INTERNATİONAL RELATİONS THEORİES

Theory: theories are generalizable accounts of how world works that go beyond the
specific details of one unique case. Purpose of theories in international relations:

 Positivism: Explain and predict by reducing the complexity of reality. (Ex.:

neo-realism, institutionalism)
 Normativism: Challenge reality with reference to normative standpoints / values
and develop strategies of fundamental global change. (E.g.: Marxism and class
struggle)

REALISM
Early thinker of realism: Thucydides

Realism emphasis the role of state, national interest, and military power r in the world politics.
Realism claim to offer that state behavior and balance of power issue determinants of the policy
process. Realism considered with human nature and its influence over state foreign policies. Human
nature is egoistic and always desire more power, ın this sense states have egoistic structure and they
try to maximize their power.

Realism revolves around six central propositions:

1- States are the central actors in international politics rather than individuals or international
organizations. Other actors, like NGOs or IGOs have limited power.
2- The international political system is anarchic; there is no supranational authority that can
enforce rules over the states.
3- The actors in the international political system are rational as their actions maximize their own
self-interest.
4- All states desire power so that they can ensure their own self-help.
5- Decision makers are rational actors in the sense that rational decision-making leads to the
pursuit of the national interest.
6- Order in the world can only base on balance of power between states.

Thomas Hobbes: Human nature as egoistic (not necessarily selfish) and conflictual unless there exist
conditions under which humans may coexist.

Nicola Machiavelli: Focused on how the basic human characteristic influences the security of the
state.

A key concept under realism is the international distribution of power referred to as system polarity.
Polarity refers to the number of blocks of states that exist power in an international system.

Realist theory claims that security is more important than economies, and economy is more important
than human rights.

Survival is the principal goal of every state.

Hans Morgenthau has classified nations and their foreign policies into three types:
  Status quotes states
 Revisionist States: The state which aims to revise the world order in its favors because it has
gained new power credentials, like a China.
 Imperialist States: Some states may go for openly aggressive policies. Ex: Germany under rule
of Hitler.

For realist change of the power is through war.

Offensive Realism: (Structural Theory) States seek to maximize their power relative to others never
be safe. Hegemony is the best strategy for a state to pursue, if it can. = Mersheimer). All states strive
to maximize their power relative to other states because only most powerful states can guarantee their
survival. States under anarchy face the ever present threat that other states will use force to harm or
conquer them.

Mersheimer’s three additional explicit assumptions are as follow:

 State always possess on offensive capability, which enables them to hurt and potentially
destroy one another.
 İnternational relations take place in the existential condition of uncertainty assessments
regarding others’ intentions with absolute certainty impossible.
 States are rational actors.

Offensive realism holds that anarchy – the absence of a worldwide government or universal sovereign
– provides strong incentives for expansion. All states strive to maximize their power relative than
other states because only most powerful states can guarantee their own survival.

Defensive Realism: Unwise strategy for state survival. They noted that seeking hegemony may bring
a state into dangerous conflict with other. Instead, defensive realist emphasizes the stability of balance
of power system. Under anarchy, many of the means a states uses to increase its security decrease the
security of other states. This security dilemma causes states to worry about one another’s future
intentions and relative power.

Defensive realism suggest that under certain conditions, pairs of non-democratic states can avoid war,
states can engage in mutually beneficial cooperation without the assistance of international institutions
and norms proscribing the development and use of weapons of mass destruction are largely
epiphenomenal. Waltz’s defensive realism is a state centric systemic theory of international politics
based on the anarchic structure of the international system.

Anarchy: absence of central authority.

Focus on states and their relations in relation with power. (Military and political power)

Realist focus on the political communities. In these relations, power plays a decisive role.

In Waltz’s view a bipolar world is more stable than a multipolar world.

Morgenthau: If we want to understand how international politics work, we should study the relations
between states.
 states

emergence of new
system anarchy/scarcity

breakdown of competition/security
system/war dilemma

different rates of empire/hegemony/

growth balance of power

Realist argues that the domestic regimes of states are not relevant to their international relations.
Realist believes that international law is weak. This is because existing international law reflects the
interest of the most powerful states in the system. Also, if a state is powerful, it can simply ignore
international law if it chooses to.

Realism explains international relations in terms of power.

Short term power capabilities depend on long term resources, both tangible and intangible.

Realist considers military force the most important power.

Security Dilemma: An effort by one state to increase its security decreases to security of other states.
The other states responded by building military force maximize their relative power than attacker
states. This power maximization process continuous when a state lost his economic and military
capability against other side.

If a state increase their military power another state feels unsecure and increases her own power.
Security dilemma fundamentally related with feeling of insecurity.

Balance Of Power: States act to preserve a balance of power in the system. Any of these countries
dominate other states for catch equilibrium in the system. For their purpose state doing those things:

 Increasing their own power

 Alliances

States can work to maintain the balance of power.

Describes a situation in which states are continuously making choices to increase their own
capabilities while undermining the capabilities of others. Balance of power system is one of the
reasons why international relations are anarchic.

If a state increases its own power and attack to other states, other states would create alliances to reach
more power than attacker states.
  Internal Balancing: States grew their military capabilities.
 External Balancing: States enter into alliances to check their power of more powerful states or
alliances.

