REPUBLIC OF SERBIA

TRANSPORT REHABILITATION PROJECT

SERBIAN ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

4. ROAD DESIGN ELEMENTS

4.0 ROAD DESIGN ELEMENTS

BELGRADE, 2012
Publisher: Public Enterprise Roads of Serbia, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 282, Belgrade

Edition:

No. Date Description of amendments

1 30.04.2012 First edition
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

CONTENTS

4.1 GENERAL ...........................................................................................................................1

4.1.1 RELEVANCE OF LEGAL AND TECHNICAL ROAD REGULATIONS................................1
4.1.2 EU DIRECTIVES AND PATTERN FOREIGN TECHNICAL REGULATIONS.....................1
4.1.3 IMPACT OF DESIGN ELEMENTS ON TRAFFIC SAFETY ................................................1
4.1.4 IMPACT OF DESIGN ELEMENTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT............................................3
4.1.5 TERMINOLOGY ..................................................................................................................4
4.2 FUNDAMENTALS FOR DETERMINING THE DIMENSIONS OF ROAD DESIGN
ELEMENTS .........................................................................................................................6
4.2.1 ELEMENTS OF THE ROAD................................................................................................6
4.2.1.1 Types of road design elements............................................................................................6
4.2.1.2 Mandatory legal and technical regulations ..........................................................................7
4.2.2 INPUT PARAMETERS FOR SELECTING AND DIMENSIONING ROAD ELEMENTS .....7
4.2.2.1 Road classification ...............................................................................................................7
4.2.2.2 Traffic volume ....................................................................................................................10
4.2.2.3 Parameters of the driver, vehicle and carriageway ...........................................................16
4.2.2.4 Design speeds, acceleration/deceleration and length of deceleration ................................2
4.2.2.6 Steps taken when selecting and correcting road elements ...............................................36
4.3 CROSS SECTION OF THE ROAD ...................................................................................37
4.3.1 TYPES OF CROSS SECTIONS ON ROADS....................................................................37
4.3.1.1 Spatial and physical structure of the road .........................................................................37
4.3.1.2 Types of cross sections in road designs............................................................................36
4.3.2 TRAFFIC PROFILE AND ROAD CLEARANCE ................................................................37
4.3.2.1 Traffic profile for motor vehicles.........................................................................................37
4.3.2.2 Traffic profile for pedestrians and cyclists..........................................................................38
4.3.2.3 Clearance for motor vehicles .............................................................................................38
4.3.2.4 Clearance for pedestrians and cyclists ..............................................................................41
4.3.2.5 Combining clearances .......................................................................................................41
4.3.2.6 Clearance above railways..................................................................................................42
4.3.2.7 Clearance above water courses ........................................................................................42
4.3.3 ELEMENTS OF THE CROSS SECTION OF A ROAD .....................................................43
4.3.3.1 Traffic and accompanying surfaces in the cross section ...................................................43
4.3.3.2 Carriageway lanes in the cross section .............................................................................43
4.3.3.3 Ancillary longitudinal surfaces in the cross section ...........................................................50
4.3.4 STANDARD GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTIONS ...............................................................56
4.4 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF THE CARRIAGEWAY .............................................................58
4.4.1 FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE SELECTION AND HARMONISATION OF THE ELEMENTS
OF THE CARRIAGEWAY ......................................................................................................58
4.4.1.1 Driving-dynamic dimensioning of the elements of the carriageway ..................................58
4.4.1.2 Resulting slope of the carriageway....................................................................................59
4.4.1.3 Minimal slopes for water drainage .....................................................................................60
4.4.1.4 Road centre line and grade level .......................................................................................60
4.4.2 VISIBILITY ...............................................................................................................................65
4.4.2.1 Definition and types of visibilities .......................................................................................65
4.4.2.2 Impacts on visibility ............................................................................................................67
4.4.3 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF THE SITUATIONAL LAYOUT ..................................................71
4.4.3.1 Types of elements of road centre line and forms of the curve sequence structure...........71
4.4.3.2 Straight...............................................................................................................................72
4.4.3.3 Circular curve.....................................................................................................................73
4.4.3.4 Clothoid (transitional curve) ...............................................................................................75
4.4.3.5 Selection of consecutive circular curve radius...................................................................80
4.4.3.6 Special forms of road curves .............................................................................................81
4.4.4 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF THE LONGITUDINAL SECTION..............................................82
4.4.4.1 Grade level element types .................................................................................................82

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4.4.4.2 Gradients (tangents) ......................................................................................................... 83

4.4.4.3 Vertical curves................................................................................................................... 85
4.4.4.4 Selection of consecutive vertical curve radius .................................................................. 89
4.4.5 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF THE CROSS SECTION........................................................... 92
4.4.5.1 Types of crossfalls of the carriageway.............................................................................. 92
4.4.5.2 Limited values of crossfalls of the carriageway................................................................. 93
4.4.5.3 Crossfall in curves ............................................................................................................. 94
4.4.5.4 Change to the crossfall of the carriageway – rotation....................................................... 95
4.4.6 ADJUSTMENT OF CARRIAGEWAY ELEMENTS ......................................................... 107
4.4.6.1 Adjustment of horizontal curve radius in terms of smaller changes in driving speed ..... 107
4.4.6.2 Harmonisation of the horizontal elements of the road centre line in the sense of avoiding
dangerous locations ........................................................................................................ 109
4.4.6.3 Harmonising horizontal and vertical elements of the road centre line in the sense of
avoiding hydroplaning ..................................................................................................... 112
4.4.6.4 Spatial harmonisation of the elements of the road centre line........................................ 113

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Serbian Road Design Manual
4.1 GENERAL
4.1.1 RELEVANCE OF LEGAL AND
TECHNICAL ROAD REGULATIONS
The legal and technical regulations governing
road design (road geometry) in the Republic of
Serbia are systematically organised (laws,
guidelines and standards). On this basis, an
adequate amount of expert literature has been
published which allows road design in the
Republic of Serbia to be performed according
to known conditions, measurements and
standards identically across the entire country.
Laws which establish the primary norms and
conditions for planning and designing roads
are
• Law on Planning and Construction (Official
Gazette of RS, no. 72/09, 81/09 - corr.,
64/10 - decision of US 24/2011)
• Law on Public Roads (Official Gazette of
RS, no. 101/05 and 123/07)
• Law on Traffic Safety (Official Gazette of
RS, no. 41/09 and 53/10)
• Law on Water (Official Gazette of RS, no.
30/10)
• Law on Environmental Protection (Official
Gazette of Serbia & Montenegro, 135/04).
Other applicable laws have also been passed
in the fields of building, environmental
protection and conservation and road
management methods which are not listed
here and which need to be taken into
consideration for specific measures if they
appear when designing roads.
On the basis of the aforementioned laws,
several guidelines have been adopted in the
Republic of Serbia. The most important of
these guidelines is the one which regulates
road design.
- Guidelines on traffic safety conditions which
transportation infrastructure and other
elements of public roads must fulfil (Official
Gazette of RS, 50/11), which contains four
(4) appendixes concerning:
- the functional classification of interurban
roads (Appendix 1),
- interurban road routes (Appendix 2),
- grade intersections on interurban roads
(Appendix 3) and
- crossings on interurban roads (Appendix
4).
For the most of the specific details applied in
road design in the Republic Serbia, standards
have also been approved and they are
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Road design elements
designated with the code SRPS U.Cx.xxx in
this region.
4.1.2 EU DIRECTIVES AND PATTERN
FOREIGN TECHNICAL
REGULATIONS
In the area of road design (road geometry) the
only applicable EU directive is 96/53-EC,
amended by EU directive 2002/7-EC, which
defines the dimensions and weights of vehicles
on public roads, and lays down the
requirement that when determining the height
clearance of a road whose height corresponds
to that of a stopped goods vehicle (static
height), the camber from oscillations during
driving (dynamic height) should be taken into
account. The provisions in these directives
have already been appropriately entered into
the technical regulations of the Republic of
Serbia.
When the method of determining individual
elements and their dimensions which are
applicable in road design (road geometry) was
being established, the country’s long-standing
technical regulations in the field of traffic
served as an important source. In particular,
Swiss regulation (SVN) served as the source
for the Serbian road design technical
regulations.
Where this document describes specific
details, apart from provisions from the Serbian
guidelines, several recommendations specific
to the work of designers from other regulations
have been added, particularly from Germany
(RAS-L, RAS-Q). Several recommendations
have also been chosen on the basis of
experiences in the United States and
recommendations given in reports by the
international road organisation PIARC. None of
the recommendations contradict the provisions
of applicable Serbian regulations.
4.1.3 IMPACT OF DESIGN ELEMENTS ON
TRAFFIC SAFETY
When designing roads, the designer must
establish a link between strategically set
program conditions, traffic volume and the
dimensions of road design elements. Besides
ensuring functionality, the road must be
designed so that it ensures traffic safety for
drivers using the road in line with applicable
regulations. This means that road elements
must be harmonised with each other and
composed so that the driver, although having
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Road design elements
the required visibility of the entire length of the
road, is not forced to brake intensively in some
locations.
The most significant mistakes which arise
through non-complaint planning and badly
designed roads and which jeopardise safe
driving are:
- (too) abundant road elements = (excessive)
driving speeds,
- lack of stopping sight distance,
- occurrence of aquaplaning (speeds above
80 km/h),
- non-compliance of horizontal geometric
elements along the road centre line,
- non-compliance of the geometric elements
of the road centre line and the grade level,
- too short length of the zones for performing
traffic manoeuvres,
- frequency of points of access (entry/exit),
- improperly executed reducing of number of
traffic lanes on the carriageway,
- unprotected steep slopes (rockslides) and
- improperly devised details on the
carriageway (inaccurately directed route
marking).
In order to design a safe road, it is necessary
to avoid
- exceeding the upper values of the design
speeds for individual types of road,
- increasing the width of traffic lanes in
relation to the standard width accepted for
the design speed (problem: increased width
→ greater substitutive radii of circular
curves → increased speed),
- using an inharmonious sequence of circular
curves and their accompanying transition
curves,
- placing the smaller of two circular curves,
curved in the same direction (O-curve
shape) on a lower position of the grade
level (important for speeds > 70 km/h),
- designing technical carriageway elements
(crossfall, visibility, etc.) for the anticipated
design speed when on the design section
its minimum radius is not applied at all,
- changing the road cross-section at too short
distances (choose logical starts and ends,
depending on traffic-changes and relief),
- coincidence between the position of the
cross-slope turning points on the road
centre line and areas of the grade level
whose longitudinal slope is less than that
required for drainage,
- omission of designing the field of visibility
(visibility triangle at intersections),
- installing elements which block or reduce
visibility of the road (traffic equipment –
sheets, etc.) or placing arrangements along
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Serbian Road Design Manual
the road into the zone of the field of the
visibility (halts, parking areas, dump sites,
walls),
- designing very short vertical curves
(informative: shorter than double the length
of the stopping sight distance),
- not adhering to the basic statements as
defined in the chapter Environmental
Impact Assessment,
- disregarding the possibility of adding
individual structures along the road even
after the planned service life (for example:
noise – when designing the route it is
necessary to envisage sufficient room for
the upgrading of barriers after the expiration
of the planned service life as well),
- omitting the design of structures, devices
and landscape arrangements for wild
animals (wildlife crossings, underground
passages) and amphibians (fencing the
road, moving the habitat),
- ignoring natural-like regulation of water
courses (endangering the stability of the
road body),
- ignoring assessments of the impact of
strong winds and snowdrifts (wind barriers,
barriers against snowdrifts [palisades]),
- connecting secondary roads inner side of
horizontal circular curves where the
crossfall of the carriageway is less than 3-
4% (the driver has no view - physical
limitation),
- designing at-grade pedestrian crossings on
unclear sections of a road, even if they are
appropriately equipped,
- arranging or designing civil engineering
structures in the route inside the road
clearance profile or on the edge of this
profile without protective structures
(barriers),
- not designing enlarged embankments
(enlarged road shoulders) on roads with
reduced carriageway width (allowing
overtaking),
- not using properly dimensioned elements
for drainage (aquaplaning) and
- similar.
When designing roads for high driving speeds,
in terms of traffic safety, the alignment of the
road line with the surroundings of road in the
roadside space, in which it is necessary to
execute (slope design) or insert elements
(landscaping) which provide good visibility of
the road on the longer section (psychologically
favourable impression), is very important.
Limiting the driving speed is an important
measure for increasing traffic safety on roads.
Reasons for introducing speed limits are
primarily
Serbian Road Design Manual
- driving dynamic in nature (large possibility
of sliding on a wet road),
- environmental (reducing speed because of
its impact on the environment),
- owing to system (lowering the speed for
specific purposes - intersections, entrances,
children, etc.), and
- owing to traffic-safety (rear-end collisions,
crashes, rollovers, etc.).
When speed is limited at a given point and for
a specific reason, the speed limit sign must be
accompanied by an additional sign which
provides an explanation for the limitation (the
weather or spatial significance). Frequent
speed restrictions on the same highway should
be avoided.
4.1.4 IMPACT OF DESIGN ELEMENTS ON
THE ENVIRONMENT
Harmonising the road route with the space is
exceptionally important for both the road and
the traffic on it. Therefore, the designer must
bear this in mind from the initial search for the
corridor of the route to the plotting of details
which must be harmonised with the known
facts and land use on the space and executed
in such a way that they adapt to the space as
much as possible (natural design). A road
should not look like a foreign body in the
space, but like one of the components of that
space. The future development of the space
(municipal planning documents) through which
the road is being built should be taken into
consideration, in order not to disrupt it
(sustainable development).
The dimensions of road elements should be
defined in such a way that they achieve
maximum functionality. If the space through
which the road stretches is particularly
sensitive to the impact of the road and the
traffic that flows along it, it is necessary to use
all resources to maintain and protect it. In such
cases, the lower criteria for dimensioning road
elements can be chosen to ensure
functionality, but they cannot be lower that than
the criteria defined as the lowest in the
program conditions for a specific type of road.
In the earliest stage of planning a new road, it
is necessary to analyse and roughly calculate
or assess the burden the designed road will
place on the environment. In this stage of road
creation it is always still possible to avoid the
majority of expected impacts by properly
guiding the route (displace it, perform cuts). It
primarily applies to impacts on the water
regime and for excessive noise. The
determining of measures to protect the
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
environment beside the road only in later
design stages should be avoided. Frequently
there is not enough space in the cross section
for the implementation of these measures
because they were not envisaged in a timely
manner. The consequences of this kind of
approach are manifold: from subsequent
interventions on additional land to a reduction
in traffic safety, and of course increased
investment costs.
Elements which prevent the spreading of
excessive noise must be designed in harmony
with the landscape of the environment,
especially in an open area, as much as
possible. If not, instead of the impact of noise,
the reshaping of the landscape is “built” into
the space. Because of this, when defining
excessive noise protection measures in the
design, harmony must be reached between the
volume of protection and its inclusion in the
space through which the road runs (more on
this in the chapter Design of the roadside
space).
Drainage of road surfaces should be executed
according to the conditions and criteria
officially prescribed and/or received from
interested parties in the procedure for receiving
a construction permit. Attention should always
be paid to ensure that the design does not
threaten sources of drinkable water, and
technical drainage measures should be
devised so that the space around the road is
not threatened (in some locations there will be
drought, in others flooding).
A new road in a space is an obstacle which
disrupts the regular migration routes of wild
animals and amphibians. For reasons of
rationality and proper assessment of the
investments costs and the spatial alignment of
the road, how the migration routes of wild
animals in the space (animal paths) are
preserved should be determined in the earliest
preparation stages of the design
documentation. Civil engineering structures on
the route (bridges, viaducts) are the simplest
way of enabling wild animals to cross from one
side of the road to the other. A more complex
method is the construction of special
underground and aboveground crossings for
wild animals, but these are economically viable
only for high speed roads. If it is not possible to
provide wild animals with a grade-separated
crossing, it is necessary to relocate the
crossing using appropriate resources (a barrier
with reflective studs or electric fence) to a
section on the road where there is enough
stopping sight distance and place appropriate
signalisation next to the road there.
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Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

