decipher these structures, tein that is well-studied). In both cases,
tion dose was relatively benign and did crystallographers coax biological mole- the crystals grown in orbit were much
not endanger the crew, investigators cules to organize symmetrically into larger and purer than those grown in
attributed the higher radiation level to crystals big enough to study and then the same apparatus on the ground.
the higher inclination orbit. (Spacelab bombard the crystals with X-rays to This successful experiment sparked a
1 was the first mission with a 57 degree create patterns which computers can united effort by a team of scientists
inclination rather than the 28 to 40 analyze. who developed an apparatus for grow-
degree orbits for previous missions.) Molecular biologists need this infor- ing protein crystals in space. Protein
Scientists had predicted that there mation to understand the complex crystals have been grown on four
would be higher electromagnetic and functioning and interrelationships Shuttle flights by a vapor diffusion
particle radiation fluxes at higher incli- among biological materials and organ- technique. During the most recent
21
Living and Working in Space
expcrimcnts aboard the 61-C mission, attached crystals. In the case of human logical substances for pharmaceutical
crystals were grown of these proteins: <:-reactive protein, a crystal form that purposes. Substances processed on sev-
lysozyme, a protein from hen egg had not previously been identified in eral Shuttle flights are currently being
\\.hire with a well-known structure that groundbased experiments was ob- evaluated by a pharmaceutical company.
can be used t o compare the quality o f tained first aboard the Shuttle and has
ground- and spacc-gro\vn crystals; bac- since been produced on the ground. Expanding In Space: E\WI though n e
terial purine nucleoside phosphorylase The internal structures of some of the have more than a quarter century of
(I’NP), a protein (with an unknown space crystals appear to be more manned spaceflight experience, funda-
structure) used for synthesis of anti- ordered; however, before this can be mental questions remain about the
cancer drugs; huinan <:-reactive pro- thoroughly assessed, more detailed immediate and long-term effects of space
tein (CRP), a major component ofthc comparisons with large numbers of on humans and other organisms. As we
human immune system; human scrum crystals grown undcr well-controlled experiment in space, we answer some
albumin, a protein known to hind and conditions on Earth and in space are questions but are left with more
transport a number of important bio- necessary. Based on these preliminary “unknowns.” The Shuttle and Spacelab
logical inoleculcs as well as certain results, a larger protein crystal growth experiments have been pathfinders, ad-
drugs; and canavalin and concanavalin facility with a more controlled e mIiroii-
’ dressing important questions, developing
13, two proteins that have \vell-known nient is being developed for fiiturc equipment and techniques for rescarch,
structures for modeling and ;ire o f missions. and Icading t o discovcrics impossible to
interest in protein engineering to im- Materials scientists and biologists detect in the gravitational environment
prove the nutritional \due of food are collaborating o n other projects, in- on h r t l i . There are still many life sci-
sources. cluding the Continuous Flow Electro- cnccs experiments waiting for sorties
Many of the space crystals were phoresis System (CFES) project which aboard the Shuttle/Spacelah, while oth-
larger than any previously grown on is a joint endeavor hetween NASA and ers are bcing de\doped for long-term
the ground, and some formed into private industry. The objective of this stays aboard the Space Station.
distinct crystals rather than small, program is to separate and puriti‘ bio- I he data obtained so far indicate a
I .
22
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
fascinating pattern: all living organisms ronment on a global scale. They can can process wastes, recycle air and
from microbe to man are influenced by correlate biological, geological, chemi- water, and support the cultivation of
gravity. It is built into our very cells, cal, and oceanographic data to deter- plant and animal food sources. This
tissues, and organs in myriad overt and mine how changes (increased industri- type of spacecraft, which will be used
subtle ways. Discrete experiments alization, land clearing, oil spills, etc.) for long-duration missions where
flown aboard the Shuttle can be inte- propagate to neighboring areas in the resupply from Earth is impractical or
grated aboard the Space Station so that biosphere. impossible, will make deep space acces-
scientists can collaborate to study The Space Station will offer life sible to human exploration.
organisms as a whole and determine scientists, chemists, and astrophysicists Space must be a comfortable and
how gravity influences an organism a chance to do unique experiments in productive workplace. We are still
through its entire life and in subse- exobiology, the study of the origin, largely ignorant of the mechanisms
quent offspring. evolution, and distribution of life in and limits of human adaptation to pro-
Aboard the Space Station, life the universe. Astronomers already have longed spaceflight. Scientists must
scientists will team up with materials detected the essential biochemicals determine how humans and other
scientists, Earth scientists, and astro- (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phospho- organisms adapt to the space environ-
physicists to explore life from the rus, sulfur, etc.) light-years away from ment and develop sound countermea-
micro to macro level. Materials scien- Earth. The Space Station will have an sures to detrimental effects. Human
tists will develop better protein crystals unobstructed view of the solar system, factors and physiological experiments
and purer biological specimens, which comets, meteorites, and asteroids will be conducted to design the Space
life scientists can analyze to determine which may contain molecules and Station as well as other space worksta-
the structure of life. chemical fragments of biological sig- tions for safety, efficiency, and comfort.
With photographs and infrared nificance. Continuous viewing of the There is still much to be accom-
maps from Earth-orbiting platforms universe from the Station and orbital plished before space becomes our
and satellites, biologists can understand observatories increases our chances of home and workplace. The Shuttle will
the interaction of Earth and its envi- finding other planets and perhaps other continue to be a testbed for advanced
life in the universe. The Station can be equipment. A series of dedicated
used as a platform for huge cosmic Spacelab Life Sciences (SLS) missions
dust collectors, alloinring biologists to staffed by expert biologists is already
examine particles from interstellar planned for the next decade. By dedi-
space for biogenic elements and maybe cating a mission to one discipline, it is
even simple organisms. possible to integrate experiments and
The study of life in our solar system explore a spectrum of related data. A
will be augmented by manned and series of International Microgravity
unmanned planetary expeditions. Laboratory (IML) missions shared by
Through NASA’s Controlled Ecologi- materials and life scientists will carry
cal Life Support System (CELSS) pro- valuable experiments and has already
gram, scientists are working to develop enabled an international working
life support systems for spacecraft that group of scientists to establish a solid
base for sharing ideas and results.
Results from the Shuttle and
Spacelab missions have blazed the
paths of exploration, and we are begin-
ning to make space an extension of life
on Earth.
23
t
*-
-
" ,
,_I
- I l n m
ORIGINAL PAGE
24 COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
51-0
Embryogenesis and Organogenesis under Spaceflight Conditions
H Buckel; D N L R, Cologne, West Germany
American Flight Echocardiograph
Frog Statoliths
M. w1 Bungo, NASA Johnson Space Center
J Neubert, D N L R, Cologne, West Germany
Houston, Texas
Geotropism
Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System * *
J Gross, University of Tubingen, West Germany
D. Clifford, McDonnell Douglas Aerospace Company
Gesture and Speech in Microgravity
St. Louis, Missouri
A D Friederici, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Protein Crystal Growth Experiment
Graviperception of Plants
C.E. Bugg, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Alabama
ll___-..l
” D Volkmann, University of Bonn, West Germany
SpiiC818b2b1-F Human Lymphocyte Activation *
Gravity Influenced Lignification in Higher Plants * A. Cogoli, Swiss Federal lnstitute of Technology
J.R. Cowles, University of Houston, Texas Zurich, Switzerland
Protein Crystal Growth Experiment Mammalian Cell Polarization
C.E. Bugg, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Alabama M Bouteille, University of Paris, France
Vitamin D Metabolites and Bone Demineralization Mass Discrimination in Weightlessness*
H. K. Schnoes, University of Wisconsin H E Ross, University of Stirling, Scotland
Madison, Wisconsin Protein Crystals *
51-6 W Littke, University of Freiburg, West Germany
French Echocardiograph Experiment Spatial Description in Space
L Pourcelot, University of Tours, France A D Friederici, University of Nymegen, The Netherlands
French Postural Experiment Statocyte Polarity and Geotropic Response
A. Berthoz, National Center for Scientific Research, Paris, France G Perbal, University of Paris, France
. . ~~ Tonometer
51-J J Draeger; University of Hamburg, West Germany
BIOS Vestibular Research
S.L. Bonting, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands L R Young, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- I_.I_
S$&elab OlBl-A Cambridge, Massachusetts
Antibacterial Activity of Antibiotics in Space Conditions Vestibular Research
R. Tixador; University of Toulouse, France R von Baumgarten, University of Mainz, West Germany
_ l l l ~ - - -
Body Impedance Measurement 61-6
F: Baisch, D N L R, Cologne, West Germany Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System * *
Cell Cycle and Protoplasmic Streaming D Clifford, McDonnell Douglas Aerospace Company
V: Sobick, D N L R, Cologne, West Germany St Louis, Missouri
Cell Growth and Differentiation in Space Effects of Weightlessness and Light on Seed Germination
H.D. Mennigmann, University of Frankfurt, West Germany A J Peluyera, National Consumer lnstitute, Mexico Citx Mexico
Cell Proliferation Electropuncture in Space
H. Planel, University of Toulouse,France F Ramirez y Escalano, Mexico
Central Venous Pressure Protein Crystal Growth Experiment
K. Kirsch, Free University of Berlin, West Germany C E Bugg, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Alabama
Circadian Rhythm under Conditions Free of Earth Gravity Transportation of Nutrients in a Weightlessness Environment
D. Mergenhagen, University of Hamburg, West Germany __ Cuernavaca, Mexico
1. Ortega, Institute of Physics,
Determination of the Dorsoventral Axis in Developing Embryos
of the Amphibian 61-c
G.A. Ubbels, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands Noninvasive Estimation of Central Venous Pressure
Determination of Reaction Time Using a Compact Doppler Ultrasound System
M. Hoschek and J. Hund, DFVLR, Cologne, West Germany J B Charles and M W Bungo, NASA Johnson Space Center
Differentiation of Plant Cells Houston, Texas
R.R. Theimel; University of Munich, West Germany Protein Crystal Growth Experiment‘
j Distribution of Cytoplasmic Determinants C E Bugg, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Alabama
1 R. Marco, University of Autonoma, Madrid, Spain -
Dosimetric Mapping Inside Biorack * Refhght
“6mas~onscomp/efed(STSB-7 -8 41-0 51-0 61 B)
H. Bucker; DFVLR, Cologne, West Germany
Effect of Microgravity on Interaction between Cells
0.Ciferri, University of Pavia, Italy
25
26
Chapter 3
Processes in -.
ics, separating biological materials into
valuable drugs ., and chemicals. and
on Earth.
NASA’s microgravity science pro-
studying the basic phenomena that gram uses spacefight to eliminate or
influence these processes. Materials counteract gravity-induced problems
processing is melting, molding, crystal- that hamper materials scientists on the
lizing, and combining or separating ground: buoyancy-driven convection in
Mateiiais
. -_
” raw materials into useful Droducts. The liquids, contamination from vessels
Science
...,,”,., _I_,.I”
history of science and civilization goes
hand in hand with advances in materi-
that contain samples, and induced
stresses that cause defects in clystals.
als science and technology. Dramatic improvements in material
In some cases, progress in materials properties have been achieved in recent
science on Earth has been limited: microgravity experiments as OUT ability
materials will not mix to form new to control temperature has improved.
alloys; crystals have defects that limit Similar improvements can be expected
their performance; biological materials in the future as our understanding of
cannot be separated well enough to the effects of mass transport increases
form some ultra-pure substances along with our ability to control con-
needed for medicine; crystals clump vective flows.
together instead of forming distinctly; Pioneering experiments from 1969
glasses are contaminated by processing to 1975 aboard Apollo-era spacecraft
containers. Many of these problems are and the Skylab space station led the
related to a constant force on Earth - way to microgravity science payloads
gravity. developed for the Space Shuttle in the
The presence of gravity has been late 1970s. The Shuttle/Spacelab has
counteracted in low-gravity aircraft proven useful for carrying many new
flights and drop tubes, which offer automated and manually controlled
about 30 seconds and 4 seconds of facilities developed for materials science
microgravity, respectively. Although research.
the period of microgravity is brief, Automated systems are appropriate
these test facilities are beneficial for for simpler experiments that need less
research in preparation for spaceflight. crew involvement but still require the
The pull of gravity cannot be escaped return of samples and equipment to
at any altitude; at a 322 kilometer the ground for analysis. The automated
(200 mile) orbit, it is still 90 percent as Materials Experiment Assembly (MEA)
strong as at the Earth’s surface. How- combined low-cost sounding rocket
ever, its effects can be virtually cancel- techniques with the extended micro-
led by remaining in “free fall,” that is, gravity duration of the Shuttle. This
by remaining in orbit around the Earth carrier supports three or four experi-
as a satellite does. Spaceflight offers ment modules in the payload bay.
27
Studying Materials and
Processes in Microgravity
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHDTOGRAPH
28
ORIGINAL' PAGE
COLOR Pi'3TOGRAPH
chemistry of materials processes on Crystalsand Electronic Materials: A seed crystal mounted on a small,
Earth. In microgravity, space scientists Crystals have achieved far greater value cooled finger (sting) at the base of the
can use techniques to improve meas- as electronic materials than they ever ampoule was a condensation point for
urement accuracy and to try to observe had as gems. Man has improved on material evaporated from a source a t
phenomena that are not detectable on nature's offerings but has been halted the top. The crystal grown in space for
Earth, Analyses of samples produced in by bottlenecks that prevent some crys- 100 hours was comparable to the best
microgravity allow scientists to deter- tals from reaching their theoretical terrestrial crystals. The crystal quality,
mine how gravity affects materials performance limits. Before crystal seen by reflecting X-rays, appeared to
processing. For example, convection growth can be improved, scientists be better than the ground-based crystal
and sedimentation dominate the must determine what factors are re- used as a standard. Gamma ray tests
transport of heat and matter in many sponsible for crystal defects and learn showed the interior quality to be better
systems, but in space the effects of how to control them. than terrestrial mercury iodide crystals.
weaker forces such as surface tension Striking results were obtained with During the Spacelab 3 mission,
are unveiled. Clarification of these phe- experiments on mercury iodide, a soft more basic knowledge about crystal
nomena may lead to better processing crystal valued for its potential as a growth in microgravity was obtained
techniques on Earth and result in the nuclear radiation detector because it by growing triglycine sulfate (TGS)
discovery of materials with novel and operates at room temperature without crystals in the Fluid Experiment Sys-
commercially interesting properties. a bulky cooling system. Controlling tem. Triglycine sulfate has potential as
The types of materials processed the growth of a large mercury iodide an infrared radiation detector at room
aboard the Shuttle/Spacelab include crystal in microgravity was demon- temperature. This crystal has not met
crystals and electronic materials, metal strated with the Spacelab 3 Vapor expected standards because, when
alloys and composites, glasses and Crystal Growth System. For the first grown to useful sizes, it develops
ceramics, fluids and chemicals, and bio- time, crewmembers on the Shuttle and defects which limit its performance.
logical materials. scientists on Earth monitored a crystal For this experiment, TGS crystals
as it grew in microgravity. Images were were grown from solution with liquid
relayed to the ground via television, TGS h i d solidifying on a seed crystal.