Buck-passing: States can let another state pay the cost of balancing. Passing the buck in international
relations theory involves the tendency of nation states refuse to confront a growing threat in the hopes
that another state will.

Bandwagoning: States can join with the most powerful states to avoid the cost of balancing them. It is
a strategy employed by states that find themselves in a weak position. The logic stipulates that an
outgunned, weaker state should align itself with a stronger adversary because the latter can take what
it wants by force anyway.

Bandwagoning occurs when weaker states decide that the cost of opposing a stronger power exceeds
the benefits. Realism predicts that states will bandwagon only when there is no possibility of building
a balancing coalition or their geography makes balancing difficult.

Power Transition Theory: It central claims are that the international system is usually hierarchically
ordered with a dominant power at the top that creates and sustains the international order; that because
of uneven growth rates, new power regularly rising. The interaction between the US and the USSR
was based on mutual fear because they could not agree on common policy to advance the status quo.
When Reagan met Gorbachev to negotiate arms reduction, he famously verified, “Trust, but verify”.

Power transition theory can help us understand why democracies live at peace with each other.

Polarity: - Unipolar: One great power: after cold war

- Multi-polar : More than two great power: before cold war

- Bi-polar : Two great power ( i.e. Cold War times)

Bi-polarity more peaceful than multi-polarity. Because, when world have been owned multi-polar
system, world war occurred.

Structural Realism
Associated in particular with the Kenneth Waltz. Waltz argued that international relations and actions
of great powers could be explained with anarchical structure and structure of the international system.

According to Waltz:

 States’ decisions and actions being based on human nature; they are arrived at via a simple
formula
 All states are constrained by existing in international anarchic system.
 Any course of action they pursue is based on their relative power, when measured against other
states.

Realism talks frequently about the importance of flexible alliances as a way of ensuring survival.

The Theory of International Politics: Kenneth Waltz

Highest goal of states is survival.

For neo-realist, cooperation through international organization is on the second place. States are
always concerned about the relative and not the absolute gains. This means that the states will choose
not to cooperate when there is a possibility for another state to obtain more in relative terms, as this
could hurt their own security.

Structural realist focus on the quality of diplomacy and rational incentives for cooperation and
calculation of interest.

Why states want power?

- For classical realist, like Morgenthau, the answer is human nature. Everyone is born
with a will to power hardwired into them, which effectively means that great powers
are led by individuals who are bent on having their state dominate its rivals.
- For structural realist, human nature has little effect to do with why states want power.
The structure or architecture of the international system that forces states to pursue
power.

Structural realist treat states as if were black boxes: they are assumed to be alike, save for the fact that
some states are more or less powerful than others.

Five assumptions of structural realism:

1. Great powers are the main actors in world politics and they operate in an anarchical system.
2. All states possess some offensive military capability. Each state has the power to influence some
of his neighbours.
3. The main goal of states is survival. States seek to maintain their territorial integrity and the
autonomy of their domestic political order.
4. States are rational actors, which is to say they are capable of coming up with sound strategies that
maximize their prospect for survival.

Structural realism is assumed that in anarchy states, “balance” rather than “bandwagon”.

Structural realist understanding does not analyses domestic policy of states. Because nobody knows
that who manage the state, or what kind of policy using for internal policy.

Prisoners Dilemma: Each actor is a rational actor; they are doing what they believe is best for them.

Story: Two individuals are both arrested for a crime. But authority do not have enough evidence for
arrest them for a long time mostly preferred because lack of communication. Now, the two individuals
are separated from one another, so they are unable to communicate with one another. Each of the
prisoners has two options; they can admit to committing the crime, or they can deny committing a
crime.

Liberalism
Liberal assumption argued that, international system is state centric and structurally anarchic, but
liberals find realm for cooperation. For liberals, world politics is not a zero-sum game; the benefit of
one is not necessarily the loss of others. Trade and commerce are mutually beneficial activities that
create an incentive for cooperation and coexistence.
For liberals the key assumption is that peace and cooperation among states can produce “absolute
gains” for all. The liberal focus on absolute gains clearly more conductive to international cooperation
than is the realist focus on “relative gains”

Cooperation is the dominant theme in liberalism.

According to liberal view, states depend on economy and war affected badly to states economy. For
that state’s want to avoid to war.

International organization have more important role in liberal theory. Most of the international
organization includes almost all the state, such as UN, and these types of organizations have effective
role to improve human rights and state cooperation for world peace.

Liberalism is based on the moral argument that ensuring right of an individual person to life, liberty
and property is the highest goal of government.

İnternational relations designed by the international organizations or institutions.

Liberalism is not a “domestic politics” theory that ignores the “international system”. İt is a “systemic
theory”

According to liberal theory, international system is anarchic, states are rational, social pressures
defining state preferences, interdependence among preferences dictates state behavior are thin.

In these sense liberalism focus on the creation of a peaceful world by integration.

Liberalism has also argued for individual competition in civil society and claimed that market
capitalism best promotes to welfare of all by most efficiency allocating scarce resources within
societies.