landscape and the scope of the intervention in

In areas where there is a high concentration of the environment and cannot be uniformly
dense amphibian habitats, the migration routes prescribed for all cases (look at the chapter
of these animals should also be taken into Design of the roadside space). It is
consideration. The problem of amphibians recommended that the designer collaborates
crossing the road which is also a problem in with a landscape architect, particularly when
terms of providing safe driving, can be solved designing higher category roads (DP – long-
in the design in two ways: Either by placing distance road and VP – connecting road).
special ≥ 30 cm high guiding fences which
prevent amphibians from accessing the road
and guides them toward drainage channels or 4.1.5 TERMINOLOGY
through civil engineering structures such as a
bridge, viaduct or underpass, or by relocating
Two-step Rotation of Carriageway
amphibian habitats so they do not have to
(Dvostepeno vitoperenje) is the changing of
cross the road.
the crossfall on an inmost area of rotation with
a minimum gradient of the rotating ramp, while
Harmonising the route of the road with the
in the neighbouring two areas the gradient of
landscape through which the road runs has a
the ramp is executed through the linear
positive aesthetic effect and also has an effect
connecting of the starting and ending levels of
on the psychological state of drivers. The
the ramp.
concept of the solution must be executed from
two points of view: view from the road and view
Road construction staging (Etapna izgradnja
on the road.
puta) is the construction of a road in short
sections or by gradually adding elements of the
The main procedures and technical aids for
cross section of the road within the same
harmonising the route of the road with the
design.
landscape are:
- observing and photographing when out in
Road functionality (Funkcionalnost puta) is
the field visiting the route and/or using
the provision of the conditions for the
digital orthophotographs,
performance of an individual traffic function or
- undisturbed guiding of the grade level in the
a combination of traffic functions on a road
visibility splay (the road cannot
according to defined conditions and in defined
"disappear"),
traffic circumstances.
- displacement of guiding line of the grade
level in a viaduct or high supporting walls
Traffic density (Gustina saobraćaja) is the
zone towards the outer visible side of the
number of vehicles located on the road within
road ("rolling" the edge of the structure
the area of a section of the road at a specific
because of rotation - view on the road
period of time.
effect),
- designing the slope of the road body in line
Diverging lane (Izlivna traka) is a traffic lane
with the natural slope inclines during which
intended for decreasing the driving speed of
the course of the route is taken into account
the traffic flow which is separating from the
(right course → right slope gentler than the
main traffic flow (exiting lane).
left),
- consistent adherence to architectural
Standard rotation of carriageway
relationships between the height and length
(Jednostepeno vitoperenje) is a change of the
of long bridging structures and the
crossfall in one unified degree of change
shortening of connecting fills which extend
between the starting and ending levels of the
alongside them if the jagged relief allows it,
ramp of rotation.
- landscape design (drivers can be provided
with good visibility and safety through the
Coefficient of slide friction (Koeficijent
natural shaping of the relief and provision of
kliznog trenja) is the ratio of the traction or
edge space – shade/ice!)
braking force, from the friction of the tyres on
- computer programme for visualising the
the carriageway when braking, to normal force.
course of the route and
- similar.
Road axis line (Linija osovine puta) is the
curve composed of geometric elements which
The choice of which method to use to
together with the technical elements of the
harmonise the route with the landscape
carriageway (primarily the crossfall) ensures
depends on the road type, the typology of the
the driving dynamic conditions for a safe flow

4 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
of traffic and the aesthetic appearance of the
road.
Maximum crossfall of carriageway
(Maksimalni poprečni nagib kolovoza) is the
ratio between the difference in the height of the
two edges of the carriageway and the distance
between them which still ensures safe and
comfortable driving, and at the same time does
not exceed the lower limit of the coefficient of
slide friction if there is ice on the carriageway.
Design traffic volume (Merodavno
saobraćajno opterećenje) means the number
of vehicles which cross a single section of a
road in a chosen unit of time, and is taken into
consideration during traffic dimensioning.
Minimal crossfall of carriageway (Minimalni
poprečni nagib kolovoza) is the smallest ratio
between the difference in the height of the two
edges of the carriageway and the distance
between them which still ensures normal
carriageway drainage.
Minimum radius of the horizontal curve
(Minimalni radijus horizontalne kružne krivine)
is the smallest radius, which depends on the
speed and the limit state of the carriageway, at
which safe and comfortable driving is ensured.
Minimum radius of sag curve (Minimalni
radijus konkavnog zaobljenja nivelete) is the
smallest radius of vertical curve which depends
on the headlights of a vehicle and which is
inserted between two vertical tangents with a
negative difference between their longitudinal
falls.
Minimum radius of crest vertical curve
(Minimalni radijus konveksnog zaobljenja
nivelete) is the smallest radius of vertical curve
which depends on speed and the limit state of
the carriageway and which is inserted between
two vertical tangents with a positive difference
between their longitudinal slopes.
Grade level (Niveleta) is a longitudinal line
which defines the vertical alignment of the road
and can be directed both in the road centre line
or parallel with it.
Road centre line (Osovina puta) is in space a
selected longitudinal spatial curve formed by
geometric elements in the base and
longitudinal section, and which is normally
positioned in the middle of the carriageway of
the road or on the left edge of an individual
traffic lane; it defines the driving-dynamic
characteristics of the carriageway of the road
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
and the relationship of the road with the
environment through which it runs.
Carriageway-rotation axis (Osovina
vitoperenja) is the road centre line either in the
cross section of the carriageway or parallel
outside it, around which the crossfall change of
the carriageway is executed.
Downgrade (Pad) is the longitudinal fall of the
gradient of the road; downgrade, as a rule, is
defined with regard to the positive rise of
chainage on the road centre line.
Parallel centre line or Off-set centre line
(Paralelna osovina) is a longitudinal line in the
cross section of the road parallel with the road
centre line.
Zone of carriageway rotation (Zona
vitoperenja) is the area of crossfall direction
changing which is bordered by the minimum
positive and negative crossfalls of the
carriageway.
Sight distance (Preglednost) is the distance
the driver can clearly see and the distance in
which the driver can safely stop the vehicle in
case of obstacles on the road.
Jump of grade level (Preskok nivelete)
means the technical procedure under which a
change in the vertical alignment of the road is
made from the road centre line to the parallel
centre line in specific conditions.
Jump of road centre line (Preskok osovine
puta) is the technical procedure under which a
change in the position of the road centre line in
the cross section of the road is made in certain
conditions; as a rule it is done only in an area
of geometric elements of the road centre line
with constant curvature (arc or straight).
Carriageway widening in curve (Proširenje
kolovoza u krivini) is the size of additional
driving surface on a single traffic lane which
depends on the kind of typical vehicle and the
size of the radius of the horizontal curve.
Gradient of the optional line relative to the
gradient of the road centre line (Relativni
uzdužni nagib) is the difference between the
gradient and the longitudinal slope of any line,
which in the cross section of the carriageway is
parallel with the road centre line.
Resulting slope of carriageway (Rezultujući
nagib kolovoza) is the vector sum of the slope
5
Road design elements
of the carriageway longitudinally and
transversally.
Traffic function (Saobraćajna funkcija) is the
type of traffic with characteristic traffic features
(long distance connecting, collecting of flows,
servicing).
Road capacity dimensioning (Saobraćajno
dimenzionisanje) is the procedure for the
defining of the type and dimensions of travel
surfaces on the carriageway and for the
dimensioning the road centre line horizontal
and vertical geometric elements with
consideration of the traffic volume.
Traffic volume (Saobraćajno opterećenje) is
the number of vehicles which cross a single
measuring profile of the road in a specific time
period.
Short stopping distance (Skraćena
zaustavna dužina) is the stopping distance in
which either the higher values of the coefficient
of slide friction (higher quality stone particles of
wearing layer) are taken into consideration or
additional conditions and information given to
the driver.
Chainage (Stacionaža) is a measurement
scale for marking length positions on a road
with a specific start-point and its starting value
and the direction.
Weaving lane (Traka za preplitanje) is a traffic
lane intended for changing two traffic flows
which are separating from or joining the main
traffic flow on the same surface.
Merging lane (Ulivna traka) is a traffic lane
intended to speed up driving and include a
traffic flow which is joining the main traffic flow
(inclusion lane).
Upgrade (Uspon) is the longitudinal rise of the
gradient of the road; upgrade, as a rule, is
defined with regard to the positive direction of
chainage on the road centre line.
Carriageway rotation (Vitoperenje) is a
change in the crossfall of the carriageway
between two opposite direction minimal falls
(via the zero position).
Brake stopping distance (Zaustavna dužina)
is the smallest distance in which a driver can
safely stop the vehicle on a dry and clean
carriageway, alongside a specific coefficient of
slide friction value.
6 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
Clear zone / Field of visibility (Zona
preglednosti) is an area alongside the
carriageway in the curves which is restricted by
visibility, and which cannot contain any kind of
permanent obstacle.
4.2 FUNDAMENTALS FOR
DETERMINING THE
DIMENSIONS OF ROAD
DESIGN ELEMENTS
4.2.1 ELEMENTS OF THE ROAD
According to the provisions of article 4 of the
Law on Public Roads (Official Gazette of RS,
105/05) a public road includes:
- road body (upper and lower layer);
- road structures (bridging structures and
tunnels);
- points of access;
- traffic lanes for cyclists and pedestrians;
- ground;
- air space above the carriageway at a height
of at least 7 m, with clearance of at least
4.5 m, and at least 4.75 m from the highest
point of the carriageway for highways;
- traffic equipment (barriers, signalisation,
control devices);
- structures which protect the road and the
surroundings (snow guards, noise
protection barriers, etc.).
Article 156 of the Law on traffic safety (Official
Gazette of RS, no. 41/09 and 53/10, stipulates,
amongst other things, that:
- roads must be designed, built,
reconstructed and maintained in such a
way that traffic can flow along them
unhindered and safely, and they must also
meet the prescribed conditions;
- the sections of state road which run through
settlements must have a pavement.
The road elements dealt with in this chapter
are design elements of the carriageway and
accompanying surfaces (roadside,
embankments) parallel with the carriageway,
which within the framework of legal and
technical provisions design the carriageway
surface so that traffic on the road flows in the
way envisaged by the program condition for
planning and designing individual varieties of
functional road types.
4.2.1.1 Types of road design elements
In terms of type of element and method of
application, there are the following design
elements, which define the composition of the
Serbian Road Design Manual
surface of the road, the position of the route in
space and the design of the road space:
- traffic and non-traffic lanes on the roadside
space (cross section elements),
- geometric elements of the road centre line
(elements in plan and the longitudinal
section) and
- technical elements of traffic and non-traffic
carriageway lanes and parallel surfaces
(carriageway slope, slopes of longitudinal
drainage devices, inclines of curves, cuts
and embankments, slopes due to rotation).
Road design elements are technically defined
on the basis of the:
- dimensions of a standard vehicle,
- envisaged driving speed on a specific
variety of road,
- design values of the coefficient of friction
and
- visibility.
4.2.1.2 Mandatory legal and technical
regulations
Road elements during design are composed
and dimensioned in line with the provisions of
the Law on Public Roads (Official Gazette of
RS, no. 101/05 and 1123/07), the Law on
Planning and Construction (Official Gazette of
RS, no. 72/09, 81/09 – corr., 64/10 - decision
US and 24/2011), the Law on Environmental
Protection (Official Gazette of Serbia &
Montenegro, 135/04), the Law on Water
(Official Gazette of RS, no. 30/10), Law on
Agricultural Land (Official Gazette of RS, no.
62/06 with amendments Official Gazette of RS,
no. 41/09), the Guidelines on traffic safety
conditions which transportation infrastructure
and other elements of public roads must fulfil
(Official Gazette of RS, 50/2011) and
guidelines which define in more detail the
obligations concerning specific application in
space, as well as in line with standards
approved in RS for specific details.
Composing and dimensioning road design
elements must be done according to general
and specially approved expert procedures.
When a road is designed for a specific purpose
or the space conditions dictate deviation from
the approved rules, the deviation must be
expertly grounded in the design. If another
country’s technical regulation is being applied,
not just one rule may be taken from it - all the
rules linked to the taken technical regulation
must be encompassed.
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
4.2.2 INPUT PARAMETERS FOR
SELECTING AND DIMENSIONING
ROAD ELEMENTS
4.2.2.1 Road classification
Public and non-categorised roads form a road
network which is a system which enables the
linking and traffic servicing of all facilities in a
space which create larger or smaller centres.
The centres, which have different social
(geopolitical classification - state, regional,
municipal level) and economic importance
(scope, intensity), are distributed randomly in
the space. Through their social position and
their scope and intensity, centres create
concentrations of targets and sources of traffic
of different sizes - from very large to small,
which need to be linked to one another with
appropriate roads.
The importance of their mutual linking in terms
of traffic is different (administrative
classification) and the intensity of these
connections is also different (functional
classification). Both classifications categorise
the entire road network into a system of road
networks of different importance, whereby
those networks differ according to different
conditions for road construction and utilisation,
as well as according to the method used to
route the road through the space. Conditions
for the different road levels differ, primarily, by
acceptable travel time (costs of the user),
composition and the dimensions of the
elements (speed, types of user, type of road,
traffic safety) and the traffic regime on them
(types of user, intersecting methods,
restrictions).
Besides administrative and functional
classifications, which are the primary
classifications for planning, dimensioning and
maintaining roads in relation to the importance
of the traffic links, other special classifications
are also possible which additionally regulate
the assigned conditions and enable the road to
be built rationally, travel on them to be safe
and economical and the impacts on the space
and the use of that space to be acceptable.
The special classification which directly affects
the choice of road elements is the classification
in terms of the type of terrain.
Of the special classifications which allow
earning profit from roads the following have the
largest impact
- classification in relation to the type of traffic
– roads for motor traffic (highways and
roads reserved for motor vehicles) and
roads for mixed traffic, and
7
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