"""
and the crew viewed the crystal The crystal and fluid are transparent,
D
through a microscope imaging system. which makes it possible to record
This allowed the growth of the crystal images of fluid motions. The growth
to be tracked through each stage, and chamber was in the center of a preci-
scientists changed parameters such as sion optical system which allowed
temperature to adjust the growth and photography by three techniques:
reduce defects, much as they do in shadowgraphy; schlieren, by which
ground-based laboratories. variations in fluid density make flow
29
Studying Materials and ORIGINAL PAGE
Processes in Microgravity COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
patterns visible; and interference holo- the portions of the crystals grown in (Spacelab 1) modeled float-zone
graphy, using lasers to record density microgravity were free of defects. Earth-processing methods to deter-
variations near the sample. Defects were evident in portions of the mine whether the troublesome convec-
The TGS crystals shed light on how crystals grown as the Shuttle landed, tive flows were produced by buoyancy
defects are formed and what role con- suggesting that defects are reduced in or surface tension. Two experiments
vection plays in creating defects, some- microgravity. were done in an attempt to grow
thing that is not well understood. At Another Spacelab 1 experiment defect-free, single crystals of silicon.
the beginning of growth, a portion of studied processes linked to the distri- However, the space-grown crystals had
the seed crystal is dissolved to form a bution of dopants (trace elements) that the same marked dopant striations seen
smooth growth surface. In Earth- give crystals desired electrical proper- in Earth-grown crystals, confirming
grown crystals, there is always a visible ties. For example, the conductivity of that Marangoni convection (flow
line where the seed crystal stops and semiconductors is dramatically changed driven by surface tension) may be a
the new growth begins; this introduces by adding dopants. However, nonuni- dominant cause of the defects on Earth
defects into the crystal. In the space- form distribution of these dopants can and in space.
grown crystals, this line was not interfere with the operation of electri- In ground-based experiments after
detected. This indicates that in the cal devices that use crystals. For most Spacelab 1, the silicon seed crystal was
absence of convection the transition is applications, the semiconductors pro- coated with a thin oxide layer to pre-
smoother between the seed and the duced on Earth are adequate, but for vent Marangoni flow as the crystal
start of new growth. some highly specialized applications grew. The striations were eliminated,
A Spacelab 1 crystal growth experi- more uniformly doped, defect-free indicating that this is a successful tech-
ment examined insoluble crystals crystals are needed. Earlier experiments nique for reducing the effects of
(calcium and lead phosphates) that determined that convection that varies Marangoni flow. For Spacelab D1, the
grow quickly to form plate-like crystals over time caused dopant striations in experiment was repeated using this
which are easily studied by X-ray tech- crystals. technique, and striation-free crystals
niques. Large crystals were grown, and The Mirror Heating Facility also were grown in space.
30
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
31
Studying Materials and
Processes in Microgravity
Metals, Alloys, and Composites: may be the only place where accurate essed on the ground were evenly
Scientists continue in their quest to measurements of the coefficients can be mixed; however, those processed in
improve metallurgical processes, to made. flight had double the cobalt concentra-
form better and novel alloys, and to Spacelab 1 experiments showed that tion at the hot end of the ampoule.
test theories of metal and alloy process- pure diffusion can be measured s o well The accuracy of these measurements
ing. This type of processing is so in space that thermomigration, also was 300 times better than ground-
complex that it is difficult to measure called Soret diffusion, is clearly evident. based experiments had achieved. This
and model and even more difficult to In a binary mixture in which a tem- experiment may influence research to
control. In space, gravity-related perature gradient is maintained, separate isotopes of metals with greater
phenomena such as convection are thermomigration causes the constitu- efficiency.
reduced, thus eliminating one complex ents to separate according to their A similar experiment using common
mechanism for mass and heat transfer atomic weights. The heavier compo- isotopes of tin measured its diffusion
and simplifying processes for study. nents will migrate toward the cool end coefficient with an accuracy 10 to 40
Perhaps the most fundamental ad- of a furnace and the light components times greater than the best ground-
vances made in this area on the Shuttle will migrate toward the hot end. based experiments. Radiation analysis
were in understanding how liquified For one Spacelab experiment study- showed how much of the trace quam
metals diffuse through each other. ing thermomigration, the Gradient tity of tin-124 had migrated into the
Diffusion is the movement of atoms Heating Facility, which had hot and tin-112 making up the bulk of the
past each other; each material has an cold ends to force a physical process to sample. Because isotopes are chemi-
inherent diffusion coefficient which move in a given direction, provided a cally identical, any movement of one
describes the ability of atoms to move temperature drop of 648 degrees Fahr- into the other must be caused purely
past each other in that material. Grav- enheit from one end of the sample to by difhsion instead of any chemical
ity-induced convection complicates the other. A sample of tin containing effect. Several tubes with different
diffusion measurements on Earth. 0.5 percent cobalt was processed. Due diameters were used to isolate vari-
Spacelab 1 results indicate that space to convective mixing, samples proc- ations caused by the walls. A striking
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
32
result was the high accuracy, un- classical theory. This was puzzling, but without touching contaminating con-
matched in ground tests, of data indi- when the experiment was repeated in tainers, is an attractive solution to these
cating that the difision coefficient was ground laboratories where a magnetic problems. Containerless processing on
much smaller than indicated by field was used to damp convection, massive samples can only be done in
ground-based experiments. Accuracy in experimenters got the same results. microgravity where the acoustic and
this figure will greatly improve the Scientists were faced with a paradox: a electromagnetic forces used for suspen-
ability to model metal-mixing experi- theory based on no convection worked sion and manipulation are not over-
ments both on the ground and in fine when convection was present, but whelmed by gravity. Currently, there is
space, and the improved precision of the theory did not work when convec- only a limited amount of data on how
diffusion measurements at different tion was absent. materials might be processed in this
temperatures will help scientists estab- For the Spacelab 1 mission, the manner, but experiments such as the
lish the mechanism by which difhsion same experiment was repeated with Spacelab 3 Drop Dynamics Module
takes place in liquid metals. other eutectic systems. Some of them (DDM), which demonstrated that
A large number of alloys belong to had smaller rod spacing than predicted, liquid drops could be levitated and
an interesting class called eutectics. A others had the predicted rod spacing, manipulated acoustically in micrograv-
eutectic material is a mixture of two and others even had larger rod spacing ity, will help scientists develop instru-
materials that has a lower melting point than predicted by the theory. Appar- ments and techniques for containerless
than either material alone. In the liquid ently, space experiments have revealed processing of glasses and other materi-
phase the two materials that form a some unidentified effect that controls als. (The DDM results are discussed in
eutectic are completely miscible, but in rod spacing in eutectic systems. More the Fluid and Chemical Processes
the solid phase they are almost com- space samples will have to be processed section of this chapter.)
pletely immiscible. Therefore, as two to determine if the classical theory on For the first time, a glass sample was
materials that form a eutectic solidify, convection in eutectic processing needs levitated, melted, and resolidified in
they go from a single liquid phase to revision. space in the Single Axis Acoustic
two distinct solid phases. Because Levitator experiment carried aboard
many alloys are eutectics, scientists are Glasses and Cemmics: Optical engi- MEA-A2. This sample, a spherical glass
interested in understanding the distri- neering is being revolutionized by new shell containing an air bubble, was
bution of the immiscible solid phases. glasses, crystals, and other materials similar to fuel containers for inertially
If a eutectic alloy is directionally solidi- that surpass conventional substances in confined hsion experiments. These
fied, long rods or lamella (sheets of quality. However, production of these fusion experiments require that the
one phase sandwiched between superior materials is difficult, because glass shell have extremely smooth inner
another phase) are formed; the alloy some glasses have chemical mixes that and outer surfaces and that the wall of
may have desirable properties, such as are highly reactive with containers the shell be perfectly uniform in
added strength or higher magnetic while others are extremely sensitive to thickness. The perfection in surface
performance in one direction. contamination levels of even a few smoothness, wall thickness, sphericity,
As a result of space experiments, parts per billion. For example, certain and concentricity required for large
scientists are reexamining a classical fluoride glasses are of great interest for diameter glass shells that are inertially
theory on the formation of eutectics. their infrared transmission properties. confined fusion targets is essentially
The theory assumes there is no convec- These glasses can be made on Earth, impossible to maintain on Earth due to
tion in the melt when the eutectic but trace contaminants from process- gravity-induced distortion; however, it
materials are processed in space. The ing containers have prevented them might be possible to obtain this perfec-
theory works quite well on Earth, but from reaching their theoretical per- tion by reprocessing the glass shell
an earlier rocket experiment produced formance level. using containerless processing tech-
a eutectic with rod spacing quite differ- Containerless processing, in which a niques in microgravity. When this
ent than what was predicted by the sample is suspended and manipulated experiment was conducted in space,
33
Studying Materials and
Processes in Microgravity
the sample melted and remained Fluid and Chemical Processes: fluid.) The disks were rotated together
suspended. However, just before it In microgravity, it is possible to and in opposite directions and heated
resolidified, the air bubble inside mi- observe fluid movement and behavior unevenly so that the behavior of the
grated to the surface and broke that are masked by gravity-driven flows fluid under forces other than gravity
through the outer wall, leaving a solid on Earth. Fluid physics research may could be observed.
glass sphere. Bubble migration in the give scientists insight into crystal One experiment used a fluid column
absence of gravitational convection is growth, glass processing, and other to study Marangoni convection, which
of great interest to materials scientists, material processes. occurs when temperature gradients
and they are analyzing this experiment The goal of the Spacelab 1 Fluid change the surface tension of a molten
to determine why the bubble reacted Physics Module experiment was to material, making the liquid surface
in this unexpected fashion. investigate fluid processes in micro- move. By suspending tracers in the
Two other samples were levitated gravity. Two-inch-wide disks were used liquid bridge, scientists were able to
and melted during the MEA-A1 and to support a column of liquid with free observe fluid flows attributed to
MEA-A2 missions, but when the cylindrical surfaces. Because gravity Marangoni convection in a fluid col-
samples were cooled, the levitation does not collapse the liquid column in umn that was almost 25 times bigger
became unstable and the samples be- space, the disks were pulled apart to than any ever studied on Earth. A-
came attached to the sample confine- create a bridge almost 3 inches long though detailed studies of Marangoni
ment cage. More experiments are ( 8 centimeters). (On Earth, 1/8th convection have been done o n a small
needed to study containerless process- inch or 0.3 centimeters is the greatest scale in terrestrial laboratories, it had
ing of glass and other types of samples. possible height for columns of this never been studied in such a large
sample. Scientists are analyzing films of
this large fluid column to study de-
tailed processes that occurred without
the gravitational distortions that com-
plicate measurements on Earth.
The Spacelab 3 Drop Dynamics
Module provided the first opportunity
to answer scientific questions that had
been asked for more than 300 years. .
These fluid physics theories could not
be studied experimentally because
gravity precludes levitation of liquids
&thou; introducing forces that signifi-
candy mask the phenomena being
studied. In microgravity, sound waves
were used to levitate and manipulate
drops of water and glycerin. As the
principal investigator controlled the
experiment, the drops were photo-
graphed .
The experiments confirmed that
some of the age-old assumptions about
drop behavior in relatively simple situ-
ations were correct. Other results were
unexpected. The bihrcation point
when a spinning drop takes a dog-bone
shape in order to hold itself together
INAL PAGE came earlier than predicted under cer-
P . T ’ J tain circumstances. In another case, a
rotating dog-bone drop returned to a
spherical shape and stopped rotating
BRIGiNAL PAGE
34 COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
quickly rather than slowly, apparently pheres. Fluid physicists are interested
from differential rotation on the inside. in the flow characteristics of the fluids
By analyzing the physical processes themselves, and meteorologists, plane-
inside drops suspended in microgravity, tologists, and astrophysicists are inter-
scientists have the opportunity to ested in the large-scale circulation of
experimentally test basic fluid physics fluids under the influence of rotation,
theories that have applications in other gravity, and heating.
areas of physics. The thermally driven motion of a
The drop experiments also demon- fluid in a spherical experiment is similar
strated a potentially valuable processing to that in a thermally driven rotating,
technique. By suspending glasses and shallow atmosphere or in a deep ocean
other materials inside a processing on a spherical planet. It is very difficult
chamber so that the material does not to do controlled experiments with this
touch container walls, scientists may be type of system in an Earth-based labo-
able to process purer specimens than ratory, because terrestrial gravity dis-
those produced on Earth. The value of torts the flow patterns in ways that d o
having an expert scientist to conduct not correspond to actual planetary
space experiments was evident as well. flows. In space, gravity is reduced and
The principal investigator was a part of electrostatic forces can be used to
the crew, enabling him to repair the mimic gravity on a scale appropriate for
instrument when it developed a prob- the model. A 16-mm movie camera
lem on orbit, make valuable real-time photographed global flow patterns as
observations, and adjust the experi- revealed by dyes and schlieren patterns
ment parameters to view subtle resulting from fluid density changes.
changes in drop behavior. More than 50,000 images were
For another Spacelab 3 experiment, recorded in 103 hours of simulations.
the Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell, a Some expected features such as longi-
rotating spherical system was used to tudinal banana-shaped cells like those
model patterns of convection and which may exist on the sun were
other interesting fluid motions that are observed. Other images are being
found in stellar and planetary atmos- compared to current models of atmos-
35
Studying Materials and
Processes in Microgravity
pheric flow patterns for planets such as are unknown because gravitational Biological Processing: Biological
Jupiter and Uranus. Space is the only effects disturb the superfluid state, materials such as cells, proteins, and
place where these models can be tested where the laws of quantum mechanics enzymes can be processed to create
accurately. predominate over the laws of everyday valuable medical and pharmaceutical
A Spacelab 2 experiment investi- existence. products. Before many of these materi-
gated the basic properties and behavior Future space experiments are als can be used for medical purposes,
of a material that is not yet well under- planned for which the temperature of they must be separated from other
stood but may be useful for new tech- the helium must be constant to a few substances. Convection and sedimenta-
nology. Liquid helium is of interest as a millionths of a degree. Spacelab 2 tion on Earth make it difficult to sepa-
coolant for infrared telescopes and experiments showed that the helium rate these biological substances in
detectors that operate at extremely low temperature does remain constant and ultra-pure forms and high concentra-
temperatures. Below 2.2 degrees Kel- stable. The large-scale motions of liq- tions.
vin (-456degrees Fahrenheit), liquid uid helium also are important because The Continuous Flow Electro-
helium is transformed into superfluid they could disturb the attitude control phoresis System (CFES) is used to
helium, which moves freely through systems essential for pointing tele- separate and purify biological cells and
pores so small that they block normal scopes of large helium-cooled observa- proteins in space. This instrument has
liquid and conducts heat about 1,000 tories planned for the 1990s. A been flown six times, and after each
times better than copper. Because su- Spacelab 2 bulk fluid motion experi- flight the instrument and technique
perfluid helium is an entirely different ment measured the amplitude ard have been refined for more effective
state of matter from conventional decay of the sloshing motion caused by processing. Investigators have been
fluids, it is being studied in space to small orbiter motions. It appears the able to increase the concentration of
improve our fundamental understand- motions are so small that they will not material separated and purified during
ing of the physics of matter. Many affect the ultrasensitive telescopes and a given period. For two proteins, the
subtleties of superfluid helium behavior experiments. throughput of desired product was 500
times greater than achieved on the
ground in the same instrument. The
space-produced substances are being
evaluated by a pharmaceutical
company.
Materials and life scientists also
share an interest in protein crystals.
Single crystals of sufficient size and
perfection are needed to analyze the
molecular structure of numerous pro-
teins and enzymes. Knowledge of the
structure is a prerequisite for optimal
utilization of the proteins for medical,
pharmaceutical, and bioengineering
applications.
These crystals can be grown by the
simultaneous counter-diffusion of a
protein and salt solution into a buffer
solution. As the proteins start to crys-
tallize on Earth, the different densities
of the crystal and the solution result in
convection, which can lead to a large
number of small, imperfect crystals.
Thus, one of the great limitations in
protein crystal research has been the
inability to produce large, pure crystals
for analysis.