 Liberal Institutionalism: On this view law, regimes and international organizations mitigate
anarchy and facilitate international cooperation. This Kantian ideal was at least imperfectly
reflected in the creation of both the UN and its predecessor League of Nations.
The goal of all these institution-building is providing an opportunity for actors in the global
system to escape from the Hobbesian state of nature that realist take as a given.
 Liberal Commercialism: Suggest that commerce among states leads to a mutual economic
interdependence that raises the cost and reduces the likelihood of war. War is bad for business in
capitalist market economy.
 Liberal Internationalism: İdea that democracies tend not to fight wars against one another and
that the spread of democratic government can be antidote to war in international system.
 Kantian Triangle: International institutions, economic interdependence and democracy mutually
reinforce to global tendency toward international cooperation and peace.
 Democratic Peace Theory: According to Immanuel Kant, democratic countries should be much
peaceful than anti-democratic countries. Because, democratic countries have self- control
mechanism and sometimes states’ citizen want to change their government if they would be like
their policies. In this sense, democratic countries do not fight other democratic countries, but they
could attack hybrid or anti-democratic countries.
 Hegemonic Stability Theory: The international system more likely to remain stable when a
single nation state is the dominant world power or hegemon. The fall of existing hegemon or the
state of no hegemon diminishes the stability of the international system. In an anarchic system,
where states are assumed the pursue self-interest; the situation may give rise to Bandwagoning.
 Democracy Promotion: Locke saw himself confronted with the task of promoting “liberalism” in
a non-liberal environment. Locke’s solution to this problem was faithful to the fundamental
promises of his theory and in particular to the linkage between freedom and private property. If
private property was the basis of individual freedom, Locke argued, property owners would
demand that government protect private property and have their freedom.
The terrorist attack of 11 September 2001 was on the US catapulted democracy promotion onto
the center of US policy in the Middle East.
Determiners of hegemony:
- Military capability: to be hegemon in international system, China uses economic
power; the US uses military power rather than economy.
- Soft Power:
- Economic Power
- Cultural Ties with powerful states

According to hegemonic stability theory the role played by a hegemonic power is very important in
creating stability in international politics and economy.

Constructivism (Alexander Wendt)

Started with end of the cold war.

It is often argued that constructivism is an approach rather than a theory. Because, constructivism
offers no solution to specific problems in IR nor his prescribe any particular policy directions.

Constructivist thought argued that social world is our making.

The impact of ideas, identities, norms and culture in word politics. Constructivism focuses on capacity
and will of people to take deliberate attitude towards the world and to end it significance.

Socially character of international relations, constructivism focus on ideas.

System: Constructivism = agent structure ( Agency and structure are mutually constitied)
Mutual effect each other

Three types of anarchy:

1. Kantian anarchy: States are friend and work together (cooperation, friendship) States perceive
one another’s as friends. Violence and wars are outlawed. Global cosmopolitan society.
2. Lockian anarchy: (Rivalary) States perceive one another as rivals. They recognise one
another’s existence because they recognize the right to sovereignty. Violence and war break
out periodically. International society of states.
3. Hobessian anarchy: (enemy, entity) State perceive one anothers as enemies. They deny one
another’s existence. Violence and war are omnipresent. States have no self-conrol and self-
restraint.
No international society of states.

According to this view, the fundamental structures of international politics are social rather than
strictly material. This leads to social constructivist to argue that changes in the nature of social
interaction between states can bring a fundamental shift towards international security.
Wendtian constructivism: His theory is originally “cultural theory” of international politics explained
by different “cultures of anarchy” constructed by states themselves. Main claims of constructivism:

- States are principal units of analysis for international political theory,

- The key structures in the states system are intersubjective rather than material,
- States identities and interest are important constructed by true social structures, also
given exogenously to the system by human nature or domestic politics.

Constructivist argues that the nuclear arsenals of the United Kingdom and China though comparably
destructive, have very different meanings to the United States that translate into very different patterns
of interaction.

Constructivist accepts that states are self-interested rational actors; they would stress varying identities
and beliefs.

Alexander Wendt: 500 hundred British nuclear missiles less threatening to the US than 5 North
Korean missiles. (British are friend, but North Korean is not)

Three kinds of norms:

- Regulative Norms: order and constrain behaviors

- Constitutive Norms: Create new actor, interest or categories of action
- Prescriptive Norms: Prescribe certain norms mainly there are no bad norms from the
perspective of those who promote them.

According to constructivism social world is our making. Actors (usually powerful ones, likes leaders,
and influential citizens) continually shapes the very nature of international relations through their
actions and interactions.

Constructivists argue that “anarchy is what states make of it” (actions, interactions and perceptions
shape reality)

Sovereignty is an important organizing force in international relations.

The English School (Hedley Bull, Barry Buzan)

Hedley Bull argued that international law was one of five central institutions mediating the impact of
international anarchy and instead creating “an anarchical society”. Domestic politics are also
important, as a norm and ideologies.

English school theory is built around establishing distinctions between three key concepts:
international system, international society and world society.

The international system (Hobbes, Machiavelli) is mainly about power politics among states whose
actions are conditioned by the structure of international anarchy.