- classification in relation to the character of and municipalities. An exception are roads to

the traffic flows – frequency the road is economically significant settlements in the
used (suburban – daily, intercity – territory of the state (economic centres with
periodically, intercity tourist – seasonal). distinct transportation need, ports, airports and
large transport terminals) which are not located
In terms of the position in the space and the
next to the network of class I national roads, so
traffic flow conditions on them, roads are
these roads are classified as class I national
divided into roads outside settlements and
roads.
roads inside settlements. This document deals
only with categorised public roads outside On the basis of these classifications, a
settlements. When a categorised public road categorisation of roads has been made
(of higher categories) runs through a according to specially prescribed criteria for
settlement, its dominant function is intercity road categorisation. Road category is a
connecting. It is also planned and designed program prerequisite, included in the terms of
according to the rules applicable for roads reference for designing roads, on the basis of
outside settlements, where individual elements which, in connection with functional
on the section through the settlement must classification, the program conditions for the
adhere to, harmonise with and be adapted to designing of an individual road are chosen.
the settlement's road network. The road should
run through the settlement in such a way that 4.2.2.1.2 Functional classification
the settlement can continue to develop and on
the other hand the quality of services for users Functional classification is the classification
of the road worsen as little as possible with which the administratively classified roads
(changes traffic regime). In cases of greatly define the traffic purpose and with it the traffic
increased traffic, it is necessary to plan a function of categorised roads is defined, with
beltway which must be designed so that the which appropriate traffic links inside the
future development of the settlement on it is country and the linking of the territory of the
bound through regulated intersections. state with the territory of neighbouring
countries are secured.
4.2.2.1.1 Administrative classification Traffic purpose is defined with 4 basic
functions (long distance connecting,
Administrative classification is defined by the connecting, collecting and servicing) which
Law on Public Roads (Official Gazette of RS, differ from one another primarily by spatial
105/05), where article 5 defines the following distance of the function and the transit traffic
classifications in relation to the importance of share. For functional, spatial and traffic safety
their linking role: reasons, a functional type of road, besides its
- class I national roads which link the territory intended main function, performs a parallel
of the state with the European road network function, and other secondary functions only in
or form part of that network, connect the exceptional cases.
territory of the state with the territory of In terms of the primary function, roads are
neighbouring countries, interconnect the divided into four road varieties:
entire territory of the state and economically - long-distance roads (DP)
important settlements in the territory of the - connecting roads (VP)
state. - collecting roads (SP)
- class II national roads which link the areas - approaching roads (PP)
of two or more districts or areas within a Depending on the spatial level on which the
district, traffic function of the road takes place, the four
- municipal roads which interconnect territory aforementioned road varieties form eight
(within) a municipality, or towns with the functional road types:
territory, or towns with the state road - long-distance roads
network, state and inter-state level (DP-d)
- streets which (inter)connect parts of a - long-distance roads
settlement. inter-regional level (DP-m)
Until a new system of national road - connecting roads
categorisation is approved, the existing names inter-regional level (VP-m)
are used: - connecting roads
- class I national roads - main roads regional level (VP-r)
- class II national roads - regional roads. - collecting roads
regional level (SP-r)
Administrative classification has a spatial
- collecting roads
dimension, which arises from the geopolitical
areal level (SP-p)
order of the state which is divided into districts

8 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

- approaching roads - approaching roads

areal level (PP-p) local level (PP-l)

Figure 1: General connection of road categories according to administrative and functional

classification

The functional classification of a road in the - controlled approaches

road network is not permanent. The conditions
in performing economic activities in the space
and the conditions of managing the space
change. Since the development of the road
network is a fundamental part of national,
regional and municipal spatial plans, in line
with these changes, the functional level of a
road can also change.
On the basis of such a classification system, it
is possible to determine program conditions for
each functional type of road in the road
network, with which the expected quality level
of services on the road are achieved during the
design. The primary planning characteristics of
individual functional road types are:
- length of travel
(which decreases from DP-d to PP-l)
- traffic flow volume
(which decreases from DP-d to PP-l)
- travel speed
(which decreases from DP-d to PP-l)
(which decrease from DP-d to PP-l)
- level of service
(which decreases from DP-d to PP-l)
- area of ground for the road
(which decreases from DP-d to PP-l)
- density of points of access and
intersections
(which increases from DP-d to PP-l)
- length of each variety of road
- in the total length of the road network
(which increases from DP-d to PP-l)
- diversity in the kinds of users on the road
(which increases from DP-d to PP-l)
4.2.2.1.3 Classification by type of terrain
Interurban roads are also classified according
to the shape and height difference of the
terrain through which they run (relief). The
indicators for the preliminary assessment of
terrain type are given in Table 4.2.1.

Table 4.2.1: Indicators of terrain type

Type of terrain flat hilly mountainous

Relative height difference at a length
≤ 50 m 50 – 150 m ≥ 150 m
of 1000 m
Slope inclination ≤1:10 1:10 – 1:2 ≥ 1:2