36
R PPOTOGRAPH
38
ORIGINAL PA
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
39
Studying Materials and
Processes in Microgravity
40
Solidification of Immiscible Alloys @acelab3B1-B
H. Ahlborn, University of Hamburg, Germany :rystal Growth Facility
Solidification of Near-Monotectic Zinc-Lead Alloys
H.F. Fischmeister, Max Planck Institute Mercury Iodide Crystal Growth *
Stuftgart, Germany R. Cadoret and P. Brisson
Laboratory for Crystallography and Physics
Unidirectional Solidification of Cast Iron Les Cezeaux, France
T. Luyendijk, Delft University of Technology
The Netherlands Drop Dynamics Module
Vacuum Brazing Dynamics of Rotating and Oscillating Free Drops
W. Schonherr and E. Siegfried T. Wang, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Federal Institution for Material Testing Pasadena, California
Berlin, Germany
Wid Experiment System
Vacuum Brazing
R. Stickler and K. Frieler Solution Growth of Crystals in Zero Gravity System
University of Vienna,Austria R. Lal, Alabama A&M University
Huntsville, Alabama
Mirror Heating Facility
Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell
Crystallization of a Silicon Drop
H. Kolker, Wacker-Chemie Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell Experiment
Munich, Germany J.E. Hart, University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado
Floating Zone Growth of Silicon
R. Nitsche and E. Eyer Vapor Crystal Growth System
University of Freiburg, Germany Mercuric Iodide Growth
Growth of Cadmium Telluride by the Traveling Heater Method W.F. Schnepple, EG&G, Inc., Goleta, California
R. Nitsche, R. Dian, and R. Schonholz
University of Freiburg, Germany Fpacelab V51-F
Growth of Semiconductor Crystals by the Traveling Heater Method Properties of Superfluid Helium in Zero-Gravity
K. W. Benz, Stuftgart University, and P. V. Mason, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
G. Muller, University of Erlangen, Germany Pasadena, California
Special Equipment Protein Crystal Growth " * * *
C.E. Bugg, University of Alabama in Birmingham. Alabama
Adhesion of Metals in UHV Chamber ...... ..-".-."..
G. Ghersini Fpacelab D1/61-A
Information Center of Experimental Studies, Italy
Cferials Science Double Rack -
Crystal Growth by Co-Precipitation in Liquid Phase
A. Authier, F. Le Faucheux, and M.C. Robert Cryostat
University of Pierre and Marie Curie, Paris, France Protein Crystals *
Crystal Growth of Proteins W. Liftke, University of Freiburg, Germany
W. Liftke, University of Freiberg, Germany
Fluid Physics Module
Mercury Iodide Crystal Growth Capillary Experiments *
R. Cadoret, Laboratory for Crystallography and Physics
J.F. Padday, Kodak Research Laboratory
Les Cezeaux, France Harrow, United Kingdom
Organic Crystal Growth Convection in Nonisothermal Binary Mixtures
K.F. Nielsen, G. Galster, and 1. Johannson J.C. Legros, University of Brussels, Belgium
Technical University of Denmark
Lyngbyg, Denmark Floating-Zone Hydrodynamics
1. Da Riva, University of Madrid, Spain
Selfdiffusion and Interdiffusion in Liquid Metals
K. Kraatz, Technical University of Berlin, Germany Forced Liquid Motions
J.P. 5. Vreeburg, National Aerospace Laboratory
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
41
~
42
Process Chamber - Merials Scfence Laboratory-2( M L- 2 p 1 -C *
Holographic Interferometric Apparatus Automated Directional Solidification Furnace
Bubble Transport Orbital Processing of Aligned Magnetic Composites
A. Bewersdorff, DNLR D.J. larson, Grumman Aerospace Corporation
Cologne, Germany Bethpage, New York
GETS Electromagnetic Levitation Furnace
A. Ecker and P.R. Sahm, R W H Undercooled Solidification in Quiescent Levitated Drops
Aachen, Germany M.C. Fleming, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Phase Separation Near Critical Point Cambridge, Massachusetts
H. Klein, DNLR Three-AxisAcoustic Levitator
Cologne, Germany
Dynamics of Compound Drops
Surface-TensionStudies T. Wang, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
0.Neuhaus, DNLR Pasadena, California
Cologne, Germany
Physical Phenomena in Containerless Glass
lnterdifusion Salt Melt Apparatus
Processing Model Fluids
Interdiffusion R.S. Subramanian, Clarkson University
J. Richter, RWTH Potsdam, New York
Aachen, Germany *z-,-m-m---->=-
43
Chapter 4
the Sun:
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
44
ORlGiNAL PAGE
COL33 PI i3TOGRAPH
45
Observing the Sun
images and spectral data from this fast- The extended solar atmosphere
moving observatory. (corona), the visible surface (photo-
As the following summaries indi- sphere), and the chromosphere and
cate, Shuttle-based solar investigations transition region between the hot co-
are making significant contributions to rona and the much cooler photosphere
our understanding of the sun as a star came under careful scrutiny. The
and the effects of solar events on the resultant images reveal very small, very
Earth’s environment. faint structures (solar gases shaped by
magnetic fields), slight changes in
/mageS of the sun: Both still photog- brightness, small-scale motions, and
raphy and video techniques have been other details that are improving our
used to gain some of the best solar knowledge of the sun’s behavior. These
images ever obtained. The telescopes details provide critical clues to the
and cameras themselves are designed origin of larger, more turbulent solar
for high-resolution imaging, and the changes and thus a better understand-
IPS provides necessary pointing con- ing of precursor events, which will
trol and stability to achieve clear, result in better predictions of the ex-
detailed images of solar features. plosive solar events that affect Earth’s
The complement of solar instru- atmosphere and the nearby space
ments flown on the Spacelab 2 mission environment.
functioned collectively as an observa- Movies of tiny, bubble-like convec-
tory for detailed examination of the tion cells (granules) also contained
sun. Scientists watched areas as small surprises. Turbulence in Earth’s atmos-
as 350 kilometers (200 miles) for an phere blurs ground observatory
entire orbit (as long as an hour) with- images of the sun so much that fine
out distortion. From the ground, the details or subtle changes from one
limit for unblurred observation is only image to the next cannot be seen.
a few seconds or minutes at a time and From Spacelab, however, scientists
then only rarely under ideal observing could see for the first time that grat-
conditions. Seeing the small, rapidly ules in magnetic regions (sunspots,
changing features in sharp focus pores, and network boundaries) are
without distortion on a routine basis quite different than in the quiet, undis-
from the Shuttle was an exciting, new turbed sun. The shapes of the very
experience for solar observers. small magnetic pores are irregular,
scalloped, and rapidly changing as they
attempt to maintain their structure
agunst the encroachment of turbulent
surrounding granules.
The movies also provided the first
undistorted histones of granule evolu-
tion, which will help scientists deter-
mine normal and abnormal patterns of
development. Cinematography has
46
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Slit
I
47
Observing the Sun
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
shown that more than half of all (SOUP) instrument, for example, that rise twice as high as ordinary
granules die a violent death instead of recorded several hours of sunspot and spicules. They recorded, for the first
quietly fading away. They either expand active region observations; the 6,400 time, dramatic changes in the size and
until they reach a critical size and frames collected are unique for their shape of the superspicules that may
explode into many tiny fragments, or extreme image stability. Eight hours of provide the key to understanding these
they are destroyed by a nearby explo- video and 500 still photographs of the mysterious features.
sion. The Spacelab 2 movies also dis- sun made by the High Resolution In addition to these discoveries,
closed that granules stream radially Telescope and Spectrograph (HRTS) postflight film processing and image
outward from the center of a sunspot instrument in hydrogen-alpha ultravio- enhancement techniques are being
into the surrounding quiet photo- let light, plus another 1,300 ultraviolet used to bring to light many features
sphere, a phenomenon never before spectroheliograph exposures, reveal and motions that are completely invis-
seen and still unexplained. interesting new features of spicules, ible to ground observers. For example,
Scientists are thrilled with the new spiky structures seen along the edge of granules were previously thought to
images of the sun. The movies are far the sun. While spicules are well recog- remain roughly in place or have only
more consistent in quality from frame nized from ground-based visible light small random motions during their
to frame than any yet obtained. The observations, from the Shuttle scien- lifetimes. M e r sophisticated analysis of
Solar Optical Universal Polarimeter tists observed ultraviolet superspicules the SOUP movies, it has been learned
48
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
not only that granules are in almost Specfrd Data: Spectral analysis -
continual motion (withspeeds of separation of radiation into discrete
3,000 to 4,000 kilometers per hour/ wavelengths - is another technique
1,900 to 2,500 miles per hour) but used to understand the chemistry and
also that they float like corks on top of physics of the sun and other stars.
a much larger flow pattern (called su- Since different chemicals absorb or
pergranulation and mesogranulation), emit radiation a t certain characteristic
which consists of giant convective cells wavelengths (spectral lines), these
10,000 to 40,000 kilometers (6,000 to “signatures” can reveal much about the
25,000 miles) in diameter. Solar physi- composition and motion of solar gases.
cists have known about supergranules Spectrometers flown on the
for over 25 years, but the SOUP obser- Spacelab 2 mission recorded a variety
vations have provided the first detailed of spectra from features on the solar
measurements of their flows and their disk and in the corona. The harvest
relationships to the large magnetic from the HRTS instrument, which can
structures in the sun’s atmosphere. differentiate 2,000 spectral lines in the
\ /
49
Observing the Sun
50
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
fxtending ObservatbfJS: The daz- the Space Station solar observatory. tions for a solar cycle or more; sched-
zling Spacelab 2 images prove that Like Spacelab, the Space Station will uled campaigns that are planned
from low-Earth orbit solar instruments have a solar physicist on board to months in advance and last from days
do have a clearer view of the sun. operate solar instniments and coordi- to months; and unscheduled cam-
These early experiments also show the nate detailed observing plans with paigns that are initiated on short, notice
value of using the eyes and brains of scientists on the ground. Space Station, in response to solar activity.
the onboard crew to analyze results however, will expand current capabili- It will be possible to control Space
and focus instruments on interesting ties by providing additional work areas Station instruments from the ground.
solar events. Without the close interac- for repairing and calibrating instm- Instruments will generate up to several
tion between the Spacelab 2 solar ments. hundred million bits of data each sec-
physicist crewmembers and scientists Space Station will provide the con- ond, transmitting some to the Station
on the ground, many observing oppor- tinuous, long-duration observations and some to the ground for real-time
tunities would have been lost. that are obtainable only from a perma- analysis. Data will be archived and dis-
The Spacelab 2 workstation is serv- nent space faciliq. Several different tributed worldwide. International co-
ing as a model for the controls and modes of operation will be possible: operation will be important since solar
monitors that are being designed for around-the-clock, automated observa- activity affects Earth across the globe.
51
Observing the Sun
52
ORIGINAL PA
-
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
'Reflight
53
arth's atmosphere varies with
altitude, and its several regions
have distinct compositions and physical
properties. The ionosphere, where the
gas is partly ionized or electrified,
extends from approximately 60 to the ground a laboratory as vast and for studying processes that occur near
1,000 kilometers (40 to 600 miles) variable as the ionosphere. To under- Earth and throughout the universe,
above Earth's surface; it is an excellent stand this complex environment, we and the vehicle itself becomes an
place to study how electrified gases must make space our laborator). instrument for experiments. The space
(plasmas) behave. Most of the universe As the Shuttle orbits Earth at alti- plasma environment is studied by three
is in the plasma state. By studying the tudes of 240 to 400 kilometers techniques: active experiments, in-situ
space environment in Earth's neigh- (150 to 250 miles), it is immersed in probes, and remote sensing.
borhood, we gain clues about proc- ionospheric plasma. While in this envi- Active experiments introduce agents
esses around distant planets, stars, and ronment, the Shuttle/Spacelab can be (particles, waves, chemicals) into the
other celestial objects. used to deploy small satellites and ionosphere to trace, modifp, or stiinu-
Scientists have sent rockets and retrieve them, expose detectors directly late the environment. The Shuttle itself
satellites to explore the ionosphere, to natural plasma, disturb the plasma stimulates the environment as it passes
and they have gathered data whenever with beams of energetic particles, and through the plasma, creating a wake
and wherever auroras (the ghostly operate in coordination with ground- and other disturbances. By canying
Northern and Southern Lights) and based facilities and other satellites. both active and passive probes,
other plasma events occur naturally. During a Shuttlc/Spacelab mission, Spacelab functions as a laboratoty and
However, it is impossible to create on the ionosphere becomes a laboratory an observatov, simultaneously able to
stimulate the space environment in a
controlled manner and monitor the
resultant effects.
In-situ probes are needed to diag-
nose the characteristics and changes in
ambient plasma populations near the
Shuttle. Spacelab has carried a variety
of passive probes which operated inde-
pendently or in concert with active
experiments.
55
Using Space as a Laboratory
Remote sensors are used to detect Beam and WaWe /hjeCtjOh; Beam
the effects of active experiments or to injection experiments help scientists
study natural atmospheric phenomena trace the invisible electric and magnetic
at greater distances from the Shuttle. fields that envelop Earth. Electron
Emissions of light accompany many beams emitted from Spacelab travel
processes that are difficult to study from along magnetic fields. By measuring
the ground because the atmosphere the paths of the beams, scientists can
obscures them. On Spacelab, instru- discover how particles are accelerated
ments have a global view and can detect and guided in the plasma environment.
faint light emitted by atmospheric Waves are generated naturally in
chemicals, by energetic processes such plasma by the constant mixing and
as auroras, or by active experiments. flowing of plasmas and by sudden dis-
turbances, such as lightning or particle
ACthM! ~ ~ ~ e ~ Spacelab i m ~ is h ~ ~ beam ; injections. Thus, emitted particle
ideally suited for active experiments. beams or radio waves trigger wave
Instead of waiting for nature to per- motions in the natural plasma. Plasma
form, scientists can create artificial auro- waves are important mechanisms for
ras, particle beams, plasma waves, and transferring energy from one plasma
wakes. Ordinarily unseen magnetic field regime to another, where it may be
lines and wind patterns may become deposited, absorbed, or transformed
visible in clouds of color produced by and carried elsewhere. Comparisons of
chemical releases, enabling us to watch wave input and output yield informa-
and photograph the form and motion tion about energy exchange.
of space plasmas.
In active experiments, investigators
introduce a known stimulus and meas-
ure the environment’s response to test
hypotheses about the natural processes
of particle acceleration, wave and wind
movement, chemical releases, and
energy release. Three types of active
experiments have been accomplished
during Shuttle missions: particle beam
and wave injections, wake and sheath
generation, and chemical releases. Pas-
sive instruments for measuring changes
in plasma conditions were necessary
companions to all active experiments.
56
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Beam and wave injections are help- surfaces and in the thin atmosphere Another surprise was that during
ing scientists understand processes surrounding the Shuttle. Indeed, the neutral gas injection, electron density
such as auroras that occur when beams Shuttle actually charged positive as it increased, indicating that neutral atoms
of particles from space collide with sought to attract electrons from the were being torn apart and converted
atmospheric particles around Earth's ionsphere to balance the current shot into ions and electrons by interaction
magnetic poles. These experiments also forth in the electron beam. with the ambient ionospheric plasma.
may reveal clues to particle beam activ- The charge buildup o n the Shuttle Passive detectors measured ionization
ity detected in solar flares and in the was neutralized momentarily by inject- 10 to 100 times greater than the
vicinity of other planets (Jupiter and ing a plume of neutral gas simultane- ambient electron density. The instant
Saturn). ously with the electron beam. To the reaction of these relatively benign neu-
The Space Experiments with Particle surprise of the investigators, the gas tral atoms with the natural space
Accelerators (SEPAC) flown o n the neutralized the charge instantly, and plasma is evidence that the ionosphere
Spacelab 1 mission used the Shuttle the vehicle charge remained neutral for can become dynamic and turbulent. In
as a platform for active space plasma several milliseconds after the simultane- addition, a plasma generator was used
research. The investigation used a ous emissions. This indicates that injec- to inject pulses of ions and electrons
particle accelerator that could emit tions of neutral gas may be an effective which neutralized the Shuttle's electri-
electron beams from 1,000 to 7,500 way to eliminate spacecraft charges. cal charging.
volts and up to 1.6 amps and a magne-
toplasma dynamic arc jet which
emitted pulses of argon ions. Several
passive probes were carried to observe
the shape of the beam and to measure
wave and particle interactions.
