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INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
Learning Objectives
Definition
When information is gathered for all the units in the population, the process is called
a census. When only a part of the population is used to obtain data, the process is called
sampling or a sample survey.
Definition
TYPES OF DATA
The basic element of a statistical analysis is data. These are usually obtained by measuring
some characteristics or properties of the objects, people or things. There are generally two
types of data: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative data are those data that can be expressed in numbers. These are the things that
can be measured, like person’s age, height and weight, or a family’s annual income and
merchant’s profit. These data can also be counted, like the number of students who passed in
GEE5, number of munchkins enrolled in a discovery play schools, and the number of female
Governors.
Qualitative data are those data for which no numerical measures exist and are usually
expressed in categories or kind. Examples of qualitative data are the color of the eyes which
can be brown, black, gray or blue; a person’s gender which is male or female; a person’s
educational level which can be elementary, secondary, college, masters and doctorate.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
Variables are the characteristics or properties measured from objects, persons or things.
These variables can either be discrete or continuous. The former can be counted, thus assume
a value which is a whole number, while the latter can be measured using some units of
measurements, which may take some decimal numbers. For example, the number of passers
and failures in a Licensure Examination for Teachers are discrete variables while the weights,
heights and ages of the students are continuous variables.
Definition
For example, if it is desired to measure a person’s height in inches then we may assign the
number 69 to a person and say that a person has a height of 69 inches. In a beauty contest for
Miss Bohol Sandugo, assigning a number 2 as a rank of a candidate means that she is the
second best candidate in the contest.
Order
This refers to the way the numbers are arranged in a sequence. It is an
established convention that 11 comes before 12, 12 comes before 13, 13 comes
before 14 and so on. It is said that ‘8 is greater than 6’ or ‘1 is less than 5’. It is the
property of order that allows us to state that one number is ‘less than’ or ‘greater
than’ another.
Additivity
It is the property that allows us to add numbers. When we claim that 3 meters
+ 4 meters = 7 meters, we are confident of being correct. This is because these are
units that are equal in scale. This means that in the sequence 1m, 2m, 3m,…, the
distance from 1m to 2m is the same as the distance from 3m to 4m, and so on.
However, 1 goat + 2 cows is not equal to 3 birds or 1st honor + 2nd honor is not equal
to 3rd honor since the scales used in the examples are not equal and therefore not
additive.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
Nominal Measurements
This possess only the property of identity and do not possess the properties of
order and equality of scales. When an object is assigned a color of blue while another
object is assigned to a color of pink, it cannot be claimed that blue is better than pink
or pink is better than blue. Other measurements which are nominal are color of a
bag, gender of a person, occupation of parents. Nominal measurement is the lowest
form of measurement.
Ordinal Measurements
This possess the properties of both identity and order but not the equality of
scale property. When students are ranked according to class performance, an order
of 1st, 2nd, 3rd,… can be established. However, these numbers cannot be added
because the difference between the 1st and 2nd may not be the same as the difference
between the second and the 3rd. Ordinal measurements are usually associated with
ranks. These ranks cannot be added. Other examples of variables measured in ordinal
scales are social classes, military ranks, teacher’s ranks and taste preferences.
Ratio Measurements
This possess all the properties of identity, order, equality of scales and absolute
zero. This is the highest form of measurement. Examples of ratio measurements are
length, density, age, volume and weight. The numbers associated with these
measurements have identity, order and can be added. In addition, a length of 0
meters means the object has ‘absolutely no length’. An object with a weight of zero
pounds is certainly weightless.
Learning Objectives
The Greek Letter ‘Σ’ (this is the upper case sigma) denotes the summation symbol. It is a
compact way to write the sum of a set of data values. A convenient way of writing a data
value in mathematical notation is the subscripted variable 𝑥𝑖 , which is read as ‘𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑖′.
When a set of data values are written as subscripted variables, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 .
𝑛 𝑛
The notation ∑ 𝑥𝑖 is defined as: ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 .
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛
The symbol is read as the summation of 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑖, 𝑖 from 1 to 𝑛. The lower index
∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1
of the summation is 1 while the upper index is 𝑛. The lower index indicates which variable
to start adding and the upper index indicates the last variable to be added. If the lower
index is 5 and the upper index is 20, then the 5th to the 30th values are to be added.
Example: Consider the set of values 4, 6, 7, 10. To write the sum of these values in
compact form, we designate the first recorded value as 𝑥1 , the second value as 𝑥2 , and so
on. This means that 𝑥1 = 4, 𝑥2 = 6, 𝑥3 = 7, 𝑥4 = 10 and their sum
4
can be written as: ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 4 + 6 + 7 + 10 = 27.
𝑖=1
Furthermore,
4 4 2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1. ∑(𝑥𝑖 ± 𝑦𝑖 ± 𝑧𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ± ∑ 𝑦𝑖 ± ∑ 𝑧𝑖 .
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 , where 𝑐 is constant.
3.
𝑖=1
Example:
Let 𝑦1 = 2, 𝑦2 = 1, 𝑦3 = −1, 𝑦4 = 4. Also, let 𝑥1 = 3, 𝑥2 = −2, 𝑥3 = 5, 𝑥4 = −3.
Evaluate:
4
1. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=1
2. ∑(𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖2 )
𝑖=1
3
3. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=2
Solution:
4
1. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = (3)(2) + (−2)(1) + (5)(−1) + (−3)(4) = −13
𝑖=1
3. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = (−2 − 1) + (5 + 1) = −3 + 6 = 3
𝑖=2