PE Roads of Serbia 9
Road design elements
4.2.2.2 Traffic volume
4.2.2.2.1 AADT and traffic flow structure
4.2.2.2.1.1 Annual average daily traffic
The volume, character and structure of traffic
are the input program parameters for designing
new and reconstructing and rehabilitating
existing public roads.
The traffic volume is determined by the annual
average daily traffic (hereinafter AADT
[vehicles/day]). AADT is the sum of the
counting of all vehicles in one year, divided by
365 days. AADT data for new builds is
obtained through investigating traffic factors in
the wider or narrower area of influence of the
future road (traffic analyses and forecasts,
computer stimulations), whereas for road
reconstruction or rehabilitation, it is necessary
to constantly monitor the intensity and
structure of traffic flows on the existing road
network, which is done through constant or
periodical counting at predetermined locations.
Counting is done by automatic counters or
periodical counting by hand which is relevant
only for roads with a lower traffic function (VP-
r, SP-r, SP-p, PP-p, PP-l)
For needs of designing roads, from the AADT
data, evaluated for the beginning of the year, it
is necessary to forecast the rise in traffic
volume for an individual year within the
planning periods determined for the type of
measure (new build, reconstruction,
rehabilitation). Roads must be designed
according to forecast information in the final
(last) year of the planning period. Data per
year can be used to check the state in a single
year and for calculations, when the road is
being built in stages (staged building).
The traffic data forecast is conducted
according to recognised expert procedures.
The future traffic volume is the result of a traffic
study (traffic forecast) which, as a rule, needs
to be done for each new build. For
reconstructions and rehabilitations, and for
roads with a lower traffic function, the traffic
volume growth by the end of the planning
period can, instead of a traffic study, be
Table 4.2.2: Planning periods
Functional new build
road type finished
DP-d, DP-m, VP-m 20 (30)
VP-r, SP-r 15 (20)
SP-p, PP-p, PP-l 10 (15)
10
Serbian Road Design Manual
calculated on the basis of the statistically
determined annual degrees of traffic growth on
the observed road.
For roads with the lowest traffic function (SP-p,
PP-p, PP-l), traffic volume is not a deciding
programme indicator. The AADT for them can
be forecast sufficiently accurately by expert
assessment at the end of the planning period.
4.2.2.2.1.2 Traffic flow structure
Information on the structure of the traffic flow is
(practically) essential when dimensioning traffic
and when dimensioning the geometric
(curves), technical (lane width) and structural
(carriageway structure) road elements. In
terms of traffic dimensioning, different vehicles
have different impacts both on the occupancy
of the road area and the capacity of the road
and on the traffic events on the road.
For the purpose of traffic dimensioning of
roads, motor vehicles are divided into:
passenger cars (PA), light goods vehicle
(LGV), goods vehicles (GV), heavy goods
vehicles (HGV) and intercity buses (BUS) and,
in areas with intensive tourist traffic,
recreational vehicles (RV) because drivers of
this type of vehicle have a different approach
to travel than the drivers of other passenger
vehicles. Each vehicle type has different
impacts on the capacity of the road, particularly
on upgrades. If all kinds of goods vehicles and
buses are not processed separately when
counting or using another method to obtain
traffic structure data, their overall sum is used
and labelled together as “heavy vehicles”. The
same applies to passenger cars and light
goods vehicles which can be observed
together as passenger vehicles.
4.2.2.2.2 Planning period
The concept of geometry and cross section of
roads is founded on the estimated traffic flow in
a future time cross section when the road has
been constructed. The planning period is
defined depending on the function of the road
and the type, and the volume of construction
measures. Individual periods are given in
Table 4.2.2.
Reconstruction Rehabilitation
stage
10 (15) 15 (20) 10 (15)
8 (10) 10 (15) 8 (10)
- 8 (10) 5 (8)
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
The values given in brackets are used for new
builds with important engineering structures
(bridges, tunnels, etc.), and for reconstructions
if larger construction interventions are
envisaged in the situational and/or grade level
routing. The planning period for rehabilitations
depends on the scope of the works (longer
planning period for larger works).
EU Directive 2004/54/EC for planning the
construction of roads with tunnels specifies:
1. When traffic in a 15-year forecast exceeds
10,000 vehicles per day per lane, a twin-
tube tunnel should be planned.
2. The first stage is the completed
construction of one tube in an envisaged
twin-tube tunnel, executed in such a way
that it can be additionally turned into a
twin-tube tunnel, and is designed for
temporary two-way traffic. When built in
stages, the design solutions for the
previous stages must be executed from
the design concept for the final stage.
This concept must be attached to the
construction and technical documentation
for each construction stage.
3. The first stage - one tunnel tube for two-
way traffic on a road with two lanes – is
planned the most for that period in which
the daily intensity of the traffic flow per
lane is envisaged not to exceed 10,000
vehicles.
Q (vehicles/h)
Figure 4.2.2: Statistical distribution of hour volume and design hour.
Design traffic volume is defined through an
analysis of the traffic volumes of all hours in a
year (Figure 4.4.2). For road categories DP-d,
DP-m, VP-m, in line with established rules,
traffic volume in the 30th hour (Q30) is taken
into consideration, whereas traffic volume in
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
The expected duration of each stage is defined
by a calculation of the road capacity in each
stage in relation to the rise in traffic volume per
year.
If a road is being built in stages, the road
design must envisage measures which will
ensure that for the duration of the construction
of the next stage the functioning of drainage
devices is not affected and that works are not
executed in the road cross section which could
reduce road drainage capabilities and traffic
safety on the road.
4.2.2.2.3 Design time for traffic dimensioning
Forecast AADT data and the structural share
of the traffic flow at the end of the planning
period for the needs of traffic dimensioning are
not sufficient input data, because the traffic
flow varies during the course of a year and a
day (varying traffic volume), and there are also
differences between driving directions
(irregular traffic volume per direction). The
differences which appear are significant. The
impacts of these differences on traffic
calculations is significantly decreased traffic
volume for all hours (the hours between 6 A.M.
and 10 P.M. are relevant) throughout the year
are included in the calculations and from them
the most representative is selected.
The traffic volume in the chosen hour is called
the design hour for dimensioning or shortened
to design hour (Qm). It is expressed as the
number of vehicles per hour (veh/h).
the 60th consecutive hour (Q60) is taken into
consideration for other roads.
On the basis of the selected design hour
volume, in conditions of free traffic flow, users
are offered throughout the year, except in the
th th
30 or 60 hours, which have stronger traffic
volumes than the chosen hour, the expected
11
Road design elements
high level of services which are distinguished
by the mean spatial driving speed and/or
dense traffic flow.
The ratio between the design hour volume and
AADT is called the K factor (or design hour
factor) and is expressed as a % (Qm*100/AADT
= K factor). This factor greatly depends on the
character of the traffic flows on each type of
% AADT
Figure 4.2.3: Change in the hourly flow depending on the AADT % for different types of road
In order to plan the development of roads, for
traffic dimensioning, empirical design factor
values, which come are derived from analysing
traffic volumes on existing roads of the same
importance can be used. These values can
also be used when designing new build,
reconstructed or rehabilitated roads when no
counting data is available or it is poor.
Traffic volume in the design hour is obtained by
the equation:
Qm = AADT*K/100
Empirical K factor values are:
• suburban roads - K = 10-14%
• interurban roads - K = 13-17%
• intercity tourist roads - K = 15-30%
On roads with particularly pronounced
seasonal traffic (when seasonal traffic
volume exceeds the average value by more
than 50% for example), it is recommended
that traffic data for traffic dimensioning is
calculated separately for the off-season and
seasonal months, and the design hourly
volume of roads for the off-season period
(Qm-off) and the seasonal period (Qm-sea). Qm-
off is intended for traffic dimensioning of the
12
Serbian Road Design Manual
road which differ between suburban,
interurban and interurban tourist roads.
When analysing hour volumes this
significance is demonstrated in the different
curves of change in traffic hour volume
throughout the year (Figure 4.2.3).
suburban roads
interurban roads
Interurban tourist roads
road in off-season months, and Qm-sea for
calculating the level of service on the same
road during seasonal months.
The recommendation is given for the
reason of rational investment of resources
in the road infrastructure. The achievement
of program conditions for individual roads
can be ensured in off-season months,
whereas they, as a rule, are not achieved in
seasonal months. In relation to the traffic
flow structure in seasonal months when the
share of recreational vehicles is largest or
prevailing, for a one degree lower level of
service (lower average travel speed and
increased traffic density), is not a good
enough reason for a greater investment in
the construction of a road which will then be
used lightly in off-seasonal months. If the
calculation for the seasonal period shows
that the deviation in the level of service is
lower than one degree lower than the
established program conditions for a type of
road, it is necessary to repeat the
calculation and select Qm-off so the level of
service during the season is not more than
one degree lower than envisaged for a road
of a specific category.
PE Roads of Serbia
 Serbian Road Design Manual
The aforementioned recommendation
cannot be applied to multi-lane dual
carriageway roads.
4.2.2.2.4 Road capacity and levels of service
Road capacity calculation is a simple, concise
expression of the primary factors which affect
the traffic dimensioning of a road for
undisturbed traffic flow. The level of service
calculation is a compulsory part of the
technical report in the design of high category
roads, and for lower category roads when
requested in the terms of reference or in
relation to actual needs.
With the level of service calculation (levels A-E
and F), the suitability of the composition and
dimensions of elements in the planned cross
section and the geometric elements of the road
centre line is examined at the end of the
planning period.
4.2.2.2.4.1 Road capacity
Road capacity is the maximum amount of
traffic road variety, with its technical
characteristics, at the end of the planning
period can handle while still offering the
envisaged level of service.
Road capacity (on the border between level of
service E and F) is the maximum amount of
traffic flow the road can handle without jams
forming. It is characterised by a very low
average travel speed (spatial speed) which is,
as a rule, lower than that prescribed by the
program conditions for higher category roads,
particularly on roads with several traffic
functions.
The ideal road capacity is the maximum
number of personal car units (PCU) which in
real conditions of the relief cross the section of
the road without jams forming. PCU is a unit
equivalent to a passenger car on which all
vehicles with different and of different factors
are recalculated by dependent indicators.
Table 4.2.3: Measures of effectiveness as a basis for determining the level of service
Road or traffic type
Highway, primary section
highway, weaving area
highway, points of access
road with multiple lanes
road with two lanes
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
In ideal terrain (flat terrain) and traffic (only
passenger cars) conditions, according to HCM
(Highway Capacity Manual), on dual
carriageway roads (motorways), the ideal
capacity of each traffic lane is 2,000
PCU/h*lane. On two-lane bi-directional roads
the ideal road capacity (of both traffic lanes) is
3,200 PCU/h, and 1,700 PCU/h on a lane in
one direction.
For the calculation, the HCM (Highway
Capacity Manual) methodology and HCS
(Highway Capacity Software) software,
prepared according the HCM methodology, are
usable The calculation of the road capacity
according to HCM is similar for both one-
directional (figure 4.2.4) and two-directional
(figure 4.2.5) carriageways, but they differ in
terms of the parameters that decrease the
ideal road capacity which are included.
Road capacity depends on:
- the number of traffic lanes,
- the way vehicles are using the road (one-
direction, two-directional),
- design speeds (V85% or Vperm),
- impact factors of the road (width of traffic
lanes and distance of lateral fixed
obstacles),
- impact factors of the traffic (heavy vehicles,
buses, recreational vehicles),
- irregularity of the traffic volume in the
driving directions (only for two-lane roads if
the ks factor of irregularity is not yet applied
when determining Qm),
- frequency of access locations,
- share of the length in which it is possible to
overtake (only for two-directional
carriageways), and
- the impacts of the method of managing and
directing traffic and technology (not a
parameter in the HCS software, but is a
possibility for improving the conditions for
using the road).
Primary measures of effectiveness
density [PCU/km*lane]
average travel speed [km/h]
flow [PCU/h]
density [PCU/km*lane]
delay percentage [%]
average travel speed [km/h]
flow [PCU/h]
13
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Source:

Figure 4.2.4 Ratio of “density - average speed” and the level of service for a one-way carriageway
(motorway)

Figure 4.2.5 Input data for calculating the capacity and the level of service for a two-lane road (display
of original in HCM 2000)

The capacity can be calculated for: deducting the number of heavy vehicles which
will use the additional lane from the traffic
- either the entire section of the road (with
volume in that direction, and in the calculation
different terrain conditions),
the basic cross section (geometric cross
- or for a single direction (roads with
section, GCS) is kept and the changed
separated carriageway lanes),
irregularity of the traffic flows in both directions
- or for individual upgrades (steepness of the
is taken into account. When installing
upgrade and its length),
additional lanes, it is necessary to also check
- or for individual larger downgrades
the ending area of those lanes in traffic terms
(adaptation of the use of the parameters for
(narrowing into the initial number of traffic
calculating the upgrade).
lanes) and, if needed, extend additional lanes
The capacity for road sections with an
above the minimum determined length.
additional crawler lane is calculated by

14 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

4.2.2.2.4.2 Levels of service dimensions of a road in relation to the

The measure of the adequacy, in terms of
traffic, of the dimensions of a road when
meeting the program conditions for that road
are the levels of service (LOS), which in the
HCS software are defined in relation to
hindrance of vehicles in the traffic flow (density
of the traffic flow) and in relation to the average
travel speed (mean spatial speed). They are
classified into 6 levels: from A to F. Level F is
an unacceptable level of service, because
there the traffic flow is no longer continuous
(Figure 4.2.4 and 4.2.5).
By calculating the levels of service the
effectiveness of the composition and
characteristics of the relief (upgrades) through
which the road runs and in relation to the real
characteristics of the traffic flow (share of the
individual types of vehicles), which should at
the end of the planning period also allow traffic
to flow in the envisaged conditions, can be
ascertained. The level of service for each
variety of road is defined in table 4.2.4. It also
contains the minimum needed share of the
length of the road, on two-way two-lane roads,
on which it is necessary to provide the
possibility of overtaking (overtaking visibility)
and the minimum distance between
intersections.

Table 4.2.4: Primary program conditions for ensuring the effectiveness of the traffic flow

Connecting Long distance

Approaching road Collecting road
road road
PP-l PP-p SP-p SP-r VP-r VP-m DP-m DP-d
(a)
Vehicle traffic flow discontinuous desired continuous
not important
conditions (interrupted flow) (uninterrupted) flow
(b)
Design level of
not applicable E (D) D (E) D (C)
services
flat 90
Basic speed Vo, flat 60 flat 80 flat 100
hilly 70
depending on the hilly 40 hilly 60 hilly 80
mountainous
terrain, in km/h mountainous mountainous 40 mountainous 60
50
flat 60% flat 70% flat 80%
Overtaking in % of flat 40%
hilly 40% hilly 50% hilly 60%
the length, in relation hilly 20%
mountainous mountainous mountainous
to the terrain mountainous 10%
20% 30% 40%
(c)
Minimum distance
400 m 1,000 m 3,000 m 5,000 m
between
(200 m) (500 m) (1,500 m) (3,000 m)
intersections
(a) depends on the characteristics of the traffic volume, compulsory for highways
(b) the levels in brackets are permitted in special spatial conditions
(c) values in brackets are only in exceptional cases
The calculation of the level of service is done The procedure for determining the level of
for: service on one-way carriageways, as a rule, is
- an open road route (general directing of the carried out for each driving direction separately
route on the selected section), and encompasses the following:
- or for individual upgrades (steepness of the 1. Calculation of vehicle speed in the free
upgrade and its length), traffic flow [VPT] with the parameters: Vid -
- access points (on separation, on speed in ideal conditions, fLS - impact of the
connecting, on a turning lane) and factor of the width of driving lane and the
- intersections distance of lateral obstacles, fA - impact of
The calculation of the level of service must be the factor of the frequency of access
done for roads with three lanes and one locations (intersections, access points) and
carriageway. Since these kinds of roads are, the impact of the centre dividing line (speed
as a rule, physically separated according reduction of up to 7km/h, if no such line).
driving direction, the design traffic volume must 2. Calculation of the equivalent flow qP
be determined for each driving direction [PCU/h*lane] with the parameters: design
separately (distribution per direction: 70:30, hourly volume (Qm), PHF - peak hour factor
60:40, etc.), including a calculation of the - 0.88 for interurban and 0.92 for suburban
length for joining at the ending area of the roads, fHV - heavy recreational vehicle
overtaking lane per direction.