When the electron beam accelerator
was operated above current levels of
about 100 milliamps, the character of
the beam changed dramatically because
of strong turbulence. The beam spread
rapidly in space, and many electrons
from the beam scattered back to the
Shuttle, causing a bright glow o n the
57
ORIGINAL PAGE'
Using Space as a laboratory COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Other evidence of the strong beam- activity was measured in the vicinity of jointly with a deployed satellite so that
plasma interactions was observed by a the airlock, and the beams created the beams could be studied as they
joint experiment that used an electron several instabilities in the natural mag- propagated hrther into space. (Both I
spectrometer to measure modifications netic and electric fields. Changes in the sets of instruments had an earlier trial
in electron populations. Spacecraft electric and magnetic fields were also flight o n the OSS-l/STS-3 mission.)
charging was observed, as well as proc- recorded during emissions by the other An electron generator mounted o n the
esses that accelerated electrons to more particle accelerator. There were large pallet emitted electrons in a steady
than four times their injection energy. variations of the Shuttle/Spacelab stream to create beams and in pulsed
Particle beams were also injected by charge with respect to the ambient modes to create waves of known fre-
the Spacelab 1 Phenomena Induced by plasma potential, and it took from a quencies. The maximum beam current
Charged Particle Beams (PICPAB) few milliseconds to several seconds was 100 milliamps and its energy was
experiment. An electron and ion accel- after the beam was switched off for the 1,000 electron volts, resulting in a
erator mounted o n a pallet generated vehicle potential to neutralize. beam power approximately equal to
beams while passive diagnostic instru- Spacelab 2 carried another beam- that of a 100-watt light bulb. The
ments on the pallet and deployed injection experiment, the Vehicle Vehicle Charging and Potential Experi-
through the Spacelab scientific airlock Charging and Potential Experiment ment also studied how the beam injec-
measured resultant effects. When the (VCAP), which studied beam injec- tions charged the Shuttle and affected
beams were injected, plasma wave tions near the Shuttle and operated plasma in its vicinity.
For the joint experiments, the
Plasma Diagnostics Package ( P D P )
was deployed as a free flyer about 300
meters (0.25 miles) away from the
Shuttle. The satellite consisted of
complementary instruments for simul-
taneous measurements of plasma char-
acteristics such as magnetic and electric
fields, particle hstributions, radio
waves, and plasma composition, den-
sity, and temperature. During the free
flight, the crew completed intricate
maneuvers to align the satellite and the
Shuttle along the same geomagnetic
field line, like beads o n an imaginary
string. At the moment the Shuttle
. S ~ W S $ ~ C&&age
S [%Pj W ~ S
wrm
cl
RrGlNAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
A-G87-35
N
I
I o5
w
3
0 Io4
w
LT
LL
I os
IO2
crossed the magnetic field, an electron and magnetic storms, these beam injec-
beam was emitted, and the satellite tion experiments strengthened the link
measured the characteristics of the between active experiments and the
beam as it traveled along the magnetic physics of auroral beams.
field and spread into the ionosphere. The joint PDP-VCAP experiments
The spectrum of waves from the on Spacelab 2 were the culmination of
beam appears as an intense broadband a series of earlier experiments. The first
emission. An unusual feature of the joint measurements to study the effects
beam may be caused by whistler radia- of an electron beam on the space
tion, plasma waves that travel a t spe- environment, and vice versa, were per-
cific angles to magnetic fields. The formed in a large ionospheric simula-
whistler radiation seen by the PDP tion chamber on the ground. These
near the electron beam is analogous to preliminary experiments provided valu-
the auroral hiss radiation seen by satel- able experience in operating both sets
lites passing over the Earth's xiroral of instnirnents and also in selecting
zones. This sort of beam-to-wave suitable operating modes for the elec-
energy conversion is a fundamental tron beam. For the OSS-1 mission,
process responsible for radio emissions planners drew upon the chamber test
from other planets and astronomical experience to improve the tlight plan
systems. for PDP onerations
r on the remote ma-
Another time when the satellite and nipulator arm. When OSS- 1 results
Shuttle were aligned along the mag- proved to be of great interest to space
netic field, the beam \\'as pulsed to plmna physicists, the next logical step
create plasma waves similar to Ion,- was proposed: to conduct joint experi-
frequency radio sign,ils. The satellite ments and study beam effects over a
measurements during the beam and greater range beyond the 12-meter
\\rave injections indicate that the beam (40-foot) r e x h of the arm. Releasing
heated ions in the natural plasma and the PDP ,IS ,I fi-ee flver during the
created turbulent motion, density vdri- Spacelab 2 mission n ~ already~ s
ations, and strong electric fi2lds. Since planned, the \'('AI' e\perimeiit u ~ a ~
similar processes occur during airoras ,ldded to the pJ.\.loaci t o folio\\ up 0 1 1
59
Using Space as a Laboratory
60
IG\NAL PAGE
OLQR PHOTOGRAPH
was warranted to extend observations. indication of high ion temperatures vicinity of the Shuttle out to several
To continue the inquiqr begun o n and turbulent plasma activity. These Iiundrecl meters. These contaminants
the OSS- 1 mission, the PDP was flown effects have not been observed by were especially dominant in the
o n the Spacelab 2 mission. This time, it satellites and rockets; the new observa- Shuttle’s wake, and natural plasma ions
was moved about on the RMS o u t to tions demonstrate the significant of nitrogen (N,+), nitric oxide (NO+),
distances of 12 meters (40 feet) to map impact of a large, gas-emitting space and oxygen ( O + )were depleted. These
the surrounding plasma environment. vehicle like the Shuttle o n the contaminants interfere with measure-
The Shuttle made several intricate ionosphere. ments of natural plasma made from the
maneuvers so that the satellite could As o n the prior mission, the satellite Shuttle payload bay.
study diverse plasma effects around the instruments again detected the emis- The PDP never sampled undis-
Shuttle, Measurements indicated that sions from material outgassing, turbed natural plasma because the
the thermal ion distributions around thruster firings, water dumps, and a ionosphere was perturbed out to the
the spacecraft are much more complex cloud of neutral gas that expanded distance covered by the PDP during its
than predicted. Frequently, an unex- away from the Shuttle. The gaseous free flight. Investigators are comparing
pectedly intense background level of cloud modified the ionosphere at large the Shuttle to a comet, which creates a
ion current due to incoming hot ions distances through chemical interactions deep wake and turbulence as it moves
was measured. Surprisingly, the ions between ions and neutral atoms. Water through plasma. The gas cloud envcl-
often appeared to change energies, an vapor was detected in the immediate oping the Shuttle is large enough to be
61
Using Space as a Laboratory
ORIGINAL PA
CI?!OR PHOTOG
62
Chemical Releases: Chemical releases observatories on the ground. There succeeded in demonstrating that
in the ionosphere often result in lumi- were two nighttime engine burns dur- plasma depletions may indeed open
nous particle interactions that “paint” ing which optical emissions could be new astronomical windows.
invisible magnetic fields, currents, and monitored. Within seconds after the Complementing the ground-based
waves in vivid color. Hidden features of burn over the Millstone Hill Incoher- observations, measurements made by
the structure, chemistry, and dynamics ent Scatter Observatory in Westford, instruments aboard the Shuttle indi-
of the atmosphere are revealed by vis- Connecticut, the red airglow emission cated that ambient plasma activity was
ible movements of vapors and plasma. at 630 nanometers increased sharply, enhanced for several minutes after each
One Spacelab 2 investigation took reached a maximum 3 minutes later, thruster firing. Depletions in plasma
advantage of chemicals that the Shuttle and gradually decayed for 10 to 15 density, airglow enhancements,
routinely releases whenthrusters are minutes. The airglow cloud grew to increases in turbulence, and variations
fired to maintain or change altitude: 300 kilometers (186 miles) in diameter in spacecraft potential were recorded.
exhaust consisting mainly of water and then faded back to normal. Radar
vapor, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. data indicated that electron density was Passive MOr/hS: Through active
The effects of these releases are tempo- depleted and the hole spread in alti- experiments and on-site diagnostic
rary and are not detrimental to the tude and latitude for one hour. During instruments, space scientists have
environment, but they d o cause some a relatively smaller daytime exhaust learned a great deal about how the
interesting physical and electrical release over the same site, radar data natural plasma environment acts when
changes in the ionosphere. indicated that electron densities were disturbed. However, Spacelab gives
The exhaust triggers chemical reac- reduced, confirming that even small scientists another advantage: a global
tions that cause electrons to combine releases affect the ambient plasma. view of the atmosphere that is not
with ions in the upper atmosphere, The goal of another engine burn, possible fiom the ground. The
leaving temporarily depleted plasma over the University of Tasmania low- Shuttle/Spacelab serves as an excellent
areas or “holes.” The most visible effect frequency radio observatories in platform for atmospheric observations.
of the holes is a faint red airglow emis- Hobart, Tasmania, was to test the con- From space, the light emissions
sion associated with carbon dioxide cept o f conducting low-frequency from the atmosphere make it a giant
molecules. Radar and radio measure- radio astronomy through an artificially television screen that shows changing
ments at ground observatories can de- created window in the ionosphere. To chemical reactions. Even though these
tect other traits of these holes, such as the disappointment of astronomers events occur far from the Shuttle, sen-
elevated electron temperature, reduced who study radio emissions in an effort sitive onboard instruments can make
electron concentrations, drifts o f nearby to learn about distant celestial objects, images of the tell-tale light emissions
plasma into the hole, and disrupted or radio waves in the band less than associated with chemical reactions.
enhanced radio wave propagation. 3 megahertz are blocked by the iono- The Atmospheric Emission
The Shuttle’s ability to fire the sphere. After the burn over Hobart, Photometric Imager (AEPI) flown on
engines to release exhaust at specific electron densities were reduced by 20 Spacelab 1 was designed to study
times and locations allowed Spacelab 2 to 30 percent, and cosmic signals at global patterns in magnetic fields and
scientists to monitor the areas of 1.7 megahertz were received through other features occurring naturally in
depleted plasma from three separate the plasma hole. The experiment thus the atmosphere. Images of the
63
Using Space as a Laboratory
64
AL
BLOR PHOTOGRAP
I
65
Using Space as a Laboratory
This observation is possible only from the entire sun-Earth system, including
space, ideally in near Earth orbit, the detailed study of solar processes,
because diffuse auroras cover a wide the relationship between changes at the
range of latitudes; when viewed from sun and resulting changes in Earth’s
the ground or from above by satellites, niagnetosphere and atmosphere, and
they appear as a uniform glow. From the detailed physics of the Earth’s
the vantage point of the Shuttle, s c m - magnctospliere/ionosphere/atmos-
tists got an edge-on view of diffuse phere system. The solar observations
auroras and could see the various and radiation measurements, active
thcknesses and layers within. The mis- space plasma experiments, and atmos-
sion resulted in an extensive catalogue pheric and auroral observations of
of known auroral features, including a Spacelab 1, Spacelab 2, and Spacelab 3
collection of images of tall red rays are major steps in studying the inte-
extending over a wide geographical grated solar-terrestrial system.
range. Scientists are using these images Scientists are using their Shuttle/
to see how auroral features vary with Spacelab experience to plan rescarch
location over Earth. for the Space Station and other obser-
vatories. The Space Station offers in-
vestigators a laboratory to continue the
exciting manned research and observa-
ment enveloping Earth, plasma tions initiated on the Shuttle/Spacelab.
physicists must join with solar and Some instruments will be attached to
atmospheric physicists to study the the station, making possible real-time
integrated solar-terrestrial system. observations of the sun and coordi-
Solar-terrestrial physics encompasses nated active experiniencs. Scientists in
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
67
Ir
A
Using Space as a Laboratory
68
L
Space Plasma Physics Investigations
OSS-l/STS-3 Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP)
S. Shawhan, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
Electron Spectrometer
K. Wilhelm, Max Planck Institute
Stuttgart, Germany
~
Magnetometer
R. Schmidt, Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
* Reflight
69
70
Chapter 6
Atmosphere:
Atmospheric
Science
P resent knowledge of the atmos-
phere is immense compared to
what we knew when the space age
of ozone. Above this homosphere is
the heterosphere where the chemical
ratios change radically with altitude.
began three decades ago, but what we Chemicals considered to be trace
have yet to learn is still great. More- compounds are present at higher alti-
over, we d o not hlly understand the tudes in greater ratios, although the
roles we play in altering our atmos- total is still small.
phere as we burn fossil fiiels, use spray Atmospheric chemistry, driven by
cans, and test nuclear weapons. Scien- light and a bewildering array of prod-
tists worry about a multitude of factors ucts which themselves modulate the
that may turn our planet into a hot- light passing to Earth, becomes more
house or an icebox. complex and our understanding be-
The atmosphere is far more than comes less certain. Eliminating that
oxygen and nitrogen; that familiar mix uncertainty requires a global view and
is roughly constant only to an altitude an inventoly not only of the relative
ofabout 100 kilometers (60 miles). As abundance of chemicals at various alti-
temperature changes with altitude, the tudes in the atmosphere but also of
pace at which some chemical reactions their energy states, which dictate the
occur changes, and intensified sunlight reactions in which they may take part.
causes new reactions like the splitting Atmospheric chemistry is a com-
of oxygen molecules and the formation plex, interactive process with seemingly
small changes leading to extensive
chain reactions. When an atom cap-
tures a photon of the right wavelength
( i x . , energy), its energy state is raised.
Usually within millionths or thou-
sandths of a second, the photon is
released as the atom returns to its
ground state. The wavelength of this
71
~~
i
emitted photon is a unique atomic or E/Wgy: As the sun warms Earth, it is so dependent on the constant sun
molecular signature. With such spectral prompts a chain of chemical reactions emitting energy within a narrow range.
signatures, the presence and energy in the middle and upper atmosphere. Even a 0.1 percent shft in either direc-
states of chemicals can be detected at These reactions change the transpar- tion could have a noticeable effect on
great distances. Spacelab has carried
several instruments that have detected
ency of the atmosphere, causing other
changes at lower altitudes; greater
the average temperature of the Earth
and hence its climate. Yet measure-
i
these signatures and started detailed fluxes of damaging ultraviolet radiation ments made to date vary by as much as
analyses of our atmosphere's energy, may pass to the ground, or infrared 5 percent because of differences among
chemistry, and movement. radiation (heat) emitted by the ground and within instruments. Since the
The Shuttle and Spacelab offer may be trapped rather than emitted, as atmosphere is an unpredictable filter,
atmospheric scientists a platform for in a greenhouse. The first concern is these measurements can be made accu-
global viewing over a broad latitude the total energy flow since life o n Earth rately only from orbit.
and altitude range. From this well-
situated observatory, it is possible to 10000
100
tem. Larger, more capable instruments
can be carried o n the Shuttle than o n
%3 10
other satellites, and the Shuttle's E
Y
w 1
resources (power, telemetry, crew) 0
z
support advanced observational tech- ; 01
niques. A variety of experiments to a
0:
date proved the merits of the Shuttle 001
and Spacelab as host observatories for 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
atmospheric imaging and spectral WAVELENGTH (nm)
measurement devices.
I I I I I
1.1
were made at IO I I I I I
ORIGINAL BAQ
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
72
The Solar Constant (SolCon) and which represents less than 1 percent of che/fl~S~ry:
Three Spacelab instruments
the Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) the solar output but varies widely and - the Imaging Spectrometric Observa-
instruments are designed to monitor affects the balance of ozone and other tory (ISO),the Atmospheric Trace
the total solar radiation output. Each chemicals in the stratosphere. It com- Molecules Spectroscopy (ATMOS), and
uses the same basic principle: a cavity is prises two spectrometers, one for the Grille Spectrometer - have assayed
alternately exposed to the sun and then continual measurement and the other the makeup of the middle and upper
concealed while an identical one is kept for regular calibration. SUSIM re- atmosphere by observing how chemical
concealed. Both cavities are heated to corded spectra at high resolution with species emit or absorb radiation.
the same temperature, so the difference great accuracy. The SUSIM and ISO, actually five spectrometers in
in power consumption corresponds to SolSpec data were compared and for one facility, covers the spectrum from
the total incoming solar energy. the first time two independent instru- 30 to 1,270 nanometers (300 to
SolCon, one of three radiometers ments have made measurements that 12,700 Angstroms). Each spectrometer
used as a World Radiation Reference, agree within a few percent. These spec. focuses light from a narrow sVip of the
measured the solar output at 1,365 tra together with repetition of these atmosphere - 20 kilometers (12 miles)
watts per square meter. This concentra- measurements over a solar cycle will - o n solid-state detectors through a
tion is slightly less than all the energy answer questions regarding solar vari- spectral grating that breaks a band of
of a 100-watt light bulb falling on a ability in the ultraviolet and will help light into its colors. Pictures of portions
sheet of legal paper. The ACR had scientists understand what energies are of the atmosphere's structure can be
some equipment problems that com- available to drive chemical reactions in generated in specific spectral lines or
promised the Spacelab 1 measure- the atmosphere. colors.
ments, but a similar unit on the Solar
Maximum satellite is operating well. A
single set of measurements from either
instrument is only a start, as the data
necessary for an accurate measurement
must be gathered over years and must
be compared both with instruments
that stay in orbit and with laboratory
test data.