International society (Grotius) is about the creation and maintenance of shared norms, rules and
institutions. According to English school thought “institutions” refer to long-term practices among
states (such as diplomacy, law, war) International society is the key point. International system and
international society have tie.
World Society (Kant) takes individuals, non-state organizations and ultimately the global populations
as a whole as the focus of global societal identities and arrangements and revolutionist puts
transcendence of the state system at the centre of the IR theory. World society implies something that
reaches well beyond the state towards mere cosmopolitan images of how humankind’s is organized.

The most important example for English school think is European Union.

A key debate within the English school revolves around “pluralism” and “solidarism”

- Pluralism refers to international societies with a relatively low degree of shared norms,
rules and institutions. Main goal is protection of national sovereignty.
- Solidarism refers to types of international society with a relatively high degree of
shared norms, rules and institutions.

 Samuel Huntington = Clash of Civilization: cultural differentiation: The central theme of this
idea is that culture and cultural identities which at the broadest level are civilization identities are
shaping the patterns of cohesion, disintegration and conflict in the past Cold-War world. Cultural
values and reject those “imposed” on them by the west. In this new world, local politics is the
politics of ethnicity; global politics is the politics of civilizations. The key issues on the
international agenda involve differences among civilizations.

The English School stands at the middle ground of realism and idealism.

The creation of world society based on a “world identity” besides national identity.

Hedley Bull argued that realist focus on the struggle for power and security in an international system
while their liberal or utopian opponents focus on the possibility of a world community.

Late 19th century, there were four dominant regional international orders, as a Chinese, European,
Indian and Islamic.

The English School = International Community Theory

Focus on the shared norms and values of states how they regulate international relations.

Marxism (Karl Marx)

Marx’s famous dialectical understanding of history: humans are historical beings, simultaneously the
producers and the products of historical process. Marx’s dialectical framework of relations in process
also has important implications for the ways in which we think about political freedom and
unfreedom.

Marx claims that means of production are under the ownership and control a class of a private owner,
workers are compelled to sell their labor to members of this owning class in order to gain access to
those means of production, engage in social production activity and secure through their wages the
material necessities of survival.

States structural dependence on private investment government is effectively compelled to serve the
long-term interest of the capitalist class.
  Gramsci and Hegemony Theory: Marxism based on economic determinism. For Gramsci,
Marxism was rather a way of telling the story of history from without a capitalist historical
context.

Marxism is a critical approach.

Historical materialism asserts that human beings are determinant by the material conditions in which
they can survive and reproduce.

Key point is class struggle.

Marxism based on economic determinism.

Marxism fundamentally asked a question, what “the international” is in IR. (Anarchy for realist,
International society for the English school).

 Immanuel Wallerstein = World System Theory: Understand imperialism as a state led process.
He distinguished three groups of states or regions; the core, semi-periphery, and periphery.
The core group states refer to democratic governments providing high wages and welfare
services (Western Europe).
Semi-periphery states has authoritarian government that provides low wages and poor welfare
services (Latin American States)
Periphery states refer to non-democratic governments where workers can mostly expect wages
below subsistence level and no welfare services (Sub-Saharan countries). Periphery states
provide cheap material and raw material for core and semi-periphery states.

Marxism advises that concepts are not just meant to help us understand the world; they should also
help us change it.

The first application of Marxist idea:

- Rosa Luxemburg
- Rudolf Hilferding
- Vladimir Lenin (Imperialism: the highest stage of capitalism)

Marxism largely ignored geopolitics, nationalism and war. Marx believed that capitalist globalization
and class conflict would determine the fate of the modern world. Marx mainly interested in modes of
production, class conflict, social and political revolution and the economic and technological
unification of the human race.

 Dependency Theory: Economic activities in the richer countries often led to serious
economic problems in the poorer countries. Poor countries exported primary
commodities to the rich countries that the manufactured products out of those
commodities and sold them back to the poorer countries.
Dependency theory was viewed as a possible way of explaining the persistent poverty
of the poorer countries. Marxist theorist viewed the persistent poverty as a
consequence of capitalist exhibition.
International capitalism is motive force behind dependency relationship.
Best example for structural dependency is Taiwan and South Korea. Both have
followed a strategy of world market integration for many years.

Critical Theory (Frankfurt School)

Critical international theories is not concerned with understanding and explaining the existing realities
of world politics, if also intend to critize in order to transform them. Critical international theory
makes a strong case for paying attention to the relations between knowledge and interest.

Focused on the idea of freeing people from the modern state and economic system – a concept known
to critical theorist as emancipation.

Andrew Linklater and Robert Cox focus on require for human emancipation from States.

Critical theories assumed that all IR theories are state-centric.

Robert Cox: theory is always for someone and for some purpose.

Critical theory assumes on active role in the betterment of human affairs according to the potential for
freedom inherent in modernity and the identification of political alternatives at hand in the globalizing
society and the historical process bringing it into being.

Critical theories address a changing social world

Post-Colonialism
Colonialism is an establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory
and the subsequent maintenance, expansion and exploitation of that colony. Colonies are usually
allowed to trade only with the mother countries.

Post-colonialism examines how societies, governments and peoples in the formerly colonized regions
of the world experience international relations.