PE Roads of Serbia 15
Road design elements
adjustment factor and fG - grade adjustment
factor.
3. Density of the traffic flow which is a
coefficient between the equivalent flow and
the speed in the free traffic flow.
The procedure for determining the level of
service on two-lane roads encompasses:
1. Calculation of vehicle speed in the free
traffic flow [VPT] with the parameters: Vid –
speed in ideal conditions, fLS – impact of the
factor of the width of the driving lane and
the distance of lateral obstacles and fA –
impact of the frequency factor of access
locations (intersections, access points).
2. Calculation of the equivalent flow [PCU/h]
with the parameters: design hourly volume
(Qm), PHF - peak hour factor - 0.88 for
interurban and 0.92 for suburban roads, fHV
- heavy recreational vehicle adjustment
factor and fG - grade adjustment factor.
3. The level of services is calculated via 2
alternative procedures:
3.1 with the average travel speed (Vaver),
which is equal to the speed in the free
traffic flow (VPT), reduced because of
the impact of the equivalent flow (qP)
and the impact of the % share of
length were overtaking is not possible,
or
3.2 with the percent time spent following,
in relation to the time spent in the free
traffic flow with the possibility of
overtaking along the entire length of
the road, which is decisive for roads on
which speed is of secondary
importance (class 2 - according to
HCM).
For roads with two lanes on which drivers
expect larger driving speeds (according to
HCM - class 2), the level which is lower
according to the provisions in sections 3.1 and
3.2 is chosen as the level of service.
4.2.2.2.4.2 Omitting the level of service
calculation
The level of service (LOS) does not need to be
calculated in designs for functional type PP
roads.
On the basis of professional experience, it has
been recommended that the calculation of the
level of service on open road does not have to
be done
- on dual carriageway roads with a traffic
flow AADT< 10,000 vehicles/day and
- on two-lane roads with a traffic flow AADT<
3,500 vehicles/day.
16
Serbian Road Design Manual
4.2.2.2.5 Impact of traffic volume on road
elements
When the calculation of the capacity on the
observed section results in a LOS value which
is only a little lower than the value prescribed
for the category of the road, it is increased in
the following way:
- by increasing the distance of the lateral
obstacles along the entire route,
- with additional crawler lanes on upgrades,
- with additional lanes on descents,
- by increasing the size of the geometric and
technical elements of the road centre line
and
- through a combination of these measures.
When the capacity calculation results in a level
of service (LOS) value which is much lower
than that defined for the road category,
additional driving lanes along the entire
observed section should be envisaged in the
normal cross-section (NCS).
The level of service on the section of the road
where the construction of an additional crawler
lane is envisaged, is calculated either with
traffic data for a single direction if it is a dual
carriageway road or with data for both
directions if the road has one carriageway only
(bi-directional road).
The calculation of the characteristics of the
capacity in these cases is done for the basic
profile of the road, but without the number of
goods vehicles on the upgrades (heavy
vehicles are on the crawler lane added).
4.2.2.3 Parameters of the driver, vehicle
and carriageway
Traffic participants on the road are:
- drivers of motor vehicles and passengers in
the vehicles,
- cyclists,
- pedestrians and
- other participants (tractors and non-
motorised vehicles).
Each participant can use the same or separate
traffic surfaces. The utilisation of the same or
separate traffic surfaces is defined by the
program conditions (attributes) characteristic to
each functional type of road derived from their
primary traffic function.
When a road is built with specific traffic
surfaces for different participants, the
crossings of these surfaces must be planned
with special care, and if parallel routing is
used, sufficient separation depending on the
speed of the vehicles on the carriageway
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
(protective/security width) is taken
consideration.
In order to ensure goals are met when
planning roads, the specific features of the
three basic factors need to be considered:
- The psychophysical properties of the motor
vehicle drivers,
- the types and dimensions of motor vehicles
and
- the quality of contact between vehicle
wheels and the carriageway surface.
The specific values of the properties of each
actor are used for dimensioning the geometric
and technical elements of carriageway and for
choosing and installing appropriate traffic
signalisation and equipment.
4.2.2.3.1 Psychophysical characteristics of
drivers
.
Table 4.2.5: Psychophysical factors and physiological limitations of drivers, and impacts on road
elements and road manoeuvres
Type of factor
field of view
reaction time
lateral acceleration
lateral jerk
longitudinal acceleration
longitudinal jerk*
*lateral jerk is not taken into account when calculating stopping sight distance (intensive
braking).
4.2.2.3.1.1 Field of view
The field of the view is the space which the
driver can see in a single look. The boundaries
of this space are determined by the width
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
into On the carriageways of different functional
types of road there are motor vehicle drivers
who have:
- different psychophysical features (fatigue,
reaction time),
- different knowledge about roads and road
conditions in relation to frequency of use
(periodical or constant - see chapter
4.2.2.1.0) and
- different attitude to using roads (foreigners,
locals).
Driver characteristics are: field of view,
reaction time and physiological limitations.
In order to ensure road elements are selected
rationally, it is necessary to dimension different
functional types of road on the basis of the
different characteristics of users. The
characteristics are given in Table 4.2.5.
Road design elements
length of the straight line, signalisation
stopping sight distance, visibility
minimal radius of the vertical curve
minimal radius of the arc
minimal length of the transition curve
length of braking or acceleration
free braking
(angle) and depth of the view (length), which
change during motion.
There are different areas in the field of view:
o sharp visibility (angle α=3-5°),
o relative visibility (angle β=10-15°),
o peripheral visibility (angle γ=120-180°),
17
Road design elements
γ
Pv
Figure 4.2.6: Field of view in a horizontal plane
ν
Pν
Figure 4.2.7: Field of view in a vertical plane
Sharp visibility is the length which allows the
driver to be able to decide the next manoeuvre
and perform it safely within a time period of 10-
12 seconds.
Sharp visibility is calculated with the following
formula
Pv = 3V [m], where V [km/h]
and normal vision with the formula
Pv = 6V [m], where V [km/h]
Sharp visibility distance, when it is significantly
longer than stopping sight distance, is used to
analyse manoeuvres in the free traffic flow, to
establish harmonious spatial relations and to
route roads and up-grade intersections.
Normal vision is used in optical analyses of the
route and interchanges.
The greatest depth of the field of vision where
in normal visibility conditions it is possible to
see the contours of vehicles on the road is 1.5-
2.0 km.
The design position of a driver's eyes in a
passenger vehicle is at height hv = 1.10 m
above the carriageway and at distance bv=
1.50 from the right edge of the traffic lane in
18
Serbian Road Design Manual
β
α movement
smer
kretanja
direction
hν
which the driver is driving. In order to raise
traffic safety on a road which a driver only uses
periodically (class I national roads), it is
recommended that the driver's eye level is
lowered to hv = 1.00 m.
4.2.2.3.1.2 Reaction time
A driver's reaction time to a situation on the
road depends on the driver’s physiologic
characteristics. Reaction time (tr) varies from
driver to driver and comes to between 0.7 and
2.5 seconds. In order to ensure safety on the
road, the reaction time achievable by very
weak or tired drivers must be taken for the
design time.
When planning roads in terms of the type of
typical users take the following values into
account:
o normal 2.0 sec,
o acceptable 1.5 sec,
o exceptional 1.0 sec,
Normal reaction time is used when
dimensioning road elements, particularly when
calculating stopping sight distance. In 2
seconds a vehicle travels Lr = 0.556 V [m].
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

Acceptable reaction time can be used on lower o longitudinal jerk sT

-3
category roads where drivers are constant
for free braking (maxsT) 2.5 ms
users (rationality), and exceptionally when
analysing traffic safety. 4.2.2.3.2 Design vehicle dimensions

4.2.2.3.1.3 Physiological restrictions Motor vehicles due to the purpose and driving-
dynamical demands are relevant for defining
Traffic safety on the road, which can be the dimensions of roads and their additional
provided with design solutions, depends a organisation.
great deal on the extent of the direction
changes which acts with accelerations and The main characteristics of motor vehicles are:
intensity (change in acceleration) which jerks - the dimensions which determine the width
the driver, passengers and the vehicle in the of traffic lanes and widening in curves,
longitudinal and/or transverse direction. In - manoeuvrability which defines the outer
order to prevent negative effects for the driver turning circle (hairpins and intersections),
and passengers during standard road - engine power which ensures enough speed
manoeuvres, acceleration and jerk values have for ascents (additional lanes),
been categorised into comfortable and - driving speed which determines the
acceptable, for the purposes of dimensioning capacity of the road, and
specific road elements, with speeds of - vehicle speed changing system – motor
between 40 and 130 km/h: acceleration, as well as motor and stopping
deceleration.
o lateral acceleration uN
-2

for comfortable driving 1.0 ms 4.2.2.3.2.1 Motor vehicles
-2

for acceptable driving 2.2 ms
-2

upper limit 3.5 ms Motor vehicles and their dimensions, which are

for dimensioning the minimal permitted on roads within the European Union,
radius of a horizontal curve are defined by EU Directive 96/53-EC and
-2
with a slope i = -2.5% 0.5 ms 2002/7-EC and the Guidelines on the
o lateral jerk sN classification of motor vehicles and trailers and
-3

for the speed 40 km/h 0.8 ms technical conditions for vehicles in road traffic
-3

for the speed 130 km/h 0.3 ms (Official Gazette of RS, no. 64/10, 69/10 and
o longitudinal acceleration uT 81/11) were drawn up in line with those
-2

for comfortable driving 2.7 ms directives.
-2

for acceptable driving 3.5 ms

upper limit 4.5 ms
-2 Motor vehicle dimensions and outer turning
circle sizes are given in Table 4.2.6.

PE Roads of Serbia 19
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Table 4.2.6: Vehicle dimensions and their manoeuvrability

Vehicle dimensions
[m] Outer
Transport means turning circle (radius)
length width height RSP
[m]

1
motorised bicycle 1.80 0.60 1.00 3.00
1
motorcycle 2.25 0.70 1.00 3.00
typical passenger car 4.70 1.75 1.50 5.80
small passenger car 3.80 1.60 1.40 5.30
large passenger car 5.15 1.90 1.60 6.00
multi-purpose passenger vehicle 4.70 2.10 1.70 5.80
combined vehicle 5.00 2.10 2.30 6.20
goods vehicle
2
small truck 6.00 2.10 2.30 6.20
3 2
typical tandem axle 8.50 2.50 3.00 9.60
3 2
typical tri-axle 10.00 2.50 3.00 9.80
3
truck with trailer 16.00 2.50 4.00 12.50
3
semi-trailer, truck 16.50 2.50 4.00 12.00
garbage truck
2
typical tandem axle 7.70 2.50 3.30
2
typical tri-axle 10.50 2.50 3.30
2
fire truck 6.80 2.50 2.80 9.25
fire truck with ladders 12.0 2.50 3.50 10.50
3
typical bus I 11.00 2.50 2.95 10.25
3
typical bus II 11.50 2.50 2.95 11.00
3 4
typical intercity bus 12.00 2.50 3.10/3.45 11.40
3
typical articulated bus 18.00 2.50 2.95 12.00
tractor with trailer 9.20 1.80 3.50 4.50
1
together with rider and co-rider 2.0 m
2
height of driver’s cabin
3
with outer wing mirror 2.95 m
4
double-decker bus