It is not enough to know the total
energy output of the sun; we must also
know how i t is distributed across its
spectrum of light emissions and how
that varies with solar activity. T h e Solar
Spectrum (Solspec) instrument and
the Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradi-
ance Monitor (SUSIM) measured this
distribution. These solar instruments
are designed for recalibration in terres-
trial laboratories to assure their contin-
ued accuracy o n reflighrs.
SolSpec comprises three spectrome-
ters to cover the spectrum from 170
nanometers ( 1,700 Angstroms, far ul-
traviolet) to 3,200 nanometers ( 32,000
Angstroms, infrared). Operating a t or
near its planned accuracy, SolSpec
obtained 3 5 high-quality solar spectra
sets. SUSIM measured ultraviolet in-
tensities in the 120 to 400 nanometer
( 1,200 to 4,000 Angstroms) region,
73
Sampling the Atmosphere
I S 0 (Spacelab 1)obtained a wealth 80 t o 100 kilometers ( 5 0 to 60 miles) takes 400,000 samples for a single
of information about emissions from altitude, forming a unique data set for interferogram covering the spectrum
the middle atmosphere (or mesosphere) studying the photochemistry of the from 2,000 to 16,000 nanometers
and the thermosphere extending above mesosphere. At higher altitudes, (20,000 to 160,000 Angstroms, near
it. I S 0 also compiled the first compre- anomalous spectral distributions from to far infrared). During the Spacelab 3
hensive spectral atlas of the upper molecular nitrogen ions were detected, mission, ATMOS obtained approxi-
atmosphere, a data base rich in infor- indcating that photochemical activity mately 1,200 atmospheric spectra, each
mation o n several chemical processes. may be raising them to high vibrational of which contained information on the
Many unexpected effects were ob- states. What role thls has in atmos- prime molecular species being studied
served that may require years of analy- pheric chemistry is not yet known. by investigators. In addition, almost
sis to be understood. In' addition to While I S 0 measures direct light 1,500 full solar spectra were collected
surveying the natural atmosphere, I S 0 emissions from the atmosphere, and are being used to make a high-
gathered data o n the induced atmos- ATMOS measures elements illumi- resolution solar spectral atlas.
phere around the Shuttle. nated by sunlight. Based o n the ATMOS extended the altitude
Outstanding simultaneous spatial interferometer principle, ATMOS is ranges over which some 30 molecular
and spectral images were recorded of designed so that all incoming light species are known. At least five mole-
several bright emission bands of oxy- except that of the desired wavelength cules - dinitrogen pentoxide, chlorine
gen, nitrogen, and sodium at around cancels itself out. In 1 second, ATMOS nitrate, carbonyl fluoride, methyl chlo-
140
18000
130
120
12000
II 111 1 l l l l l l l l I l l I I
!!
110
100
90
80
70
6000 60
50
2250 40
w
0 30
0 08 3
t 20
0
2250 <
I-
10
z o 06 0
0
2250
v)
0 04
2 0
?
v) 2250
I E
s o 02
-I w
0
2250 3
Y
k
$ 0 00 3
rii Q
3 2250
+
z o 8
2250
0 6
INTENSITY (RALEIGHSIANGSTROMS)
74
ORtGlNAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
i
ride, and nitric acid - were found in expected, with many minor gases being the mesosphere fiom 50 kilometers
the stratosphere where their presence split by sunlight to start other chemical (30 miles) up, a h g h e r altitude than
only had been suspected. Measure- reactions. The distribution of many previously observed or expected.
ments of other known molecular compounds, particularly methane and Methane traces the vertical migration
species in the stratosphere were three water,"and of molecules in the polar of gases because it comes largely fiom
to four times more precise than previ- atmospheres difl'ered from prediction. biological decay and, to a lesser extent,
ous data. The Grille Spectrometer (Spacelab fossil fuel burning. The Grille also
The new data show all the nitrogen 1) was designed to observe the atmos- observed ozone, water vapor and
species at the same time so they can be phere's constituents from 1 5 to 150 nitrous oxide in the mesosphere, and
added to the family of nitrogen-oxygen kilometers (10 to 95 miles) altitude in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
compounds that figure prominently in the 2,500 to 10,000 nanometer in the thermosphere above 85 kilome-
much of atmospheric chemistry. (25,000 to 100,000 Angstrom) band. ters (55 miles).
Equally important, by not detecting Its name comes from a special grille While these instruments were
other gases, ATMOS effectively ruled used as a window for one leg of its designed to s u m y the entire makeup
them out as major actors in atmos- optical system and as a mirror for the of the atmosphere, the Measurement
pheric chemistry. Measurements of the other to overcome the limitations of of Air Pollution from Space ( M A P S )
mesosphere showed this layer of the many conventional instruments. instrument looked for just one compo-
atmosphere to be more active than The Grille discovered methane in nent, carbon monoxide. Its source,
75
~
surprisingly, is largely natural - the central Afi-ica. Data from the second
decay of organisms. But man’s indus- mission look equally precise.
trial contribution is believed to be
approaching nature’s output, and @m&S: The location of atmos-
“sinks” that absorb carbon monoxide pheric chemicals is not static but ever
are not well known. Using a small changing in ways not studied by
weather satellites. Two Spacelab instru-
ments were designed to observe
unique aspects of this motion, and a
third modeled stellar and planetary
atmospheres.
The upward migration of gases
through the atmosphere can be traced
with deuterium (heavy hydrogen). The
Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions
detector (ALAE, Spacelab l),in a
Average of 12 spectra manner similar to M A P S , used small
above 200 krn hydrogen gas cells as filters for the
slightly different wavelengths of
n Lyman-alpha, a “color” emitted by
.E. 1800
v)
hydrogen and deuterium. ALAE made
3 the first measurements of atomic
2 1600 deuterium in the atmosphere and saw
the auroras in the Northern and
i?
CI
Southern hemispheres. It also detected
1400
the glow of hydrogen atoms and free
a protons (hydrogen nuclei) colliding
*k 1200
W
’
W
I-
800
3814 381 6 3818 3820 3822 3824
WAVENUMBER (cm-1)
45N
30
15
Y
n EQ
3
=! 15
30
455
160Jv 120 80 40 GM 40 80 120
LONG I TUDE (degrees)
__ . -- .
25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115
CO. ppbv
ORIGINAL PAGE
76 COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
i 77
Sampling the Atmosphere
rippling fiom one atmospheric layer to latitude; therefore, the platforms will will provide a data base for a broad
the next. Continuous observation of be in polar orbits, allowing them to range of investigations from single
the entire atmosphere is needed to measure the detailed physics of the samples of atmospheric processes to
study with accuracy these dynamic atmosphere at different latitudes. long-term studies of diurnal, seasonal,
processes as they unfold. Continuous observations will allow and solar cyclic responses. Instruments
To achieve this goal, instruments atmospheric scientists to study how the can be programmed to operate at high
will be deployed o n platforms that can atmosphere responds to variations in data rates for collecting sets of meas-
be controlled from the Space Station the solar cycle and to solar stimuli. urements o n natural events, such as
or the ground. The Shuttle/Spacelab Campaigns to study the sun-Earth solar flares or the solar wind, as they
has carried large and complex instru- system can be coordinated with solar affect the atmosphere. They also can
ments into low-Earth orbit; these will and plasma physicists working at the operate in a “sentry” mode at low data
be used to design even more sophisti- Space Station. This teamwork will pro- rates to record temperature features
cated instruments for platforms. vide an understanding of the relation- and the subtle changes that trigger
As o n Spacelab missions, instru- ship between changes in the sun and major events.
ments attached to the platforms and the resulting changes in Earth’s Most instruments will be attached
the Space Station will use remote sens- atmosphere. to the polar platform operated from
ing techniques to detect atmospheric Several types of instruments are the ground, but some can be attached
phenomena. Middle and upper atrnos- needed to study the interactive atmos- to the Space Station. The Space Station
pheric interactions vary greatly with phere. Observatory class instruments will be important for calibrating “sensi-
78
tive instruments. This is especially
needed for instruments measuring solar
output because they must be very accu- OSTA-1BTS-2 Measurement of Air Pollution from Space (MAPS)
rate. The Space Station crew will be OSTA-3/41-6 . H.G. Reichle, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
needed to check out new instruments NighVDay Optical Survey of Lightning (NOSL)
and repair and refurbish existing ones. B. Vonnegut, State University of New York, Albany, New York
The next step beyond Space Station
aPs-l/STs-3 Solar Ultraviolet Spectral lrradiance Monitor (SUSIM)
will be to deploy a platform in a higher
Spacelab -1 -F G.E. Brueckner, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, 0.C.
orbit; this will enable the atmosphere to
be studied simultaneously and Spacelab 1/STs-9 Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR)
continuously. While low-Earth orbit R. C. Wiilson, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
platforms provide greater coverage, it is Grille Spectrometer
only by getting higher above Earth that M. Ackerman, Space Aeronomy Institute, Brussels, Belgium
the whole atmosphere can be viewed at Imaging Spectrometric Observatory, (ISO)
once. From higher orbits, scientists will M. R. Torr, NASA Marshall Space Flight Centec Huntsville, Alabama
be able to investigate the effects of sud- Investigation of Atmospheric Hydrogen and Deuterium through
den changes such as magnetic storms or Measurement of Lyman-Alpha Emission (ALAE)
solar flares quickly and globally. I t will J. L. Bertaux, National Center for Scientific Research, Paris, France
be possible to make global maps o f Solar Constant (Solcon)
constituents such as ozone and measure D. Crommelynck, Royal Meteorological Institute, Brussels, Belgium
atmospheric features at all latitudes
Solar Spectrum (SolSpec)
simultaneously.
G. Thuillier, National Center for Scientific Research, Paris, France
To add to the catalogue of existing
data and prepare for future operations, Waves in the OH Emissive Layer
M. Herse, National Center for Scientific Research, Paris, France
more flights of the Shuttle/Spacelab are
planned. The Atmospheric Laboratory Spacelab 3/51-B Atmospheric Trace Molecules Spectroscopy (ATMOS)
for Applications and Science (ATLAS) C.B. Farmer, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
will be a comprehensive environmental Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC)
observatory built around instruments J. E, Hart, University of Colorado, Boulder, Coiorado
from Spacelabs 1,2, and 3: the Space
Experiments with Particle Accelerators *Reflighf
(SEPAC), the Atmospheric Emissions
Photometric Imager (AEPI), the Imag-
ing Spectrometric Observatory (ISO),
the Atmospheric Trace Molecules
Spectroscopy (ATMOS), and the solar
constant and solar ultraviolet monitors.
New instruments planned for the
ATLAS series include a backscatter in-
strument to measure that portion of the
sun’s ultraviolet output which is re-
flected back into space and a scanning
microwave radiometer to monitor rain-
fall locations and intensities from space.
This series of missions will measure
changes in solar energy output and the
distribution of key molecular species in
the middle atmosphere. These investiga-
tions will reveal new areas of study to be
probed as operations are expanded for
continuous, global coverage.
79
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
ir t
ORIGINAL PAGE
Chapter 7 COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Surveying
Our Planet:
Observations
i 81
Sutveying Our Planet
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
The planetary perspective from the identification of minerals, vegeta- by the international scientific commu-
space reveals modern changes: depleted tion studies, acid rain monitoring, nity. Photographs and data from space
mineral and energy resources, cut for- geological surveys, and oceanographic are returned to Earth, processed, and
ests, spills of oil and chemicals into the investigations. These techniques quickly distributed to investigators
oceans, networks of roads and canals, include photography, radar, and spec- around the world. Data from several
and sprawling cities. There is clear troscopy. Often, data obtained by recent Shuttle missions are alreadv
evidence that we can alter our habitat different techniques and instruments being shared by investigators from
significantly within a few human are complementary, leading to a better every continent. This spirit of coopera-
generations. understanding of the feature being tion and purpose is essential for under-
Aboard the Shuttle, various remote observed. standing and protecting our common
sensing techniques have. been used for However, it is not enough simply to homeland, the planet Earth.
mapping and other purposes such as observe; the information must be used
82
Surveying Our Planet
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
84
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
85
Surveying Our Planet
GE
RAPH
were photographcd in one of the lcast tinics bigger and was mounted outside
known regions of the Sahara Desert. on 3 Spacelab pallet. The camera pro-
Photographs of the Strait of Gibraltar duced photographs that were 22.9 by
show the geological and morphological 45.7 centimeters (9 by 18 inches),
evidence of a former land connection covering an area of approximately 180
between Africa and Europe. Irrigation by 362 kilometers (11 2 by 225 miles).
and cultivation structures on famms in This camera also took one photo after
the Nile River Valley can be identified another with 20 to 80 percent overlap
clearly. s o that the images could be compared.
The Large Format Camera flown on The average spatial resolution of the
the OSTA-3 mission operated similarly photographs was 10 to 15 meters (32
i:.
;:*E :.:CBiC t3fii@iii7Ctll?h9fPgfZ~!? to the Metric Camera but was four to 50 feet), good enough to produce
{M@f/&&. iS@i;llEd f,g"ons,
smb as the !hm rsf AMca.
86
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
maps a t scales of 1:50,000. The resolu- York and Europe can be seen.
tion is slightly better than the Metric Some 2,300 exposures were made
Camera’s because a state-of-the-art during 73 Earth viewing passes. As
lens, higher resolution film, and a mo- with the Metric Camera, black-and-
tion compensation svsteni were used white negatives, color transparencies,
and because the camera was exposed and color infrared film were used.
directly to space instead of taking Some new high-resolution films were
photographs through a windo\v. The tested and proved to be very effective.
resolution was good enough to detect The mission was supported by 245
buildings, houses, and streets but not investigators \vho analyzed data for use
automobiles. In one image, contrails in various fields; most of them were
left by planes traveling between New from agencies other than NASA &a% and majm hidoZng.2 are rmfi!y
evi&& i~ f 8 b ~r~~~~~~~ Bsr@ F5m31
Surveying Our Planet
\NAC PAG
PHOTOGR.APH
E m I#cam b F:IL
e f-nsrrn3t &m%2 rl?-iBges.
wib sqmm irrbome&?rs including the National Oceanic and images are being used to update
(S$,SW S@B!% M k j & T@&E~,i@$i%&'~, f~fsi'f?!~ Atmospheric Administration, the Australian maps.
Sjn& i a r d m , 6aera'i &w&ii~,
and h h g . Departments of Energy and Defense, The Large Format Camera images
the Corps of Engineers, and the U.S. are being used for a variety of other
Geological Survey. Teams worked at projects. Updated topography maps
500 field sites during the mission, col- are being made of a national forest in
lecting on-site data to confirm or com- Maine, and land surveys are being
plement photographic information. made of Wyoming and South Dakota.