A key theme to post-colonialism is that Western perceptions of the non-West area result of the
legacies of European colonization and imperialism.

Post-colonial view key issues in IR as constituting discourses of power.

Edward Said: Orientalism = According to Said, Orientalism is not simply the space called the orient,
because it is situated East of Europe. Orientalism is a technique of power based in language and
processes of translation of the identities, cultures and religion of the Middle East.

Frantz Fonan explains that the ‘black man’ is made to believe in his inferiority to the ‘white
colonizers’ through psychological aspects of colonization, such as the imposition of the colonizer’s
language, culture, religion and education system. In the English speaking world, post-colonialism has
been associated with the study of identities and cultures. This is because the concept brings to mind
such work as Edward Said’s Orientalism.

Post-colonial questions revolved around power and legitimacy.

Green Theory
Belongs to critical theory.

For environmental problems, which transcend boundaries, these questions take the form of asking at
what level of political community we should seek a solution.

Green theory is an ecocentric theory. Ecocentrisim (ecology centered thought) stand against
anthropocentrism (human centered thought).

Green theory mostly related with climate change nowadays.

For IR, the contribution of green theory helps us re-examine the relationship between the state, the
economy and the environment.

Westphalian model of sovereignty (self-determination)

Post-Structuralism
“Knowledge” comes to be accepted as such due to power and prominence of certain actors in society
knows as ‘elites’ who then impose it upon others.

Post-structuralism asserts that the way in which this power is achieved is through the manipulation of
discourse.

Security versus liberty debate.

For Post-structuralist, language is one of the most crucial elements for creation and perpetuation of a
dominant discourse.

Axis of evil = Iraq, Iran, North Korea

DIPLAMATIC HISTORY
The Cold War 1945-1989:

Cold War (ideological conflict between blocks):

- 1946-1949 = started
- 1950-1962 = escalation (Cuba crisis)
- 1962- 1797 = detent
- 1979-1985 = second cold war
- 1985-1991 = end of the cold war (fell of Berlin Wall)

World was divided two blocks:

- Communist block:
- Capitalist block

Political expert Raymond Aron perfectly defined the Cold War system with a phrase that hits the nail
on the head, “impossible peace, and improbable war”.

The Cold War reached its first climax with the Soviet blockage of Berlin.

- The Tehran Conference: The first summit meeting between Winston Churchill, Joseph
Staling and Franklin D. Roosevelt. It set out the major guidelines for post-war
international politics.
- The Yalta Conference: In 1945, Winston Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt met in Yalta
to settle the questions raised by the inevitable German defeat.Roosevelt wanted to
avoid the Red Army to widespread an influence over Central Europe.

Both parties have possessed nuclear weapons and they had reconstructed new nuclear weapons. It
created balance of power and balance of terrorism between two sides.

 The US founded NATO

 Soviet Union founded Warsaw Pact
 Seato established after the Korean War

 Truman Doctrine: The President presented his doctrine of containment, which aimed to provide
financial and military aid to the countries threatened by Soviet expansion. Clearly aimed to at
stopping the spread of communism the Truman Doctrine positioned the US as the defender of a
free world in the face of Soviet aggression. Applying doctrine of containment, the Americans
encouraged Turkey to resist Soviet claims to rights over naval bases in the Bosphorus.
In the Truman Doctrine, the president asked congress for $400 million in economic and military
aid to assist the “free people” of Greece and Turkey against “totalitarian” regimes.

 The Marshal Plan (European Recovery Program): The US, whose interest lay in promoting
such help in order to increase its own exports decided to help to European economy via a large-
scale structural recovery program. The US wanted to protect American prosperity and stave off the
threat of national overproduces.

The Soviet Union rejected the Marshal plan and persuaded its satellite countries and neighboring
Finland to refuse the US aid. In April 1948, the US passed the law covering foreign aid and creates the
Economic Cooperation Administration to Manage the Marshall Plan. The US aid was primarily used
to purchase indispensable to the European economies; food and agricultural products, raw materials,
tools and industrial equipment.

Through this aid, US president Truman wanted to help free nations of Europe solve their economic
problems.

 Monroe Doctrine: It declared that the US would regard any extension of European Power to any
portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety.

For Roosevelt, muscular diplomacy in the Western hemisphere was part of America’s new global role.

 Peace of Westphalia (1948): States are dominant actor of international politics. Each state on the
world has sovereignty and none of the other states intervene another states. All of the states are
equal.

-Cuban Missile Crisis (Fidel Castro): The Cuban missile crisis in 1962 was a direct and dangerous
confrontation between the US and the Soviet Union during the Cold War and was moment when two
super powers came closest to nuclear conflict.

The fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 put an end to the Cold War and its divisions, which
dated back to Second World War. The fall of the communist bloc, bi-polar world built around rivalry
between the US and the Soviet Union.

NATO became one of the successful military alliances in the world. Principle of “self-help and mutual
aid”. After the Cold War period, NATO’s membership countries evolved to partnership countries.