20 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
4.2.2.3.2.2 Design vehicle
The design vehicle for determining the
standard dimensions of the width of the traffic
lanes and height of the traffic clearance on
public roads is a goods vehicle 2.5m wide and
4.00m tall.
On low traffic roads and special purpose roads
(non-standard roads), the largest vehicle
typical for that road can be taken into account.
Table 4.2.7: Non-motorised transport means and their manoeuvrability
Vehicle dimensions
Transport means length
child's buggy 1.10
wheelchair 1.25
bicycle 1.85
1
together with rider and co-rider 2.0 m
4.2.2.3.3 Goods vehicles on an ascent
Motorised goods vehicles (lorries, heavy lorries
and trucks) are a physical obstacle on the road
because of their dimensions and weight and
their dynamic properties, which have a
significant effect on road capacity, and
depending on their share of the traffic flow,
strongly decrease the level of service on
ascents and larger descents.
The fastest speed of heavy vehicles is
generally limited to a maximum of 100km/h.
The speed of these vehicles decreases a lot on
ascents depending on:
• the size of the slope and the length of the
upgrade (i%, L)
• the initial (starting) speed
• the ratio between the vehicle’s weight and
the engine power (in kg/kW)
• the ratio between the vehicle’s weight and
2
the head-on area of the vehicle (in kg/m );
It is necessary to check the temperature of the
breaks on descents as they (can) exceed the
permitted value on some types of goods
vehicles.
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
4.2.2.3.2.3 Non-motorised vehicles
It is necessary to take into account the minimal
dimensions given in Table 4.2.7 when
designing certain roads where non-motorised
vehicles are also present in the road traffic.
[m]
Outer
turning circle (radius)
width height
RSP [m]
0.55 1.001
1.00
0.85 1.101
0.60 1.001 3.00
The computer programme in Road Safety
Manual (PIARC, 2003-version 1) is used to
calculate the speed profile and the brake
temperature rise profile.
The Guidelines on the classification of motor
vehicles and trailers and technical conditions
for vehicles in road traffic (Official Gazette of
RS no. 64/10, 69/10 and 81/11) determine the
maximum ratio between the vehicle’s power
and weight as 5 kW/kg or 200 kg/kW.
For an approximate assessment of the start
and end of an additional crawler lane and for
an assessment of the need for an additional
lane, the diagram in Figure 4.2.8, where
deceleration and acceleration on ascents have
been evaluated for the average goods vehicle,
can be used in the initial design stages.
Because of modest acceleration, which is 50%
less than passenger cars, interference is
created when changing lanes (joining,
weaving), which needs to be taken into
account when designing the length of the road
for this manoeuvre.
21
Road design elements
Figure 4.2.8: Diagram of changing speeds depending on the size and length of the ascent
4.2.2.3.4 Types of carriageway surfaces and
the coefficient of slide friction
The characteristics of the carriageway surface
come to the forefront during the dimensioning
of the individual road design elements. The
most important characteristic of
carriageway surface is roughness, which
defines the speed at which water drains from
the carriageway and the creation of friction
between the carriageway surface vehicle tyres.
Even, clean and wet is considered the
standard state of the carriageway surface for
normal roughness.
Friction is different when a wheel rotates and
when a wheel brakes. The indicator of the
intensity of friction is the coefficient of friction,
which is the ratio between the force of friction
and the normal force of weight underneath the
wheels of a vehicle. The values for a clogged
wheel (coefficient of slide friction – COF) are
used for dimensioning.
The shape, size and spatial flow of a road for
the chosen design speed is defined through
the combination of the size of the dimensions
of a vehicle, the values of the acceptable
psychophysical characteristics of the driver
and the coefficient of slide friction.
4.2.2.3.4.1 Types of carriageway surfaces
The carriageway surface is the upper finished
surface of the upper layer of the road
(carriageway structure). Carriageways are built
using different materials and mixtures of
22
Serbian Road Design Manual
materials. The primary types of carriageway
surfacing are:
• macadam
• paved
• asphalt
• cement-concrete
Macadam and paved surfacing are used in
the
new builds only in exceptional circumstances;
they are only suitable for lower driving speeds
(<50 km/h). Asphalt is used for larger speeds
and cement-concrete surfacing for especially
heavy traffic volumes.
The coefficient of slide friction is very
heterogeneous and relatively small on
macadam and paved roads, due to the
composition and materials of the surface, in
comparison with the COF on asphalt and
cement-concrete surfacing, where it depends
on the driving speed and wear (evenness).
Cement-concrete surfacing wears slowly if
correctly constructed.
4.2.2.3.4.2 Coefficient of slide friction
The following have the largest effect on the
value of the coefficient of friction (ft):
• speed at which the vehicle is moving,
• wetness and the temperature of the
carriageway,
• the wearing layer of the carriageway
structure (surface texture, type of mineral
aggregate, quantity of binder),
• profile and material of vehicle tyres.
The coefficient of slide friction (COF or µg) or
adhesion ability has been determined
empirically with a standard tyre and according
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
to the procedure approved by the international
organisation PIARC. When designing roads,
the values measured on 95% of all
carriageways is used; it is the lower acceptable
COF threshold, which is used for dimensioning
road elements. COF values fall as driving
speed increases. That decrease is expressed
as follows:
COF is a vector quantity which is divided into
transversal (fT) and radial (fR) elements when
used for different various road element
dimensioning purposes. The following applies
for the maximum COF quantity in both
perpendicular directions:
Figure 4.2.9: Interdependence of utilisation of COF according to normal components
4.2.2.3.4.3 Design values of the coefficient of
slide friction
COF (fT) can be used fully for calculating brake
stopping distances. Using COF transversally
(fR) is only allowed to the extent where it does
not jeopardise the safety of traffic when
braking on the same geometric element of the
road.
The design COF values are defined for asphalt
pavement where an aggregate of carbonate
origin has been used in the wearing layer
(limestone). For practical use in designing
roads design, values have been determined
and they are shown in Table 4.2.8. The design
values of fT also indirectly encompass impacts,
which arise from the driving manner and air
resistance, while the design values fR have
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
fT max = ft max and fR max = n ⋅ ft max
Where factor n depends on the speed and the
following equation applies
n = 0,873 + 10,3 ⋅ 10-4 ⋅ V
A different value of fRmax can be established
through appropriate assessment in special
cases (analyses). In principle, it is permitted to
use the factor n = 0.925, which corresponds to
a driving speed of 50 km/h, for determining
fRmax.
The following applies to the resultant of both
COF components, shown in Figure 4.2.9
2 2
f  f 
ft2 = fT2 + fR2 and 1 =  T max  +  R max 
f f
 t max   t max 
already been reduced to a value which does
not jeopardise traffic safety when braking on
the same geometric road element.
To rehabilitate critical locations on existing
roads, an aggregate of silicate origin (igneous)
can be used in the wearing layer. Its resistance
to wear is must larger than the resistance of
aggregate of carbonate origin and this is the
COF (fS) is significantly higher. Informative
values for fS (reduction impacts not included)
are given in Table 4.2.8.
Using the COF value for igneous material
when designing new roads is not permitted in
principle. It is only permitted when the
manager of the road agrees that the usage
plan envisages the renewal of the carriageway
surface solely with material of silicate origin.
23
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Table 4.2.8: Coefficient of friction design values depending on speed

Vr [km/h] 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

designfT [-] 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.41
designfR [-] 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.19
fs [-] 0.51 0.480 0.460 0.430 0.410 0.390 0.370 0.353 0.338 0.325 0.313

The COF values on a dry carriageway and a
frozen carriageway are also used for special
analyses and calculations. On a dry asphalt
pavement, the informative lower value ft is 0.75
[-], and between 0.08 (V = 40 km/h) and 0.11
(V = 80 km/h) on a frozen carriageway.
4.2.2.4 Design speeds,
acceleration/deceleration and
length of deceleration
4.2.2.4.1 Design speeds
Besides traffic flow volume, speed is the
primary parameter with which, during road
design, a designer defines and dimensions the
elements in the plan, longitudinal section and
cross section. It is also the base criterion when
evaluating variants.
The following speeds need to be taken into
account during design and maintenance:
• travelling speed or average spatial
speed (Vs), which is a program parameter
for dimensioning the profile and geometric
elements of the road in terms of traffic,
• permitted driving speed (Vd), which is the
legal or administrative restriction (speed
limit) defined as the fasted allowed speed
on the road or a section of it and
• driving speed (Vv), which is the current
speed at which a vehicle is moving along
the carriageway.
The speeds used when dimensioning road
elements in terms of traffic and driving-
dynamics are:
• basic speed (Vo), which is the initial
program parameter for selecting the level of
service on a specific road route at design
traffic volume (Qmer) and characteristic
terrain, with the help of which the
composition and dimensions of elements
in the cross section are chosen.
• design speed (Vr), which stems from
the programmed basic speed and, in
relation to the terrain conditions, is the
chosen theoretical value for calculating
the limit geometric elements of the road
centre line and crossfalls in horizontal
curves with Rg > Ri > Rmin,
• maximum design speed (maxVr) is the
speed which a vehicle can reach on a
long straight line and is used as the
uppermost limit for increasing the
geometric elements of the road, when
this is needed for achieving the
envisaged level of service on a specific
road in terms of design traffic flow
(Qmer),
• free flow speed (Vp) is the speed of a
vehicle in the free traffic flow on a clean
and wet carriageway; it is also called
V85% and is enabled by the individual
technical elements of the designed or
existing road and is used as a design
speed for analysing traffic safety and
correcting individual technical elements
of the road, and
• transverse direction speed (Vb) which
is the speed at which a vehicle travels
when moving in a transverse direction to
change traffic lane on the carriageway.

Table 4.2.9: Basic speed (Vo) values

Terrain characteristics
Road variety
flat hilly mountainous
distance 100 80 60
connecting 90 70 50
collecting 70 60 40
approaching 50 40 30

24 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

Table 4.2.10: Design speed values (Vr)

Terrain characteristics
Road type max Vr
flat hilly mountainous
distance 130* 100 80 140 (120)**
connecting 100 80 70 120 (100)**
collecting 90 70 50 100-80
approaching 60 50 40 80-60

*) for two-lane or multi-lane roads Vr ≤100 km/h

**) values for two-lane or multi-lane (staged construction) roads

The minimum length of the section with a constant design speed is 20-30 km, and 5km in
exceptional circumstances.

driving directions. The construction of the speed

4.2.2.4.2 Determining the free flow speed profile is done on the basis of the following:
• free flow speed – radius of the horizontal curve
Free flow speed is an authoritative value for (Vp-R),
dimensioning specific road elements, traffic and • free flow speed – longitudinal slope (Vp-iN) and
civil engineering equipment on the road, as well
• driving model, with the help of which the
as for evaluating variants in reliable and
approximation of the speed variation in the free
comfortable driving conditions in the free traffic traffic flow (acceleration/deceleration) in terms of
flow.
elements of the centre line and grade level of the
Free flow speed is determined for elements
road is achieved.
chosen in the design for the road (for analysing
the suitability of the chosen elements) or by The speed profile is created according to
measuring the speed on an existing road (for professionally recognised procedures (Figure 4.2.10)
settling speed limits and rectifying dangerous or by computer programmes. If not otherwise
locations). It spans Vri ≤ Vp ≤ maxVr. It is used stipulated by the terms of reference, due to the
in the conceptual and main road design stages. importance of the road, the analysis is done for roads
designed with the design speed Vr ≥70 km/h.
The free flow speed graphic presentation is the
speed profile which should be created for both

direction

curvature (1/m)

Free flow speed (km/h)

Figure 4.2.10: Speed profile example

PE Roads of Serbia 25
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

For a simplified assessment of the speed on a designed road and to harmonise the size of elements
on roads with the design speed Vr < 70km/h, as well as on existing roads, the following can be used:
• for dual carriageway roads and Vr < Vd:
Vp = Vzasn + 10 km/h (markedly curved routes)
Vp = Vzasn + 20 km/h (for stretched routes),
• for two-way roads and Vr < Vd:
max Vp = Vd (in relation to the road category)

4.2.2.4.3 Transverse direction speed o for active deceleration - braking (ak)

passenger cars
Speed in the transverse direction is a design for Vv = 60-100 km/h 3.75 - 2.94 ms
-2

quantity which is used to calculate the length of
passenger cars

the transition area when changing traffic lanes. for Vv = 80 km/h 3.31 ms
-2

It depends on the width between the lanes and
goods vehicles 1.50 ms
-2

the driving speed, and on the directional For individual analyses (e.g. design speed
course of the road route (in a straight line, in a -2
profile), a = d = 0.80 ms can be used for
curve). acceleration and deceleration.
Unless otherwise stipulated for individual
cases, the following values are used: 4.2.2.4.5 Length for changing driving speed
• gentle 0.7 m/s The length of the road needed for changing
(for speeds > 70 km/h, for heavy vehicles or driving speed is calculated from the
a road in a curve) acceleration/deceleration values, given in the
• acceptable 1.0 m/s previous item, as follows:
(for speeds ≤ 70 km/h, for passenger cars,
2 2
a road in a straight line). ∆L = (V0 – V1 ) / 26*(ai + 0.1*iN)
The calculated length is the shortest length where:
needed to change traffic lanes, but it cannot be ∆L [m] length for changing speed
shorter than the length which, in given traffic V0 [km/h] starting driving speed,
and terrain conditions, is calculated by traffic V1 [km/h] ending driving speed,
dimensioning (merging, weaving). aj
2
[m/s ] acceleration/deceleration,
iN [%] gradient.
4.2.2.4.4 Acceleration and deceleration of
Whereby, the acceleration/deceleration (a)
motor vehicles
value stemming from the skidding resistance
When changing speed on the road, besides between the carriageway and tyres (COF –
the psychophysical characteristics of the coefficient of slide friction) at the initial speed,
driver, vehicle acceleration and deceleration or from the COF value measured on the
come into the equation. Vehicles change carriage way when the true conditions on the
speed either via the engine (engine carriage way are determined, can be used as
acceleration/passive deceleration) or with the the upper limit of these values. The upper limit
brakes (active acceleration/braking). of acceleration/deceleration is defined by:
Vehicle deceleration and acceleration on the a dej ≤ ft dop ⋅ g
road, which are used when calculating
individual elements, cannot exceed the values where:
2
defined as characteristic for drivers. adej [m/s ] is the actual / used part of
To analyse traffic safety of manoeuvres on acceleration,
roads, the following values can be taken into ft dop [-] is the maximum permitted COF
account: value in terms of speed,
2
o for acceleration (ap) g [m/s ] gravitational acceleration (9.81
-2

passenger cars 0.50 - 1.50 ms
-2 ms ).
-2

goods vehicles 0.30 - 0.75 ms When calculating speed changing manoeuvres
o for passive deceleration (am) on the road, the use of the acceleration /

passenger cars deceleration value aj = 1.00 ms
-2
is
-2
for Vv = 60-100 km/h 0.50 - 0.82 ms recommended for comfortable driving.

passenger cars
-2
for Vv = 80 km/h 0.66 ms

26 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

4.2.2.5 Program and technical conditions
Input driver and vehicle parameters are in
principle the same for all types of road. The
only exception is the vehicle dimension
parameter which is standardised for national
roads, whereas in localised areas, vehicle
dimensions representative for that road can be
chosen for dimensioning roads and the
structures on them. In these cases, traffic
signalisation signifies which kind of vehicle the
road is designed for.
Parameters derived from functional
classification, traffic volume and design speed
on the road, are different for each functional
type of road. In order to achieve the envisaged
or required program objective when designing,
it is necessary to take the following into
account besides the input parameters given
the characteristics of drivers, vehicles and
driving surfaces
- general program conditions,
- accompanying structures on the road and
by the road, and
- road network arrangement hierarchy,
in order that construction is rational, driving on
the designed road is suitably fast, comfortable
and safe, and the road complies with the
purpose of the land-space through which it
runs, and traffic can be routed and controlled
on it.
primarily adapted to the needs of the
settlement. If those sections run through a
settlement and have been adapted to the
needs of the settlement, the program
conditions for the road network within
settlements must be taken into consideration.
The general program conditions, according to
the “permitted - forbidden - exceptions”
system, determine the following for each
functional type of road:
- relationships between the road and the built
surrounding environment,
- restrictions on the presence of certain types
of vehicles, and stopping and parking on
the road, as well as
- restrictions on the presence and method of
movement of public transport lines, cyclists
and pedestrians.
The general program conditions are given in
Tables 4.2.11, 4.2.12 and 4.2.13.