High-resolution photographs were Fossil fuel deposits have been located
taken in the United States, and build- in the Middle East, and possible water
ings, streets, and land use patterns sources have been identified in South-
were clearly visible. Land types around ern Egypt and Ethiopia. By enlarging
the world were photographed, includ- the images, scientists also may have
ing the hghest point - Mount Everest found some previously undetected
in the Himalayas (29,000 feet above impact craters. The images revealed the
sea level) - and one of the lowest - the first proof that blocks of land in China
Dead Sea area in the Holy Land (1,300 are being forced into the Pacific Ocean
feet below sea level). The structure of along the Kunlan fault; geologists have
the Great Barrier Reef could be dis- sent two expeditions to China to inves-
cerned from photographs of the East tigate the evidence in the images.
Coast of Australia; these and other
88
ORIGINAL PAGE
R PHOTOGRAPH
89
ng Through the Clouds, recorded, and returned to Earth where
g ~ ~ a ~ i and
u n ,Surface: ~ t ~ d 15a r they arc processed to produce images.
another usehil tcchniquc for high- SIR-A, the first flight of the Shuttle
resolution mapping. Unlike photogra- Imaging Radar, was v e y successful,
phy, radar beams can pierce cloud acquiring radar images of approsi-
cover and penetrate dense vegetation inatcly 26 million square kilometers
covering inaccessible tropical regions (10 million square miles), with a reso-
Some interesting discoveries h a c been lution of40 meters (131 feet). The
made using the Shuttle Imaging Ridar long niicro\vaves were able to pene-
(SIR) flown aboard the OSTA 1 and trntc diy sand dunes in the Sahara Des-
OSTA-3 I ~ i ~ S s 1 0 1 i ~ cit and image a vanished river system
As the radar is carried along the and valleys buried under tlie sand.
flight path ofthc Shuttle, I t fimctions Sincc the Shuttle radar uncovered the
as a greatly elongated ‘intenna. The remnants of the river, sites of oases
antenna radiate5 pulses of microwave have been discovered, and Stone Age
energy \I hich are reflected bv target artifacts xisociated with river deposits
areas. The ch,irxteri\tics of the suggest that these valleys may have
reflected pulse\ v m according to the been sites of early human occupation.
surface tcLturc (morphologv) and tvpe The cliy river beds have been used as
For e u m p l e , sand \\ 111 alter tlie r a d x indicators of\vater flow in tlie area;
sigiiCildiffercntlv than rock o r vegeta n d l s ha\^ been drilled and several are
tion The rcyx)nwj ~ r digitized,
c producing
90
a
ORIGINAL PAGE
i
I
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
The success of the fir& flight con- adjacent areas imaged over several days.
firmed that radar could be used from Even though there were some tele-
iI
i
t
i
1
91
i
Surveying Our Planet
ORlGlNAL PA
LOR PHOTOGRAPH
92
ORIGINAL
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
93
Surveying Our Planet
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Locating Minerals and Studying short wavelengths, but because many graphed by a 16-mm camera so that
the OCeanS; Although photography minerals reflect at longer wavelengths, mineral spectra can be matched with
and radar are able to reveal surface geo- they might be seen by a differently locations. During the second Shuttle
logical features, they are not useful for tuned instrument. The Shuttle Multi- flight, 400,000 spectra were obtained
identifying specific minerals. The spectral Infrared Radiometer records over the eastern United States, Mexico,
Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiome- spectra in 10 channels between 0.5 and southern Europe, North Africa, the
ter demonstrated that this can be done 2.4 microns at a spatial resolution of Middle East, and China.
by another technique - spectroscopy. 100 meters (328 feet). In particular, In the laboratory before the flight,
Minerals o n Earth reflect light at spe- investigators are interested in identify- the instrument was calibrated by ob-
cific wavelengths or spectral lines that ing carbonate and hydroxl- bearing taining spectra of pure minerals. For
can be identified with a spectrometer. minerals, such as clays, which radiate verification, the spectral data taken in
This experiment was inspired by the brightly in the 2.0 t o 2.4 micron spec- orbit were compared with laboratory
use of Landsat data to identify limonite, tral range. spectra and with the spectra of minerals
a major iron ore. The Landsat satellite As the instrument makes measure- collected at the observation sites. The
has four broad spectral channels at ments, the ground track is photo- next steps in the evolution of this
instrument are to increase spectral
resolution for enhanced ability to iden-
tify specific minerals and to eliminate
spectral absorption by vegetation
which confounds the mineral spectra.
Interesting mineral signatures were
identified in the Baja region of Mexico.
A large hydrothermally altered area was
identified in Mexico for the first time;
the rock in this area is associated with
many types of ore deposits and con-
tains minerals having intense, distinc-
tive spectral signatures. The minerals
identified were clays (p'yophyllite,
dickite, diaspore, kaolinine, and
K-mica) along with molybdenum,
boron, tin, zirconium, and silver. Field
trips to the area after the mission con-
firmed that this was a thermally altered
terrain containing many of the minerals
identified by space spectroscopy.
The ocean also reveals its biological
contents and circulation patterns by
the reflectance properties of its various
components. The OSTA-1 Ocean
Color Experiment employed an eight-
channel multispectral imaging sensor
to measure solar radiation reflected d
from ocean surfaces at wavelengths of
0.4 to 0.8 microns. The instrument
was designed to detect variations in the
pigmentation of ocean surface waters.
The color varies in relationship to the
presence of chlorophyll in phytoplank-
ton algae.
94
The ocean images were digitized
and enhanced by computer to empha-
size patterns of chlorophyll distribution
and, in one case, to show bottom
topography. The chlorophyll pattern in
the Yellow Sea between China and
Korea was evident in one scene, and
the efects of the discharge of rivers
into the sea were observed.
As patches of plankton were carried
in the ocean currents, reflectivity
changes were observed over the Strait
of Gibraltar during successive Shuttle
passes. These were used to estimate the
direction and velocity of surface cur-
rents near the entrance to the Mediter-
ranean.
The variability in water depth over
the Grand Bahama Bank was estimated
using the blue-green channel of the
instrument. The area is characterized
by its scarcity of planktonic marine life,
and the blue-green components of
visible light that arc: iisually absorbed
by chlorophyll penetrated the water
and were reflected from the bottom.
Using the return signal, investigators
estimated water depths ranging from a
few meters to tens of meters.
The Ocean Color Experiment deni-
onstrated the feasibility of mapping
chlorophyll concentration in the open
ocean. This capability could be used t o
monitor global changes in phytoplank-
ton abundanccs from space. Phyto-
plankton are a key building block at
the base of Earth's food chain, and
information on their distribution and
total abundance could be important to
long-term studies of global ecology.
95
Surveying Our Planet
PAGE
QGRAPH
96
tists. Some scientists need close-up
views of local areas, others need a view
of the Earth’s entire surface, and still
others need to view the atmosphere. OSTA-1IsTS-2 Feature Identification and Location Experiment (FILE)
R. T. Schappell, Martin-Marietta, Denver, Colorado
To meet these requirements, an Earth ~ ~~
ous cyclic conditions. OSTA-W41-6 Feature Identification and Location Experjment (FILE)*
Other instruments may be attached W.E. Sivertson, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
to the Space Station, which is at a
lower altitude and inclination and Large Format Camera
offers better close-up views of tropical B. H. Mollberg, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas
forests and other areas. The Space
Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-B)
Station also will be essential for assem-
C. Elachi, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
bling, testing, and deploying instru-
ments to higher orbits as well as for * Reflight
servicing, repairing, and upgrading
instruments.
The EOS will be coupled to ad- Camera may be carried as a comple- To solve some of the problems in a
vanced information systems to ensure ment to provide visible light imagery modem, rapidly changing world, Earth
that data are collected, distributed, of the world and to improve global must be studied as an integrated sys-
analyzed, and archived for use by the cartography. The ability of the Shuttle tem. This requires an interdisciplinary
science community. In the meantime, Imaging Spectrometer Experiment approach, with life scientists, atmos-
the Shuttle/Spacelab must still be used (SISEX) to provide images of the pheric scientists, geologists, and inves-
to develop the instruments and test the Earth in 128 spectral bands at once tigators from many other fields
technologies for Earth observations. will be tested on the Shuttle before it working together. This united effort
The Shuttle also is valuable as a testbed becomes a part of the next generation can only be accomplished in space
for information systems and for devel- of Earth-monitoring satellites. where we see the Earth as a whole.
oping procedures for remotely oper-
ated instruments.
The Shuttle will remain in service as
a platform for Earth observations.
Evolving from the Shuttle Imaging
Radar on OSTA-1 and OSTA-3, the
Shuttle Imaging Radar-C will gather
even more information by using several
frequencies and polarizations to map
the entire globe. The Large Format
97
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no
100
ORIGINAL PA
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and a long time to “catch” enough VkWS: The most successfd One of the most rewarding aspects
cosmic ray particles to draw conclu- astronomical observations from the of these missions was the direct opera-
sions about their energy and mass. Shuttle to date have been made with tion of the telescopes by scientists o n
Identification of the particles and X-ray telescopes. These novel instru- the ground at the Payload Operations
measurement of their energies pose ments carried o n the Spacelab 1 and 2 Control Center. The scientists issued
major technical challenges. missions performed essentially flaw- instrument commands, received data,
The Spacelab 2 detector was lessly and during many hours of and engaged in preliminary data analy-
designed t o study cosmic rays with operation collected many high-quality sis throughout the missions. T h s
energies almost 100 times greater than images as well as spectral data. For the immediacy of instrument control and
those previously studied. During the most part, the instruments were used data collection is a new experience
mission, it recorded some 40 million for detailed examination of known offered by the Shuttle/Spacelab system
events at a rate of 70 per second. Only X-ray sources of various types - and is well suited to astronomical
one-tenth of 1 percent of the data, supernova remnants, galaxy clusters, observations.
however, represents the rare ultra- quasars - rather than for search and Among the most interesting
high-energy cosmic rays. The large but discovery surveys. Scientists are pleased Spacelab 2 results to date are the dis-
delicate apparatus operated very well; with the new information. covery of a remarkably high-energy
analysis of the particle tracks through
the detector is providing a mass of data
about cosmic ray trajectories, charge
states, and energies. This information is
revealing the composition and origin
of high-energy particles from other
parts of the universe.
Much smaller detectors flown o n
other missions have had comparable
success in recording lower energy par-
ticles. The highly sensitive Spacelab 3
Ions instrument detected about
20,000 cosmic ray events; the particle
tracks will be painstalungly analyzed to
extract information about trajectories,
arrival times, and charge states. A
detector o n STS-3 recorded several
high-speed impacts of cosmic dust
particles in an investigation of the par-
ticle population in the spacecraft
environment.
The value of the Shuttle/Spacelab
system for these investigations is that ~ c ~ori %E ~ ~~ j i~0 ~~ 5s ~ ~ ~~
~ purirl ~ e~ 0~ ~ s
large detectors can be flown and and controollerb the opewtion af the X-mq
returned for analysis after a sufficiently blescape.
long collecting period. From tell-tale
tracks in the detector materials, scien-
tists are gaining new insight into the
enigmatic particles that race through
space at almost the speed of light,
bringing information about the violent
events that produced them and the
interstellar fields through which they
have traveled.
a
Charting the Universe
X-ray source near the center of our gal- dmensional images in high-energy Camera (VWFC, Spacelabs 1 and 3).
axy; discovely of a hard, extended com- X-rays. X-ray astronomy is still a rela- However, due to technical difficulties
ponent in the emission around the tively young discipline, but the with these ultraviolet instruments, the
galactic center; and mapping of the advances in instrument sensitivity and results to date are less revealing than
Perseus cluster of galaxies four times sophstication demonstrated o n Shuttle anticipated.
further out radially than was previously flights are accelerating its progress. The FAUST instrument, designed
possible, along with observations of to observe broad, faint sources in the
changes in its spectrum at different U/ffmh/efk W : The Shuttle also 150 to 200 nanometer portion of the
positions, also observed by a Spacelab 1 appears t o be a suitable platform for spectrum (far ultraviolet), operated
instrument. The dual X-ray telescope ultraviolet telescopes, such as the Far properly, but when the photographic
flown on Spacelab 2 used a new tech- Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST, film was retrieved after the mission,
nique to yield the first true two- Spacelab 1) and the Very Wide Field investigators were disappointed to find
102
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
it overexposed. Only a few usable modified the instrument to record The electronic system has other
images were obtained, among them photons electronically as they arrive advantages: it is easier to calibrate than
the first far ultraviolet image of the rather than record them o n film as the film system, and data are in a form
complete Cygnus Loop supernova time exposures. This electronic detec- that can be analyzed immediately by
remnant. The intense background that tor will be able to analyze the cause of computer. No data will be lost because
contaminated the film was determined the film fogging that compromised of contamination, since high radiation
to be non-astronomical, most likely Spacelab 1 observations. Understand- backgrounds can be separated. Calibra-
caused by glowing arcs of atomic oxy- ing the causes of background interfer- tion tests indicate that in 10 minutes
gen that encircle Earth at tropical ence - whether they are natural or the new FAUST can detect a 20th
latitudes. induced by the Shuttle - is important magnitude star and at longer exposure
To avoid this problem b n future because future space telescopes will be times will be able to detect diffuse
reflights, investigators have already viewing under similar conditions. sources as faint as 27th magnitude, the
I03
Chatting the Universe
105
Charting the Universe
Isotope Stack
R. Beaujean, Kiel University, Germany
~ ~ ~
Spartan 1b1-6 X-Ray Imaging of the Galactic Center & Extended Sources
G. Fritz, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C
-*&-<**^_” - * ~ w . P - ~ - # , _ i * P v ~ ~ -I*- r r - p -
107
ter
Techno
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Testing New Technology
ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
The thermal canister experiment tectors that must be maintained at All spacecraft alter the space envi-
(OSS-1) demonstrated heat pipes that extremely low temperatures for best ronment by their presence. Gases and
control temperature by boiling and performance; effective new cryogenic particles escape from the spacecraft
condensing ammonia within a closed systems are required for more than one material, and various kinds of exhaust
circuit. These worked better in space space telescope now under considera- and waste are released by the velucle’s
than in ground tests, and a similar tion. This experiment examined tem- power and propulsion systems. These
device was approved for use on the perature variations and slosh patterns contaminants may compromise data
electronics module of the Astro astron- in the container for information rele- collection and instrument performance.
omy payload. vant to the design of superfluid helium To understand the Space Shuttle’s
The Superfluid Helium Experiment dewars and also evaluated the tempera- effects, an Induced Environment Con-
(Spacelab 2 ) was significant’for fluid ture control system. Early results indi- tamination Monitor (IECM) was flown
physics (understanding the properties cate that superfluid helium can be on three of the early orbital flight tests
of this peculiar substance) and also for managed efficiently in space with the and o n Spacelab 1; smaller contamina-
technology (evaluating its behavior in porous plug cryostat; data from this tion experiments have been carried out
microgravity and demonstrating a cool- investigation will influence not only by instruments o n these and other
ing system and containment vessel). the science of fluid physics but also the missions. The Shuttle orbiter’s impact
The coldest liquid known, superfluid design of new instruments for research o n the environment was found to be
helium is a promising cryogen for de- in space. within expectations o r controllable, for
example, by installing a new payload
bay liner to eliminate a dust problem.
Two phenomena were discovered
(without the I E C M ) that are common
to all spacecraft and weaken markedly
with greater altitude. One is Shuttle
glow, a dim, diffuse glow that is
strongest in the visible red and near-
infrared parts of the spectrum. This
was detected during low-light photog-
raphy of a plasma physics experiment
o n STS-3 and raised concern that it
might interfere with scientific observa-
tions. It was also studied by the Infra-
red Telescope o n Spacelab 2, which
viewed the region near the Plasma
Diagnostics Package while it was being
exposed to oncoming plasma around
the Shuttle. Its cause is still being
investigated, but Atmospheric Explorer
data indicate that the glow is not
unique to the Shuttle.
The other discovery is that atomic
oxygen, freed when sunlight splits
oxygen molecules, recombines with
some spacecraft coatings. This was first
noticed o n television camera coverings
after STS-3. A similar effect had been
seen on Skylab's sunshade after half a
year of exposure, but since n o samples
were returned for analysis, the cause
was only hypothesized..