 Gorbachev’s “Perestroika” and “Glasnost”: Mikhail Gorbachev aimed to carry out a root and
branch reform of the Soviet system, the bureaucratic inertia of which constituted an obstacle to
economic reconstruction (perestroika), and to liberalize the regime and introduce transparency
(Glasnost). For example, a certain freedom of expression and freedom.
Whilst Gorbachev was liberating the Soviet regime and the movements opposed to Communism
were gathering strength in Central and Eastern Europe.

Turkish Foreign Policy

During the early years of the Ottoman Empire, its foreign policy was motivated by its military
offensive character.

The Treaty of Paris (1856) recognized the Ottoman Empire as a European power.

After the established new republic in Turkey, they cut ties with the Ottoman past.

Turkish foreign policy between the two world wars was influenced by Atatürk’s vision and his
personality. General Turkish foreign policy originated from Atatürk’s ideas. E.g. “peace at home,
peace in the world.”

Atatürk’s foreign policy included, there was no way of a mandate or protectorate would be accepted.

The new Turkish state gained to create modernized and westernized society based on secular
worldview. Also Turkey’s foreign policy towards Balkan states were based on the idea of “unchanging
borders”.
On the other thing, Atatürk was looking to the West for direction.

New Turkish republic has some goals:

- National liberation
- Independence
- Modernization

The most important point of the Lausanne Treaty is that the secular Turkish state was acknowledged
by the international community.

The ‘Treaty of Neutrality and Friendship” was signed by Turkey with the USSR in 1925. Before the
end of the WWII, it became evident that Turkey would not able to continue with its independent and
non-aligned foreign policy, based on “balanced neutrality” in the face of increasing Soviet military
presence and territorial demands.

With the USSR was becoming an increasing threat to its integrity and security, Turkey turned to the
face west to establish a “permanent alliance”. Close military, political and economic cooperation with
the Western states became a fundamental principle in Turkish foreign policy during the Cold War
period.

The world economy was affected by the great recession between 1929 and 1930. Two big groups
emerged as a result of the situation: The Revisionist (Germany, and Italy), and the Anti-revisionist
(France-Britain): Turkey was in the Anti-revisionist camp.

 Balkan Entente: A Cordinal Friendship Pact of 1923 was to lead to the foundation of the
Balkan Entente. February 1934 the Balkan Entente was signed between Turkey, Greece,
Yugoslavia, and Romania, and the quarantining security of all sides in the Entente. The
Entente was against a possible attack by Bulgaria.
The minority problem was solved by Turkish-Greek agreement.
It was part of containment policy against Soviet Union.
 Saadabad Pact (1937): Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan signed the Pact. Turkey wanted to
establish relationship between Asian and European countries. Turkey protected and secured its
eastern border during the Cold War. Turkey’s adherence to this Pact was a return to Pan-
Islamism.

Johnson letter was milestone for the US – Turkey relations, but it was affected negatively.

Turkey applied to European Union in 1987. EU is important for Turkey, because it was proofed to
world, Turkey has democracy.

Turkey’s geographical location at the crossroads of many different regions and cultures in Asia,
Middle East, the Balkans, Central Asia and Europe, has determined the foreign policy dynamics of the
country. Westernization is determining the principles of Turkish foreign policy.

Under the foreign minister Ahmet Davutoglu, Turkey has shifted from a US based foreign policy
approach to more autonomous foreign policy endeavors. Davutoglu argued that Turkey should put
aside the role of being “the Bridge between Islam and the West, and should develop an active strategy
that underlines the importance of historical and cultural ties, soft power, conflict resolution and strong
economic linkages within those orbits. (Multi-dimensional foreign policy)
During the Second World War, Turkey was choice to remain neutral, and balance in order to stay out
of the war.

The importance of its key geographical and military position leads to Turkey’s becoming a member of
NATO in 1952. As a guarantee of this membership, Turkey sent troops to the Korean War with the
USA.

 Turkey – The US Relations: Turkey’s location near several global hotspots has made the
continuing availability of its territory for the stationing and transport of arms, cargo and personal
valuable for the US and NATO. The US-Turkey friendship, which began with Truman Doctrine
and flourished in the 1950’s, began to cool down during the 1960’s and deteriorated in the 1970’s.
Although the 1964 Cyprus crisis is commonly regarded as the turning point in Turkish-American
relations.
Turkey and the US signed the “Defense and Economic Cooperation Agreement” in 1980.
The new Turkish state created a new Turkish identity based upon Western values.

 Turkey – British Relation: The Turkish question for Britain centered on the Mosul question.
According to Turkey, Mosul was within the National Pact boundaries. The Council decided that
the Brussels Line become the permanent border, thereby awarding Mosul to Iraq in 1925.

Nationalism in Middle East

1940’s and 1950’s, nationalism became a very important issue in the Middle East.

Pan-Arabism: United all of the Arab under one country. “United Arab state” (this was am unification
of Egypt and Syria 1958-1961

In the 1955 NAM summit Nasser was seen as the spokesman of the Arab world and in league with the
likes of Jawaharlal Nehru and Jesus Tito, its primary advocate and protector against the global forces
of colonial dimension.

Nasser tried to nationalize and took to control of the Suez Canal from British and French control.