4.2.2.5.1 General program conditions

The general program conditions are the basis

for managing roads. They establish the
obligations and norms which need to be taken
into consideration when designing roads in
order for the road to function at the specific
functional level and be as safe as possible,
and in order for negative impacts from the
environment around the road and the impacts
of the road and its traffic on the environment to
be eliminated or reduced to an acceptable
extent. The general program conditions
determine what needs to be done, and
technical regulations are in line with them and
establish how it shall be executed.
Program conditions affect intercity roads
(interurban roads) and the sections of those
roads through settlements which are not

PE Roads of Serbia 27
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Table 4.2.11: General program conditions - relationship

between the road and the built surrounding area

Approaching Collecting Connecting Long distance

Road variety
road road road road
Road type PP-l PP-p SP-p SP-r VP-r VP-m DP-m DP-d

entry/exit does not enter/exit

local no/yes
transit does not transit
classification

entry/exit does not enter/exit

areal no/yes
transit does not transit
entry/exit does not enter/exit
regional no/yes
transit does not transit

national entry/exit/transit no/yes no

building permitted in
alongside the permitted exceptional forbidden
road cases

access control none partial complete

permitted in
direct access
permitted exceptional forbidden
for vehicles
cases
acceptable in restricted according to variety and
staying in road acceptable
exceptional location
zone functions
cases (accompanying facilities for users)
environmental
not needed in
protection as needed obligatory
principle
measures

Table 4.2.12: General program conditions – restrictions on the presence of certain types of vehicles,
and stopping and parking on the road

Approaching Collecting Connecting Long distance

Road variety
road road road road
Road type PP-l PP-p SP-p SP-r VP-r VP-m DP-m DP-d
passenger cars
and permitted
motorcycles
tourist
regulated permitted
(intercity) buses
goods vehicles regulated permitted

road trains regulated permitted

tractors and
agricultural permitted regulated forbidden
vehicles
permitted on the
stopping regulated or off forbidden
carriageway
(as desired) the carriageway
in line with driving rules
stopping permitted on the carriageway in line permitted outside the lanes
(justified) with general driving rules of the carriageway
regulated on or
regulated on the only off the carriageway in special
parking off the
carriageway areas
carriageway

28 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

Table 4.2.13: General program conditions – public transport lines, cyclists, pedestrians
Approaching Collecting Long
Road variety Connecting road
road road distance road
Road type PP-l PP-p SP-p SP-r VP-r VP-m DP-m DP-d
public
permitted under
Public transport

transport no/yes permitted forbidden

special conditions
bus
can be on the stops outside the lanes of the
Stops none
carriageway carriageway
pedestrian
designed at designed at grade
access to at-grade none
grade (or in 2 grades)
stops
free,
longitudinal regulated
free regulation forbidden
movement (or forbidden)
recommended
longitudinal together with directed
flows none pedestrians or moved path outside the
cyclists

protection moved path road area

pedestrian
crossings and/or regulated, grade-
crossing free
crossings for cyclist crossings separated
cyclists
directing of at-grade or grade- grade-
at-grade
cross flows separated separated
longitudinal can be on the regulated,
forbidden
movement carriageway one side or both sides as needed
longitudinal directed
verge - side separation lane
none outside the
Pedestrians

flows
with/without kerbs
protection road area
regulated if
regulated
required, grade-
crossing free pedestrian
pedestrian separated
crossings
crossings
directing of at-grade or grade- grade-
at-grade
cross flows separated separated

Since alternative ordering is possible,
decisions when designing roads are approved
in relation to the volume of pedestrians and
cyclists and in relation to the vehicle speed
envisaged on a specific road.
4.2.2.5.2 Accompanying facilities by the road
and on the road
Achieving the program objective for individual
functional type roads not only depends on the
characteristics of the road route and
intersections, but also on the facilities which
enable road maintenance, traffic management,
fast intervention, fuel supply and servicing for
road users. Facilities are either buildings or
design elements. We distinguish:
- functional facilities and
- facilities for the needs of users.
The accompanying facilities for individual
functional type roads are given in Tables
4.2.14 and 4.2.15.

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Table 4.2.14: Accompanying functional facilities

Approaching Collecting Long distance

Road variety Connecting road
road road road
Road type PP-l PP-p SP-p SP-r VP-r VP-m DP-m DP-d

maintenance bases network concept possible YES YES

traffic management possibl
network concept possible YES YES
and control e

toll NO NO NO NO NO possible possible YES

heavy freight vehicles
regulated permitted
with semi-trailers
tractors and
permitted regulated forbidden
agricultural vehicles
permitted on the regulated or
stopping forbidden
carriageway off the
(as desired)
in line with driving rules carriageway
Stopping permitted on the carriageway in line permitted outside the lanes
(justified) with general driving rules of the carriageway
regulated on regulated on or
only off the carriageway in special
Parking the off the
areas
carriageway carriageway

Road maintenance bases and traffic control
centres are organised in such a way that they
cover the entire road network:
- the concept is linear (per section, with
links to the central unit) for DP and VP-m
roads
- a network concept is used for other roads
(spatial level).
The locations of maintenance bases need to
be determined while adhering to the specific
conditions in which they operate (accessibility,
weather conditions, utilities provision).
The arrangement or location of accompanying
functional facilities is determined in the design
in line with the needs of road users and the
traffic supervisor.

Table 4.2.15: Accompanying facilities for the needs of users (obligatory design)

Approaching Collecting Connecting Long distance

Road variety
road road road road
Road type PP-l PP-p SP-p SP-r VP-r VP-m DP-m DP-d

car parks NO NO possible possible YES YES YES YES

rest areas NO NO NO NO possible YES YES YES

fuel stations NO NO possible possible YES YES YES YES

repair services NO NO NO possible possible YES YES YES

motels NO NO NO NO possible possible YES YES

permitted on the
stopping regulated or off forbidden
carriageway
(as desired) the carriageway
in line with driving rules
stopping permitted on the carriageway in line permitted off the
(justified) with general driving rules carriageway
regulated on or
regulated on the only off the carriageway in special
parking off the
carriageway areas
carriageway

30 PE Roads of Serbia
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The arrangement of accompanying facilities
and structures for the needs of users depends
on the psychophysical features of the driver
(fatigue), and for vehicles needing to refuel
(fuel reserve ~ 35 km). On VP-m, DP-m and
DP-d roads it is necessary to abide by in full
the distances between individual locations
(Table 4.2.16) in order to avoid creating a non-
uniform traffic flow.
Parking areas and rest areas are designed in
line with needs and demand. The capacity and
equipment for each type of facility is defined by
a special technical regulation.
The size of service centres is defined in line
with demand. They are located in places where
the centre is also accessible via other road
networks (servicing of the centre). They must
be fully equipped with utilities and constantly
inspected. As a rule, they operate non-stop for
24 hours a day.
It is necessary to offer road users a variety of
services at distances which are in a specific
rhythm, because not to do so could affect the
quality of the traffic flow on the road. Types of
services and their distances from one another
are given in Table 4.2.16.

Table 4.2.16: Types of services for users and distances

Type of service Distance

- short retention of vehicles, emergency call, toilet, drinking water 10 – 20 km

- short rest, buffet, shops 20 – 40 km
- information stand, recreation activities, restaurant, petrol 40 – 80 km
Station
- motel, repair service 80 – 160 km

roads. Each functional type of road can be only

4.2.2.5.3 Road network arrangement
hierarchy
In order to maintain the same level of quality of
services on a road, it is necessary to adhere
strictly to the linking hierarchy (Table 4.2.17) at
places where the road connects with other
connected to a road which is the same type or
is one degree higher or lower. This rule can
only be deviated from for reasons of spatial
and/or terrain restrictions, and in the
development stages of the road network.

Table 4.2.17 Linking functional types of road within the road network arrangement hierarchy

Road Approaching Collecting Connecting Long distance

variety road road road road
Road type PP-l PP-p SP-p SP-r VP-r VP-m DP-m DP-d
PP-l YES YES POS OE
PP-p YES YES YES POS OE
SP-p POS YES YES YES POS OE
SP-r OE POS YES YES YES POS OE
VP-r OE POS YES YES YES POS OE
VP-m OE POS YES YES YES POS
DP-m OE POS YES YES YES
DP-d OE POS YES YES
YES - normal PO - possible OE – only exceptionally

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Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

In order to achieve the required level of service
on a primary road, it is necessary to properly
arrange the crossing of the road with other
roads along the road, and design the junction
in relation to the size of the traffic volumes in
the primary and secondary routes, as well as in
relation to the presence and number of other
road users (cyclists, pedestrians). Whether the
crossing is executed at-grade or grade-
separated depends on the overall range of
conditions and the intensity of each traffic flow.
4.2.2.6 Steps taken when selecting and
correcting road elements
The starting point for selecting and
dimensioning road elements is the road type,
whereby the input parameters are the
following: traffic function, traffic volume and
design speed which depend further on the
conditions in the land-space (relief, restrictions)
through which the road runs.
If the conditions in the land-space restrict the
choice of design speed to such an extent that
the achievement of the program objectives is
jeopardised, the conditions need to be
achieved through additional measures on the
road (improving road elements in order to
achieve a larger average travel speed).
Roads, as a rule, are designed with geometric
elements which are larger than the limit values
defined for a specific design speed. On certain
elements or on the larger length of the road,
the free flow speed will be so large that driving
can be expected to become dangerous after a
certain period of time. Therefore, in designs for
class I national roads (except highways) and
other important roads with predominately
periodical users, the design road elements
must be supplemented (corrected) as shown in
Table 4.2.18.

Table 4.2.18: Steps taken when selecting and correcting road elements in order to ensure traffic
functionality (all roads) and traffic safety (two-lane roads)

TRAFFIC FUNCTIONALITY

ROAD CATEGORY

+ +
BASIC SPEED AADT with traffic structure
⇓ ⇓
Vr Qm

⇓ ⇓
GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS OF THE
GCS
ROAD CENTRE LINE

For two-lane category I state roads and other important roads

⇓ +
free flow speed profile per direction traffic dimensioning

⇓ ⇓
Vp = V85%
level of service (LOS)
or from the free flow speed profile
⇓ ⇓
CORRECTIONS (if needed)
- crossfalls - easing the upgrade
- Rmin at counter-slope - iPmin - moving of side obstacles
- length of transition curve - increasing the length of the
- required visibility overtaking section
- minimal vertical curves - additional traffic lanes

32 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

the traffic moving along it widens. And

simultaneously this is an area in which
4.3 CROSS SECTION OF THE activities are restricted so as not to affect the
ROAD stability of the road body and the traffic on the
road. In line with the provisions of the Law on
Public Roads (Official Gazette of RS, 105/05)
4.3.1 TYPES OF CROSS SECTIONS ON the width of the protection zone for different
ROADS functional types of roads and for highways is
different. The width of the protection belt
(article 29 of the Law on Public Roads) for
The cross section is a technical display of the each side of the road is
road perpendicular in relation to the road
centre line. In the widest sense, it is the road • class I national roads - highways 40 m
body shown in a cross section together with all • class I national roads 20 m
accompanying facilities and designed areas. It • class II national roads 10 m
defines the type, composition and dimensions, • municipal roads 5m
as well as the height relations between the
individual elements which form it. It is defined The spatial and physical structure of the cross
on the basis of program starting points and section for roads is shown in Figure 4.2.11 for
conditions for defined functional types of road roads with a single carriageway and in Figure
when running through areas with different land 4.2.12 for roads with a dual-carriageway.
uses.
In terms of the utilisation of the land-space
through which a road runs, the following are
distinguished:
• urban area (dense development),
• suburban area (thin construction, individual
buildings, facilities for production activities,
etc.) and
• rural area (predominately undeveloped
area, forest, agricultural land, parks, etc.).
A section of road through an area with different
land uses can be executed for a changed user
structure if permitted by the conditions which
ensure functionality. Here the technical and
geometric elements can also be changed.
Special attention should be paid to the
technical design of the transition crossing part
(exit, entry) of these road sections and, if
needed, special traffic signalisation and
equipment should be anticipated.
Depending on the technical purpose, the cross
section for different design stages is created, in
terms of content and graphics, as the following:
• geometric cross section (GCS),
• normal cross section (NCS) and
• characteristic cross section (CCS).