The research agenda for the near
future includes further tests of cryo- OSTA-1BTS-2 Induced Environment Contamination Monitor*
genic systems and assembly of large OSS-1/sTS-3 E. Miller, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
STS-4 Huntsville, Alabama
structures, elements that are crucial to
Spacelab 1BTS-9
the Space Station and large orbital
observatories. Although the goal of OSS-1BTS-3 Characteristics of Shuttle/Spacelab Induced Atmosphere
J. L. Weinberg, University of Florida
technology experiments in space is to Gainesville, Florida
resolve engineering issues, their poten-
Contamination Monitor
tial scientific benefit cannot be
J.J. Triolo, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
ignored. Improved understanding of Greenbelt, Maryland
the behavior of materials or the per-
Thermal Canister Experiment
formance of new technology in micro- S. Ollendorf, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
gravity may be applied to the design of Greenbelt, Maryland
advanced scientific instruments. Tech-
Spacelab 1BTS-9 Bearing Lubricant Wetting, Spreading & Characteristics
nological breakthroughs usually lead to C.H.T. Pan, Columbia University, New York, New York
scientific progress as well. . A. Whitaker, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
: Huntsville, Alabama
OAST-1/418 Solar Array Flight Experiment
L. E. Young, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
Solar Cell Calibration FaciliQ
R.G. Downing, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Pasadena, California
&TA-3/41-8 Orbital Refueling System Experiment
W. Huffstetler, NASA Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Spacelab 2/51-F Properties of Superfluid Helium in Zero-Gravity
P.L. Mason, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Pasadena, California
"-81B1 -c Particle Analysis Camera, Capillary Pump Loop,
and Mirror Contamination
T. Goldsmith, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, Maryland
61-B Assembly Concept for Construction of
Erectable Space Structure (ACCESS)
W.L. Heard, Jr., NASA Langley Research Center
Hamoton. Virainia
-~~ _ _ ~
Experimental Assembly of Structures in EVA (EASE)
Fhe Bnduce@Brironmenf ~ a ~ ~ ~ m i n a ~ i u n D.L. Akin, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
chsacferized the S h l t I e envifamenl during
spaceflight; resultant data nsay affect experiment
Cambridge, Massachusetts
q__- I -
designs.
ORlG t NAL PAGE
LOR PHOTOGRAPH 111
I12
ORlGfNAL PAGE
-Chapter 10 COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
I13
' '1
provided not only the opportunity for Rarely is a theory confirmed or re-
immediate science but also the testbed jected by a single observation or ex-
for instruments and research concepts periment; rather, theories and models
to be incorporated in the Space Station are successively refined through a
several years hence. course of investigations. The Shuttle
Some Spacelab investigations will and Spacelab make such a series of
lead t o more intense investigations for investigations possible through re-
longer periods aboard the Space peated reflights and evolution of the
Station. Although the scientific payload instruments or techniques. Thus, if a
complement is not yet selected, it is first flight is not as successful as hoped
expected that Spacelab experiment o r if the outcome is different than
facilities will be adapted to the Space expected, scientists have the opportu-
Station o r serve as models for new nity to try again o r reverify unusual
apparatus. The laboratory module, for results. This ability to build o n experi-
example, may include materials and life ence and improve investigations is
science facilities first flown aboard directly analogous to the incremental
Spacelab. The Spacelab solar and progress of science in laboratories and
astronomical telescopes may form a observatories on the ground.
core observatory that can be mounted With Spacelab, we are extending our
P on the Space Station or a co-orbiting knowledge in the space sciences and
platform. Instruments that scan the learning the best ways to formulate
Earth's surface and atmosphere will be investigations. Continued Shuttle mis-
combined to form the Earth Obsewa- sions spanning the development of the
tion System (EOS), mounted on Space Station, and even complement-
unmanned platforms in polar orbits, to ing the Station as it matures, will assure
make detailed observations based on the nation of a vigorous space-science
the results from Spacelab missions. program as we move into the next
Plasma physics instruments and the century.
Tethered Satellite System will form the Curiosity led us into space and
nucleus of a Solar-Terrestrial Observa- continues to be the impetus for space
tory manned module and polar plat- science. The Shuttle and Spacelab are
form to define how the sun and space well suited to satisfjl the urge for dis-
affect our environment. covery and knowledge.
Acknowled_rrments
Authors and Editors: Valerie Neal, Tracy McMahan, and Dave Dooling, all of Essex Corporation
... . - .. .-..._________.. _._______~.____ ~..____ ... ...... ......
Graphic Designer:___
Brien O’Brien
.. ________. - ____ _____ ~ _ _ _
... ~~
1
! ProductionAssistants: Jo Ann Jones, Elaine McGarry, Katherine Reynolds, and Margaret Shirley,
. ___ ____ all of Essex Corporation .... __-
Editoria/ Board: H.G. Craft, Spacelab 1 Mission Manager, Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)
C.R. Chappell, Spacelab 1 Mission Scientist, MSFC
R.C. Lester, Spacelab 2 Mission Manager, Kennedy Space Center
E,W. Urban, Spacelab 2 Mission Scientist, MSFC
J.W. Cremin, Spacelab 3 Mission Manager, MSFC
G.H. Fichtl, Spacelab 3 Mission Scientist, NASA
___..
Headquarters _ ~ . ._. .
~ _ _ _ _ _ ____ . . ~ ........
Review Board: L.W. Acton, Spacelab 2 Payload Specialist, Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory
R.J. Arnold, Deputy Director, Earth Science and Applications Division, NASA Headquarters
J.D.F. Bartoe, Spacelab 2 Payload Specialist, NASA Headquarters
R.H. Benson, Director, Shuttle Payloads Engineering Division, NASA Headquarters
R.K. Crouch, Chief Scientist, Microgravity Science Division, NASA Headquarters
D.B. Drachlis, Media Services, MSFC
O.K. Garriott, Spacelab 1 Mission Specialist, Teledyne Brown Engineering
M.L. Lampton, Spacelab 1 Payload Specialist, University of California
B.K. Lichtenberg, Spacelab 1 Payload Specialist, Payload Services, Inc.
R.O.McBrayer, Payload Projects Office, MSFC
D. Mesland, European Space Agency
R.B. Monson, Earth Science and Applications Division, NASA Headquarters
R.J. Naumann, Director, Microgravity Science and Applications Division, NASA Headquarters
A.E. Nicogossian, Director, Life Sciences Division, NASA Headquarters
S.D. Shawhan, Chief, Space Plasma Physics, Earth Science and Applications Division, NASA Headquarters
G.W. Simon, Spacelab 2 Payload Specialist, National Solar Observatory
J.B. Taylor, Director, Public Affairs Office, MSFC
M.R. Torr, Chief, Solar-Terrestrial Physics Division, Space Science Laboratory, MSFC
I
117 I
i
!
jI Photograph & Illustration Credits
,OUP flow models. T Tarbell, huttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-E) image of Mt. Shasta.
Many of the photographs in this report were provided by Lockheed Solar Observatory, Palo Alto, CA - p 49 C. Elachi, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
NASA photographic libraries; special contributions were IRTS spectra. K Dere, Pasadena, CA - p. 83
made by Chieko lnman of the NASA Marshall Space Flight Naval Research Laboratory,Washington. D C - p 49-50 letric Camera (MC) image of the Nile River Valley.
Center, Mike Gentry of the NASA Johnson Space Center, and :oronal Helium Abundance Spacelab G. Todd, DNLR, Cologne, Germany - p. 84
Jurrie van der Woude and Annie Richardson of the NASA Jet [xperiment (CHASE) spectra. J Parkinson, IC image of Munich, Germany. G. Todd,
Propulsion Laboratory. University College, London, United Kingdom - p 50 DNLR, Cologne, Germany - p. 85
1C image of the Strait of Hormur. G. Todd,
Cover - :hapter 5 - OFVLR, Cologne, Germany - p. 85
IC image of Africa. G. Todd,
Atmospheric airglow image. M. Ackerman, UsingSpace as a Laboratory: Space Plasma Physics DFVLR. Cologne, Germany - p. 86
Space Aeronomy Institute, Brussels, Belgium Plasma beams in ground chamber test. W.J. Raitt. .FC image of Mobile, Alabama. B.H. Mollberg,
Utah State University, Logan, UT - p. 56 NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX - p. 87
Chapter 1 - Fast Pulse Electron Gun generating plasma beam i n space. .FC image of Middle East. B.H. Moilberg,
Science on the Shuttle and Spacelab W.J. Raitt, Utah State University, Logan, UT - p. 56 NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX - p. 88
Spacelab 2 concept. Space Experiments with Patiicie Accelerators data. .FC images 01 China. B.H. Mollberg.
R Womack. artist, Oecatur, AL - p. 5 T. Obayashi, institute of Space and Astronomical Sciences NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX - p. 89
Tokyo, Japan - p. 57 ilR-A image 01 Egypt. C. Elachi.
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA - p. 91
Chapter 2 - Testing Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP)
i n plasma chamber. G. Murphy. ilR-B image of Bangladesh. C. Elachi.
living and Working in Space: life Sciences University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA - p. 59 NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA - p. 92
Mung beans. J.R. Cowies. University of Houston, TX - p. 8 PDP Spectrogram. G. Murphy, SIR-B image of Hawaii. C. Elachi,
Computer model of calmodulin molecule. C.E. Bugg, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA - p. 59 NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA - p. 92
University of Alabama in Birmingham, AL - p. 8 Shuttle as a comet diagram. G. Murphy. SIR-B image of Florida. C. Elachi,
Red blood cells. C.S Leach, University of Iowa. Iowa City, IA - p. 60 NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA - p. 93
NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX - p. 11 POP Spectrograms. N. Stone, SIR-B image of France and Germany. C. Elachi,
White blood cells. A. Cogoli, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL - p. 61 NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena. CA- p. 93
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Millstone Hili airglow data. M. Mendillo. Ocean color experiment data. H.H. Kim.
Zurich, Switzerland - p. 11 Boston University, Boston, MA - p. 62 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD - p. 94
Spacelab D1 sled. S. Modestino. Millstone Hill radar eiectmn density. M. Mendillo, Feature Identification and Location Experiment data.
Massachusetts institute of Technology Boston University, Boston, MA - p. 62 WE. Sivertson,
Cambridge, MA- p. 14 Magnesium emissions. S.B. Mende. NASA Langley Research Center Hampton. VA- p. 95
European Space Agency Biorack. D. Mesland, Lockheed Solar Observatory, Palo Alto, CA - p. 64
European Space Research and Technology Center Red aurora. T. Hallinan,
Noordwilk, The Netherlands- p. 16
Neurospora cultures. F.M. Sulzman,
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK - p. 65
Enhanced aurora. T. Hailinan,
Chapter 8 -
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK - p. 66
Charting the Universe: Astronomy and Astrophysics
NASA Headquarters,Washington, O.C. - p 18
Pine seedlings. J.R. Cowles, Tethered Satellite System concept. D. Johnston. ions data. S. Biswas,
University of Houston, TX - p. 18 artist. Huntsville, AL - p. 68 Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
lentil roots. G. Perbal. University of Paris, France - p- 19 Bombay, India - p. 100
Computer model of purine nucleoside phosphorylase. Overview of X-ray telescope data. A.P. Willmore,
CE Bugg,
Chapter 6 - University of Birmingham, United Kingdom - p. 102
University of Alabama in Birmingham, AL - p. 22 Sampling the Atmosphere: Atmospheric Science Cluster of galaxies in Virgo.
Concept of atmospheric layers. 0. Parker, artist, National Optical Astronomy Observatories
Chapter 3 - London, England - p. 71 Tucson, A2 - p, 102
X-ray image of Perseus cluster. A.P. Willmore,
Studying Materials and Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor
(SUSIM) spectrum. University of Birmingham, United Kingdom - p. 102
Processes in Microgravity: Materials Science X-ray images of the galactic center. G. Skinner,
M VanHoosier. Naval Research Laboratory
Monodisperse latex spheres. D. Kornfeld, Washington, O.C. - p. 72 University of Birmingham. United Kingdom - p. 103
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville. AL - p. 28 SUSIM and Solspec data. M. VanHoosier, X-ray spectrum of Cygnus X-3. R.O. Andresen,
Fluid Experiment System images. W. Witherow, Naval Research Laboratory. Washington, D.C. - p. 72 European Space Research and Technology Center
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center Imaging Spectrometric Observatory spectra. M.R. Torr. Noordwijk. The Netherlands- p. 103
Huntsville, AL - p. 30-31 NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL - p. 74 Ultraviolet image of the Cygnus loop. C.S. Bowyer,
Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC) convection patterns. Atmospheric Trace Molecules Spectroscopy University of California, Berkeley, CA - p. 103
F.W. Leslie. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (ATMOS) constituents. C.B. Farmer, Ultraviolet image of the large Magellanic Cloud.
Huntsville, AL - p. 35 NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory R. Decker,
Computer plots of GFFC flows. J.E. Hart. Pasadena, CA - p 74 NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville. AL - p. 104
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO - p. 35 ATMOS Spectra. C.B. Farmer, Infrared images of the galactic center. G.G. Fazio,
Lysozyme crystals. W. Littke, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA - p. 75 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
University of Freiberg. Germany - p. 37 Grille Spectrometer methane spectrum. M. Ackerman. Cambridge, MA- p. 106
Computer model of ubiquitin. C.E. Bugg. Space Aeronomy Institute. Brussels, Belgium - p. 75 Astro concept. R. van Nostrand, artist,
University of Alabama in Birmingham. AL - p. 37 Grille Spectrometer water spectra. M. Ackerman. Huntsville, AL - p. 107
Space Station concept. The Boeing Company, Space Aeronomy Institute. Brussels Belgium - p. 76
Huntsville. AL - p. 39 Measurement 01 Air Pollution lrom Space. H.G. Reichle.
NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton. VA - p. 76 Chanter 9 -
Chanter 4 - Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell images. F Leslie, Tekng New Technology
Obsknring the Sun: Solar Physics NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville. AL - p. 77 EASE Assembly. G Bonish,
High Resolution Telescope and Spectrograph (HRTS) ATLAS concept. T. Buzbee. artist, lmax Systems Corporation, Ontario, Canada - p. 108
hybrogen-alpha image. K Dere. Huntsville, AL - p 78
Naval Research Laboratory. Washington, 0 C - p. 47
Soiar Optical Universal Polarimeter (SOUP) i Chapter 7- Chapter 10 -
sunspot image. T. Tarbell. , Surveying our Planet: Earth Observations Future Research aboard the Shuttle/Spacelab
Lockheed Solar Observatory, Palo Alto, CA - p. 47
SOUP image of exploding solar granules. T. Tarbell, Large Format Camera (LFC) image Soace Station concept. W Farr, artist.
- ~,
P lLME 121
F High Temperature Thermostat ......................................... 42 M
Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST) ........102.104. 107 high-energy particles .................................... 20-21. 52, 101 ............................... 58-60, 63-65
Feature Identification and Location Experiment High-Precision Thermostat .............................................. 42 .................................... 59, 66, 79
(FILE) ..................................................................... 95-97 Himalayas ......................................................................... 88 Magnetometer .................................................................. 69
Floating Zone Growth of Silicon ...................... 30.31. 41. 42 Holographic Interferometric Apparatus ............................ 43 ............................................ 88
Floating Zone Stability in Zero-Gravity ............................. 40 Homogeneity of Glasses ..................... ............................................ 25
Floating Zone Hydrodynamics ......................................... 41 hop and drop experiments .................. ............................ 24-25, 81-93
Florida ....................................................................... 92-93 hormones ............................................ iment ....................... 34, 42-43
Fluid Experiment System ...................................... 29-30, 41 Hubble Space Telescope ..................... Marangoni Convection Boat Apparatus ............................ 43
fluid physics ........................... 3, 5, 34-36, 40, 42, 110, 113 human adaptation ............... ............................. 7-15 23 . Marangoni Flows experiment ..................................... 34, 42
fluid shifts ............................................................... 9-10, 12 human serum albumin ..................................................... 22 Mass Discrimination during Weightlessness .......