 Iraq: Under Ottoman rule, Iraq had three administrative unit (Mosul: Kurts and Sunni; Baghdad:
Arab and Sunni; Basra: Arab and Shite)
San Remo Conference: Britain tried to centralized government in Iraq, and for this purpose Britain
used indirect rules way. (Indirect rules way: loyal local leaders are important.)
Why monarchy? Because one leader was very easy to control for Britain and give direction to
what they do for axis of British foreign policy.
In 1921, Faisal became a king of Iraq with the British help. Britain established constitutional
monarchy in Iraq. National legitimacy was known with referendum and Faisal gained legitimacy.
In 1932: Iraq became independence
In 1958 Revolution: Kasım and Arif (Free officers) were main characters. System was changed
with this revolution (from monarchy to republic). They eliminated old regime supporter and killed
to loyal family members.
Kasım supported more independence for Iraq and less importance for Arab unity. On the contrary,
Arif wanted to Arab unification and supported Arab nationalism.
In 1970, new constitution accepted. Pan-Arabism and socialism were main principles of this
constitution.
 State Building in the Middle East: State building as well as intervention of foreign powers, are
sources of tensions. Middle Eastern political organization has dramatically changed thought the
20th century after the fall of the Ottoman Empire that ruled for more than four centuries the region.
Ottomanism: To unite people under the Ottoman Empire. United people under the Ottoman
identity.
Arab Nationalism: New sense of Pan-Arabism based on the struggle for social justice and
freedom. Pan-Arabism is a direct response to Western domination and 1948 establishment at the
state of Israel.

 Persian Gulf War: 2 August 1990- Saddam Husain-Iraq invaded Kuwait. The UN Security
Council issued evolution 660, demanding that, “Iraq withdraw immediately and unconditionally
all it forces to the position in which they were located on 1 August 1990.
November 1990, Bush gave Saddam Husain “one final opportunity” to withdraw Kuwait.
The US founded coalition, which were occurred 31 states, against Iraq. On the contrary, only
Yemen gave support to Iraq. Desert Storm Operation, which was the name of Coalition operation
against Iraq, ended on February 1991. The defeat of Saddam Husain is often described as the peak
of the American power and global influence.
 6 Days War: 1967 Arab –Israel crisis. Palestinian guerillas based in Syria began to raid Israel via
Jordanian territory. Conflict over water carrier project. Soviet Union was supplying arms to Egypt,
Syria and Iraq, on the other side the US supported Israel. Israel won the 6 Days War, and
destroyed air forces of Egypt, Syria and Jordan.

Russian Policy in the Middle East

The Middle East is important to Moscow for several reasons:

1. For its physical proximity: the distance between Grozny, Chechnya’s capital and Iraq’s Mosul
is about 600 miles,
2. Due to the Muslim factor,
3. In view of the continuing religious and political turbulence within the Muslim world,
4. Because of the energy riches of the region,
5. Russia pay attention due to the current US focus on the region and American military
involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan.

On the other hand, security issues are important for Russia, because Russia is very concerned with the
sources of Muslim radicalism in the Middle East, with feed domestic extremism, including terrorism.
Russia’s other main security concern is nuclear proliferation. The emergence in 1998 of a nuclear
armed Pakistan vindicated Moscow’s fear.

Russia believes that the international community needs to pay legitimation of Iran’s security interest,
and help establish an exclusive security system in the Gulf.

SECURITY STUDIES
 European Neighborhood Policy: European Neighborhood Policy governs the EU’s relations with
16 of the EU’s closest Eastern and Southern neighborhood.
- South: Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Syria, Tunisia
- East: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine

The objective of avoiding the emergence of new dividing lines between the enlarged EU and it
neighborhoods and instead provides their stability and security for both sides. It based on the values of
democracy, rule of law, and respect of human rights.

The ENP has founded an overall strategy for all neighboring country, with the aim of creating a “ring
of friends” around the Union. One of the central aims of European integration has been securing peace
in Europe.

EU'S Three Pillars

Eurepean Common Foreign and Cooperation in justice

Communities Security Policy and home affairs

 European Security: The pressure over the Europe had continued aims to Cold War period. But
this situation changed at the end of the Cold War. This change have briefly two reasons:
- Germany unified in 1990
- Germany gained a central role in Europe

Constructivism examined the European security institution a side of identity. Because, European states
want to protect their national interest and identities with using security institution.

 European Security Community (1950-1954): After the WWII, Western policymakers thought
that how to ensure long stability in Western Europe. Most important problem was “Germany”.
European Defense Community established by West Germany, France, Italy and the Benelux
France has spearheaded at this Community and they founded European Cool and Steel
Community with West Germany in 1950.
 Fouched Plan (1958-1969): This plan was proposed by French president Charles de Gaulle and
was written by French ambassador Charles Fouched. The idea was to a new “Union of States” and
inter- governmental alternative to the European communities. This plan did not adopt any
European countries without West Germany.
 Securitization Theory (Copenhagen School): Securitization theory show us that national
security policy is not a natural given, but carefully designated by politicians and decision-makers.
Main issue is “national security and interest.”
Securitization is a speech act.
Securitization theory reminds us that securitization is not a neutral act but a political one.
The securitization defined narrowly with the focus on the speech of dominant actors.
Securitization realizes when a securitizing move becomes successfully namely when it is accepted
as such by an audience.
 Successful securitization consists of three steps:
- Identification of existential threat
- Emergency action
- Effects on inter-unit relations by breaking free of rules.