Fluid Physics Module ............................................ 34, 40-42 Human Lymphocyte Activation ....................... 10-11, 16, 25 Materials Experiment Assembly (MEA) ................
Forced Liquid Motions ............................................... Humoral Immune Response ...................................... 11, 24 Materials Experiment Assembly-AI
Free Convection in Low Gravity ..........:....................... 34, 40 (MEA-A1) .................................................... 5, 31, 34, 40
French Echocardiograph Experiment............................ 9, 25 Materials Experiment Assembly-A2
French Postural Experiment ....................................... 14, 25 Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (60) ............73.74. 79 .................. 5, 31, 33-34, 43
Frog Statoliths ........................................................... 17, 25 immune system ................................................ 9-11, 16, 22 materials science .................................
Indium Antimonide-Nickel Antimonide Eutectics ............. 42 ....................... 21-22, 36-37
Induced Environment Contamination Monitor crystals and electronic materials .....
(IECM) ............................................................... 110-111 29-31,34,3 6-38
galactic center ................................................. 102-103, 106 Influence of Spaceflight on Erythrokinetics in Man ... 10, 24 fluids and chemical processes ........
galaxy clusters ........................................................ 101-102 Influence of Weightlessness
Gamma Ray Observatory ............................................... 105 on Lignification in Plant Seedlings...................18-19, 24 glasses and ceramics ..................... 27, 29, 33-35, 41-42
gamma rays ............................................................. 20. 105
Ganges River Delta .......................................................... 92
.
infrared radiation .............................................. 72 104-106 materials processing ...................................... 2-3, 27-43
infrared astronomy .................................. 99, 104-106, 109 metals, alloys, and composites ......27, 29, 32-33,4 0-43
Ge-Gel, Chemical Growth ................................................ 42
Infrared Telescope (IRT) ................................. 104-106, 107 .................................................... 28-29
Ge-I, Vapor Phase ............................................................ 42 Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) ....................... 104-105 Materials Science Double Rack ................................... 41-43
...................................... 17, 19
..................... 81-82, 88-89, 92
.
inner ear ................................................................ 9 13, 15 Materials Science Experiment Double Rack
Instrument Pointing System (IPS) ..... for Experiment Modules and Apparatus (MEDEA)....... 42
Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC) ...........35-36, 41, 77, 79 Interaction Between an Advancing Sol
Geotropism .................................................................... 25 and Suspended Particles ............................................ 40
Germany ............................................................... 85, 92-93 lnterdiff usion .................................................................. 43
Gesture and Speech in Microgravity ................................ 25 Interdiffusion Salt Melt Apparatus ................................... 43
Get-Away-Specialexperiments ......................................... 5 Interfacial Instability and Capillary Hysteresis ..
GETS experiment .................................
glasses ................................................ 27, 29, 33-35, 41 -42
International Microgravity Laboratory (IML) ...... 23, 38 113 .
Investigation of Atmospheric Hydrogen and Deuterium
Goddard Hitchhiker-I (HH-GI) .................................. 5, 111
through Measurement of Lyman-Alpha Emissions
Gradient Furnace with Quenching Device ......................... 42 (ALAE) .......................................................... .. 76-77, 79
Gradient General Purpose Rocket Furnace .................40, 43 Melting of Silicon Sphere ................................................. 42
Io .............................................................................. 60 Mercuric Iodide Growth experiment ..................... 29, 31, 42
Gradient Heating Facility ..................................... 32, 40, 42 ion ............................................................................. 60-62
Grand Bahama Bank ......................................................... 94 mercury iodide ............................................
ionosphere ............................................................. 3, 55-67 Mercury Iodide Crystal Growth experiment .
Graviperception of Plants ............................................... 25 Isothermal General Purpose Rocket Furnace .............40, 43
Gravity Influenced Lignification in Higher Plants ........19, 24 mesosphere ................................................
Isothermal Heating Facility ........................................ 40-42 Metallic Emulsion Aluminum-Lead .................................. 40
Great Barrier Reef, Australia ................................ 82-83, 88 Isotope Stack ................................................................ 107 Metric Camera ...................................................... 84-87, 97
Great Wall, China ............................................................. 85 isotopes ................................................................... 32-33 Mexico ................................................................ 25, 85, 94
Grille Spectrometer ......................................... 73, 75-76 ,79
Microabrasion Foil Experiment ....................................... 107
Growth of Cadmium Telluride
J Microorganisms and Biomolecules
by the Traveling Heater Method ............................ 41, 42
Jupiter ...................................................... 36, 57, 60, 77 in the Space Environment ..................................... 21, 24
Growth of Semiconductor Crystals
Microwave Remote Sensing Experiment .......................... 97
by the Traveling Heater Method ............................ 41, 42
K middeck experiments ................................................... 5,28
Kilauea Crater, Hawaii .................................................. 92 Middle East ................................................................ 88, 94
H Kinetics of the Spreading of Liquids in Solids ................40 Millstone Hill Incoherent Scatter Observatory .
Hard X-Ray Imaging of Clusters of Galaxies . Korea ............................................................................... 94 Westford, CT ............................................................... 63
X-Ray Telescope (XRT) .............................. 101-103, 107 Kunlan fault, China ................................................... 88-89 Mirror Heating Facility ..................
Hawaii .............................................................................. 92 Monodisperse Latex Reactor Syste
.................................................................. 7.9,13 Monoellipsoid Heating Facility .......................................... 42
Landsat ....................................................... 81 91 94 . . .
Mount Everest Tibet ..................................................
heavy particles with high energies and charges Large and Small Magellanic Clouds ........................... 104 .
Mount Shasta California .......
(HZES) .................................................................. 20-21 Large Deployable Reflector .................................. 106. 109 Munich, Germany ............................................................. 85
Heflex Bioengineering Test I .................................... 18, 24 Large Format Camera ................................ 84 86-89. 97 . muscle and bone degradation .............
Heflex BioengineeringTest II ................................... 18 24 . Latin America .............................................................. 85 musculoskeletal system ........................................ 5, 8-9 12 .
helium ........................................................................ 36 Lead-Telluride Crystal Growth .................................... 40 bones ............................................................... 5, 8-9, 12
superfluid helium .......................... 36, 42, 105, 110-111 life sciences ................................................ 1-3. 7.25. 113 calcium ..................................................................... 12
hematology .................................................................. 10 Liquid Phase Miscibility Gap Materials ....................... 40. 43 growth hormone ....................................................... 12
erythropoietin ...................................................... 10 Liquid Skin Casting of Cast Iron ................................. 42 muscles ........................................................ 7-8, 12, 14
red blood cells .................................................. 10-11 low-gravity aircraft ..................................................... 27 vitamin D metabolites ........................................ 12, 24
High Resolution Telescope & Spectrograph lungs .............................................................................. 9
(HRTS) ......................................................... 47-50, 53 lymphocytes .................................................... 10-11. 16
122
N nutation ..................................................... 18.19. 24 Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR) .......................... 83 90.93. 97 .
National Research Council of Canada oat(s) ................................................................. 19 Shuttle Imaging Spectrometer Experiment (SISEX) .........97
'Vestibular Investigations .............................. 13.15. 24 pine seedlings ..................................................... 18-19 Shuttle Missions:
nervous system .................................................. .9, 13-15 sunflowers ...................................................... 18-19 STS-2 (See Office of Space and Terrestrial
neurospora .................................................................... 18 Plasma Depletion Experiments................................... 63, 69 Applications-l/OSTA-l) .............5. 18 24. 79. 97. 111 .
neurovestibular system ...................................... 9 13-15 . Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) ..........58-62, 66-67, 69 STS-3
.
eyes .......................................................... 9 13-14 Process Chamber ........................................................ 43
Processing Model Fluids ................................................ 43
(See Office of Space Science-1) .. 5. 18.19. 24.40,43,
51.53. 58,69,79,101.107, 110-111
hop and drop experiments ................................ 13-14
.
inner ear .......................................................... 9 13, 15 Properties of Superfluid Helium STS-4 ...................................................................... 111
nystagmus ............................................................. 15 in Zero-Gravity .................................... 41, 105, 110-111 STS-6 .............................................................. 25 40. 43 .
Protein Crystal Growth experiment ................24-25, 37, 42 STS-7 (See OSTA-2. Materials Experiment
otolith(s) ............................................................ 13-14
rotating dome ...................................................... 13-14 .
protein crystals ...................................... 8 21-25, 36-37. 42 Assembly-Al/MEA-Al. and MAUS) ............... 5 40. 97 .
semicircular canals ................. ........................... 15
~
beta-galactosidase ............................................ .21, 37 STS-9 (See Spacelab 1) ....................... 5 24 40-41. 69. . .
sled experiments ............................................... 14-15 canavalin ............................................................... 22, 37 79.97.107. 111
New York ..................................................................... 87 C-reactive protein (CRP) .......................................... 22 41-D (See Office of Aeronaiitics ...
NighVDay Optical Survey of Lightning (NOSL) ................ 79 concanavalin B ....................................................... 22 and Space Technology-1) ..................... 5,25 43, 111 .
.
Nile River Valley ....................................................... 84 86 crystallography .............................................. 2, 21, 41 .
41-6 (See OSTA-3) ...............5 13. 24 79. 97. 109. 111.
Noninvasive Estimation of Central Venous Pressure enzymes .............................................................. 21, 36 . .
51-8 (See Spacelab 3) ..................5 24 41. 69. 79. 107
Using a Compact Doppler Ultrasound System ...... 10, 25 human serum albumin ................................................ 22 51-C ............................................................................ 24
Nucleation of Eutectic Alloys ............................ 33, 40, 42 purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) ..................... 22 51-D ................................................................ 24.25. 43
Nutation of Sunflower Seedlings in Microgravity .. 18-19, 24 Protein Crystals experiment .......................... 21. 25 37, 41 . 5 1 4 (See Spacelab 2) ..... 5.25.41.53.69. 79.107. 111
purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) ....................... 22 51-G (See Spartan 1) ............................ 5. 9. 14. 24. 107
51-J . ...................................................... 25
n 61-A (See Spacelab D1 and MEA-AZ) ..........5.25.41-43
Ocean Color Experiment .................................... 94.95. 97
Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology-1
Oinghai Plateau. China ................................................ 85 .
6 1 4 (See EASE/ACCESS) ................. 5 25. 43. 109. 111
quasars .................................................................... 101 61-C (See Materials Science Laboratory-2
OAST-1 (See Shuttle Missions. 41.0) ..........5. 109. 111
Office of Space Science (OSS) ........................................... 3
and Goddard Hitchhiker-1) ........5. 10. 22 25. 43. 111 .
R Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer ................. 94. 97
OSS-1 (See Shuttle Missions, STS-3) .. 5.24. 40,51,53,
58-61,69, 79, 107.110-111 . .
radar ..................................... 63 82 90.92. 94.95. 97. 113
Shuttle Radar Laboratory ............................................... 113
silicon crystals ..................................................... 27 30-31 .
Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications (OSTA): radiation ...................... 11. 16.17. 19.21. 24. 29. 49. 59.
Single Axis Acoustic Levitator ........................... 33. 40. 43
OSTA-I (See Shuttle Missions, STS-2) .....5,24 79, 90. . 66. 72-73.94-95,99-100,103-105
Skin Technology ......................................................... 40. 42
OSTA-2 (See Shuttle Missions, STS-7) ...................5
94-95,97, 111 Radiation Environment Mapping .............................. 21. 24
radio waves ............................................... 56.59. 63. 67
Skylab ............................................................... 1.4. 27 111 .
sled experiments ........................................................ 14-15
.
OSTA-3 (See Shuttle Missions 41-G) ........ 5.24,79,86. antennas ............................................................. 52
Small Helium-Cooled Infrared Telescope (IRT) .......104-107
90-91, 95, 97, 111 observatory ............................................................ 63
Solar Array Flight Experiment (SAFE) .................... 109. 111
Orbital Processing of Aligned Magnetic Composites ........43 Reaction Kinetics in Glass ................................................ 40
Solar Cell Calibration Facility .......................................... 111
Orbital Refueling System Experiment ............................. 111 Rectilinear Accelerations. Optokinetic and
Solar Constant (SolCon) ...................................... 72.73. 79
Organic Crystal Growth ............................................. 41 Caloric Stimulations ........................................... 14. 24
Solar Flare X-Ray Polarimeter (SFXP) ...................... .51. 53
Oscillation of Semi-Free Liquid Spheres in Space ............40 red blood cells ................................................. 10-11. 24
Solar Optical Universal Polarimeter (SOUP) ......... 47.49. 53
echinocytes ............................................................... 11
Ostwald Ripening ............................................................. 42
otolith(s) .................................................... 13-14 erythropoietin .......................................................... 10
Solar Spectrum (Solspec) .................................... 72.73 79 .
Solar-Terrestrial Observatory ................................ 52. 67
reticulocytes ............................................ 10-11
Remote Manipulator System (RMS) ..................... 59-61
solar-terrestrial physics ............................. 3. 45.79 113 .
P
paramecium 17
.
remote sensing ........................ 55.56. 63.66 73.78 81-91 . Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor
(SUSIM) ........................................ .
..5 0. 53 72.73. 79
Research Animal Holding Facilities ................................ 24
particle accelerator(s) 56 58 solidification ................................................... 27. 33. 40-43
Rhine River ....................................................... 93
Particle Analysis Camera Capillary Pump Loop .
rockets ................................................ .3. 33. 55 61. 99
Solidification Dynamics .................................................. 42
and Mirror Contamination
Particle Behavior at Solidification Fronts
111
42
.
rodents ................................................................ 12 17
Solidification Front ...................................................... 40
Solidification of Aluminum-Zinc Vapor Emulsion .............40
rotating dome ......................................................... 13-14
Payload Operations Control Center 3-4 101 Solidification of Composite Materials ............................... 42
Perseus cluster 102 Solidification of Eutectic Alloys ................................. 33. 40
Personal Electrophysiological Tape Recorder 13. 24 Solidification of Immiscible Alloys ........................... 33. 41
Phase Separation Near Critical Point 43 Sahara Desert 86. 90-91 Solidification of Near-Monotectic Zinc-Lead Alloys ... 33. 41
Phenomena Induced by satellites 3 23 55 58-59 61-62 64 66-67 Solidification of Suspensions ......................................... 42
Charged Particle Beams (PICPAB) 58 69 72-73 76 81 94-95.97 99 109 Solution Growth of Crystals in Zero Gravity ..........29.30. 41
photosphere 46 48 Saturn 55 57 Soret diffusion ........................................................... 32
Physical Phenomena in ContainerlessGlass 43 science missions 3-5 South America ............................................................ 92
Processing Model Fluids 43 sedimentation 29 36 South Dakota ................................................................. 88
physiology 8-15 Self- and Interdiffusion 42 Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators
cardiovascular system 9-1 0 Selfdiffusion and Interdiffusion in Liquid Metals 32-33 41 (SEPAC) .................................................... 57. 66. 69. 79
hematology and immunology 10-11 semicircular canals 15 Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) ...................105
musculoskeletal system 12 Semiconductor Materials 43 space motion sickness ....................................... 13-15
neurovestibular system 13-15 semiconductors 27 29-30 Space Plasma Laboratory ......................... 66.67. 113
plant(s) 7-8 18-19 23-25 Separation of Fluid Phases 42 space plasma ................................................. 55-69
chromosomes 19 Separation of Immiscible Alloys 42 active experiments ...................................... 55-62
lentils 19 Shuttle glow 64 105 beam and wave injection ........................ 56-60
lignin 18 19 Shuttle High Energy Astrophysics Laboratory chemical releases ............................................ 63
mung beans 8 19 (SHEAL) 106 113 environment ..................... 52. 55. 60. 62.63. 66
123
.
c
T 1y
telescopes .........36,45-46, 52, 99, 101-105 107, 110, 115 . 1 Yellow Sea ............................................. 94
Tethered Satellite System ......................... 67-68, 115 ~
124