Securitization has been applied to analyses of state foreign policy behavior to the construction of
transnational crime, and the dimensions of the “war on terror” and to minority rights.

The members of the Copenhagen School argue that language, history, culture and even race and
political borders are important in determination of identity and then security.

Security:
The negative definition of security identifies security with the absence of insecurity or threat. For
realist, it is a negative value.
In the positive definition of security is associated with, objects, commodities, which have a specific
function in relation to other commodities. Security in that sense means protection and prevention of
something happening.
To arguments of constructivist security studies:
1. Security and insecurity are categorizations that emerge out of and applied to the realm of
human activities.
2. Many concepts put forward by Burger. For instance, social construction of reality,
intersubjectivity, identity formation.
3. Predominant explanations of national security, national interest is not something that can be
taken for granted, interest are constructed true process of social interaction.

For Buzan, security is a concept of fundamentally about survival. If a state under attack, it can use
extraordinary measures that go beyond routine day to day politics. It can declare a state of emergency
or martial law.

Cold War was a peak of security issues. In this period the Soviet Union and the US use their nuclear
and weapon of mass destruction as an instrument of their policy.

State of Emergency: A state of emergency derives from a governmental declaration made in response
to an extraordinary situation posing a fundamental threat to the country. The declaration may suspend
certain normal functions, may alert citizens to alter their normal behavior or may authorize
government agencies to implement emergency preparedness plan as well as to limit or suspend civil
liberties and human rights.

State of emergency has two components:

- A legal framework consisting of the constitutional and legislative bases for the state of
emergency,
- An operational framework involving the organizational structure and strategic plans
for dealing with the state of emergency.

International Law
International law has roots in the rules and principles developed by the Roman Empire to govern
interactions between Roman citizens of the outside world.

Raymond Aron, “One does not judge international law by peaceful periods.”

Kenneth Waltz, “Structure defined as power relations among states in a system of anarchy.”

International laws consist to the rules and principles of general application dealing with the conduct of
states and international organizations in their international relations with other states and with private
individuals, minority groups and transnational companies.

1. States: A state has the following characteristics:

- A permanent population
- A defined territory
- A government
- A capacity to enter into relations with other states.

Only states can became members of the United Nations and other international organizations.

2. International Organizations: They have limited degree of international personality, especially Vis a
Vis member states. The power of the UN is set out in the UN Charter of 1945.
3. Nationality of Individuals, Companies, etc.

International Obligations:

1. Treaties: Treaties are written agreements between states that are governed by international
law. Treaties can be bilateral, multilateral, regional or global.
The law of treaties is now set out in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. The
basic principle underlying the law of treaties is pocta sunt servenda, which means every treaty
in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith.
The other important principle is that treaties are binding only on states parties. They are not
binding on third parties without their consent.
2. Custom (Customary Law): Rules of customary law bind all states. Undisputed examples of
customary law are:
- Giving foreign diplomats criminal immunity,
- Treating foreign diplomatic promises as inevitable,
- Recognizing the right of innocent passage of foreign ships in the territorial sea,
- Recognizing the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag state on the high seas.
3. General Principles of Law: General principles of law are usually used when no treaty
provision or clear rule of customary law exist.
4. Hierarchy of Norms: International lawyers usually look first to any applicable treaty rules,
then to custom, and the last general principles.
5. Role of International Law Commission (ILC): The 34 members of the ILC are elected by the
General Assembly after being nominated by member states.

Jurisdiction of States:

States can claim jurisdiction based upon the nationality principle by extending jurisdiction over their
nationals even when they are outside the territory. (except genocide and war crimes)
Modern counter-terrorism treaties establish jurisdiction among state parties based on the presence of
the offender within their territory. If two or more states have jurisdiction over a particular offence,
they are said to have concurrent jurisdiction. No state may exercise jurisdiction within the territorial
sovereignty of another state.

The general principle of jurisdiction in these common areas is that ships, aircraft and spacecraft are
subject to the jurisdiction of the “flag state” or state of registration.

Status of the Seas, Outer Space and Antarctica:

1- High Seas: State may purport to assert sovereignty over any part of the high seas. All states
have freedom of the seas.
2- Exclusive Economic Zone: Coastal states are permitted to claim an exclusive economic zone
of up to 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the territorial sea is measured
wherein they have the sovereignty right to explore and exploit the natural resources of the sea
and seabed and subsoil.
3- Antarctica: The ice-covered continent of Antarctica was made by seven states – Argentina,
Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the UK.

One of the main objectives of international law is to create the conditions for international peace and
stability. International treaties are the result of negotiations between government representatives.

 International Court of Justice (ICJ): The most important judicial body of the UN. The ICJ is
composed of 15 judges, which is elected by General Assembly and the Security Council, with
terms of office limited to nine years. The ICJ has been giving advisory opinion.
 International Law Commission: A subsidiary organ of the UN General Assembly.
International Law Commission consist of 34 recognized experts in international law, each one
elected by the General Assembly for a five year period.