4.3.1.1 Spatial and physical structure of

the road

The traffic and non-traffic surfaces, the road

body protection and road maintenance
surfaces, total land requirement and the air
space form the road environment in a cross
section. Along the road land there is a space
on which the negative impacts of the road and

PE Roads of Serbia 33
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Figure 4.2.11: Spatial and physical structure of cross section of the road

Figure 4.2.12: Spatial and physical structure of motorway cross section

in planning and the initial design steps. It

4.3.1.2 Types of cross sections in road
designs
Geometric cross section (GCS) is a cross
section presentation which is intended for use
shows the type, number and arrangement of
traffic and functional lanes on the road, as well
as their dimensions. The composition and
dimensions of functional lanes on bridges and
viaducts, as well as on underpasses, galleries

34 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
and tunnels, are determined in this stage in
particular. A GCS is done for the starting and
ending stage of roads which will be built in
stages.
On the basis of the function of the road in the
road network, the GCS determines the
program conditions and the topographical
characteristics of the terrain.
Normal cross section (NCS) is a display of
the cross section which represents a typical
design in standard natural and actual traffic
conditions, where the conservation and
protection of the environment is taken into
consideration. It encompasses the physical
profile defined in the GCS, structural designs
of all elements in the profile, the relative height
relations of elements in relation to the grade
level, traffic and civil engineering equipment,
as well as standard structural details of the
upper and lower structure. Depending on the
terrain conditions and the choice of protection
devices, embankment inclines and other edge
road elements, the thickness of humus and the
position of surface, shoreline and ground water
drainage are also included in the NCS. The
unified position of the building border
(construction profile), the position of the
boundary of the roadway and the protection
reserve are also determined in the NCS. A
NCS is made for the ending and starting stage
for roads which will be built in stages.
A NCS is drawn for a road in a straight line and
in a curve for different positions on the terrain
(in the embankment, cut and side cut) and in
road structures (bridge, viaduct, overbridge,
underpass, gallery, tunnel). A NCS needs to be
drawn for all the different routes through the
land-space (outside a settlement, through a
settlement, etc.).
Characteristic cross section (CCS) is a
display of the cross section on individual
chainages of the road centre line which can be
equidistant (in the main design as a rule) or
arbitrary (in the conceptual design as a rule). In
addition to the road body and facilities (position
of drainage devices, position of construction
equipment, etc.), the CCS also determines the
height data and distances from the road centre
line which are needed during construction for
individual fundamental parts of the road. The
designing of the CCS serves as an inventory of
works and a bill of quantities, as well as for
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
determining the boundary of construction and
the roadway land.
4.3.2 TRAFFIC PROFILE AND ROAD
CLEARANCE
otor vehicles and other road users can only
function normally if they have sufficient width
and height on the carriageway in the
transverse vertical plane, where the speed, at
which certain road-users move, is also taken
into account. This space is called the traffic
profile.
In order to provide safety, besides the speed
and dimensions of users, safe distance from
other road users and from physical obstacles
at the side and overhead also need to be taken
into account. A traffic profile which has been
increased for these safe distances is called
road clearance.
4.3.2.1 Traffic profile for motor vehicles
An adequate traffic profile must be provided on
individual traffic lanes for all motor vehicles
travelling at design speed (Vr), which is
determined by program conditions. It is
determined by the dimensions of the largest
goods vehicle as established by EU directive
96/53-EC, amended by EU directive 2002/7-
EC. These are the dimensions of a typical,
standardised goods vehicle, width bv=2.50 min
and height hvTV=4.00 m.
The width of the traffic profile is composed of
the width of the vehicle (2.50 m) and the
manoeuvring area on both sides, which
depends on the driving speed (Vr).
The standard height of the traffic flow is
composed of the height of the vehicle (4.00 m)
and additional height for dynamic oscillation
during the driving of goods vehicles, which is
set at ∆hv=0.20 m. The total height of the traffic
profile for motor vehicles is 4.20 m and is
measured above the highest point on the
carriageway. If a road uses segmented
channel (drain canal) for longitudinal drainage
into which a vehicle can turn, it is
recommended that standard height is also
provided above this part.
35
Road design elements
Dimensions
of a standard
vehicle
Figure 4.2.13: Traffic profile for motor vehicles
The traffic profile of the carriageway comprises
the traffic lanes, hard shoulders and the
emergency stop lanes, when they are
envisaged. The number of traffic lanes
depends on the type and quantity of traffic in
one direction (traffic dimensioning), the width
of the traffic lanes and the hard shoulders on
the design speed, and the width of the
emergency stop lane on the type of road and
the structure of traffic which flows on it.
4.3.2.2 Traffic profile for pedestrians and
cyclists
The traffic profile for an individual pedestrian is
determined by the width of 0.75 m and the
height of 2.25 m. The surface for pedestrian
traffic is determined on the basis of the number
of pedestrians and can have one, two or more
lanes. The traffic profile of the pedestrian
surface is the product of the width 0.75 m and
the number of parallel lanes.
The traffic profile for cyclists is determined by
the width of the cyclist 0.80 m and the
manoeuvring space of 0.10 m for each side,
making the total of 1.00 m and the height of
2.25 m. The surface for cyclist traffic is
determined on the basis of the number of
cyclists and can have one or two lanes. The
traffic profile of the cyclist surface is the
product of the width 1.00 m and the number of
parallel lanes.
4.3.2.3 Clearance for motor vehicles
Clearance for motor vehicles is a space
defined by the width of the carriageway, the
width of the lateral protection reserve on each
side of the carriageway and the clear height.
36
Serbian Road Design Manual
Traffic profile height
EU 96/53 – EC
EU 2002/7 - EC
On roads where the carriageways in both
directions are separated (dual-carriageways),
the clearance includes the width of the central
reserve. If there are supporting structures
(pillar or wall) in the central reserve, clearance
is determined for each carriageway separately.
There can be no permanent physical obstacles
in this space. An exception is traffic equipment
which can be installed only in the manner
defined by the rules for placing traffic signs
along the road (chapter 6) and so that they do
not limit the required visibility (Pzp).
The standard height clearance above the traffic
profile is 0.30 m. This should be increased to
0.55 m for new builds (because of a new
provision in an EU directive).
The standard clear width of lateral protection
reserve (dz) depends on the road variety, the
type of road body (open route, on a bridge, in a
tunnel) and on the design speed. The standard
widths are given in Table 4.2.19.
Table 4.2.19: Standard dimensions of clear
width
Clear width dz [m]
highways 1.50
Vri ≥ 80 [km/h] 1.50
Vri ≤ 80 [km/h] 1.00
up to protective barriers 0.50
in a tunnel, gallery, underpass 1.00
When it is not possible to provide sufficient
clear width of lateral protection reserve for
justified reasons, the obstacle must be
protected by a system for retaining vehicles
(e.g. protective barrier). The face of the
elements of the vehicle retaining system in this
and all other cases must be at least 0.50 m
from the edge of the carriageway.
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
The clear width of lateral protection reserve
underneath an overbridge on both outer sides
of the road is increased in order to provide
space for installing drainage equipment and to
ensure an optically favourable design (the
driver does not feel crowded) and that the
structure as a whole looks pleasant.
The minimal clear width of lateral protection
reserve in this case is 3.00 m for roads with
separated carriageways (motorways) and 3.25
m for two-directional roads with one
carriageway. The width can be narrowed to
1.80 m on roads which are less demanding in
terms of traffic (lower driving speed) and in
unfavourable terrain conditions and when
utilising a different drainage system.
Clearance is a rectangle position on the
carriageway which is, as a rule, a little inclined
on one or the other side. When defining the
Figure 4.2.14: Clearance and traffic profile of a dual-carriageway (open road route, on a bridge,
under an overbridge)
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
position of the lower edge of an overbridge,
clear height above the road is measured from
the highest point of the carriageway to the
lowest point of the overbridge structure.
For roads which run under overbridges or
through tunnels, the rational reasons, the
shape of the clearance in the upper corners is
adapted and executed in the shape of a
triangle, differently for overbridges and tunnels.
Examples of traffic profiles and clearances for
different kinds of roads are given in figure
4.2.14, 4.2.15 and 2.4.16 for different methods
of execution (open road route, bridge, tunnel).
The following codes are used in the figures: Rt
– central reserve (central reserve), Σts –
carriageway width and d – width of the
protection reserve.
37
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Figure 4.2.15 Clearance and traffic profile of a two-directional road (open road route, on a bridge,
under an overbridge)

Figure 4.2.16: Clearance and traffic profile of a road in a tunnel (half of a dual-carriageway, bi-
directional two-lane road)

European technical regulations mainly maintenance, the width of the corridor to a

recommend that clearance in tunnels is also height of 1.00 m is narrowed into the form of a
shaped in the lower corners. In the area triangle, whose lower side is 0.15m (Figure
intended for persons responsible for tunnel 4.2.17). This does not change the movement

38 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
conditions for maintenance workers, and the
excavation profile of the tunnel in this case
demands significantly less investment (by
around 5% on a two-lane road).
tunnel
Figure 4.2.17: Additional reduction in
clearance in a tunnel (in the lower corner)
4.3.2.4 Clearance for pedestrians and
cyclists
Clearance for pedestrian traffic is a space
comprising the width of the pedestrian surface
Figure 4.2.18: Spatial profile for pedestrians and cyclists (one-lane, two-lane)
4.3.2.5 Combining clearances
When pedestrian and/or cyclist traffic is
envisaged on a road in addition to motor traffic
in line with program conditions for road design,
their clearances can be combined. The rules
for combining clearances are:
- road clearances for pedestrian and/or
cyclist traffic are combined in such a way
that the clearance for motor traffic is in the
middle, with cyclist clearance beside it, and
then beside it there is the pedestrian
clearance.
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
and the lateral protection reserve on both
sides. The clear lateral reserve for pedestrian
traffic is 0.25 m. When there are two or more
lanes intended for pedestrian traffic, the
protection reserve between two neighbouring
lanes is not included.
Clearance for cyclist traffic is a space
comprising the width of the cyclist surface and
the clear width of lateral protection reserve on
both sides. The clear width of lateral protection
reserve for cyclist traffic is 0.25 m. When there
are two or more lanes intended for cyclist
traffic, the protection reserve between two
neighbouring lanes is not included.
The clearance and traffic profile of pedestrian
and cyclist surfaces (for one or two parallel
lanes) is shown in Figure 4.2.18.
Surfaces for pedestrian and cyclist traffic can
join the same surface.
A more detailed description of designing
surfaces for pedestrian and cyclist traffic can
be founding chapter 5.
- clearances for cyclist and pedestrian traffic
can be added to one or both sides of the
clearance for motor vehicles;
- if pedestrian and cyclist traffic is not
envisaged on the carriageway according to
program conditions, it must be executed
separate from the carriageway with a verge
– side separation lane (Figure 4.2.29,
chapter 4.3.3.3.1.2) or with a protective
barrier;
- if in special terrain or spatial conditions, the
lateral separation lane next to the road is
narrower than previously mentioned, a
protective barrier needs to be placed where
the both lateral protection reserves meet;
39
Road design elements
- if traffic on these surfaces flows in the same
direction, the lateral protection reserves of
two different neighbouring road users
overlap (the larger one remains);
- if there are two neighbouring traffic users
going in opposite directions on the
surfaces, a protection reserve clear width of
0.50 m between the traffic profile for motor
vehicles and/or for pedestrians/cyclists
needs to be envisaged;
- if there are two neighbouring traffic users
going in opposite directions on the
surfaces, a protection reserve clear width of
0.25 m between the traffic profile for cyclists
and pedestrians needs to be envisaged;
For plain line and main
tracks at stations
Figure 4.2.19: Clearance above electric railroad tracks
4.3.2.7 Clearance above water courses
The clearance above water courses depends
on the type of water course, on the height level
of the relevant water flow and on the clear
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Serbian Road Design Manual
4.3.2.6 Clearance above railways
When planning and designing a road which
will, via an overbridge, cross a railway, it must
be in compliance with the clearance of electric
railway lines (Figure 4.2.19). Whereby it is
necessary to select the required height
between the highest point of the railroad track
and the lowest point of the overbridge
structure, and as far as width is concerned,
besides the required width, the slope of the
railroad tracks need to be taken into account.
For other
tracks at
stations
height between the level of the relevant water
flow and the lower edge of the bridging
structure.
The data has to be obtained for each case
individually when designing roads.
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

4.3.3 ELEMENTS OF THE CROSS SECTION OF
A ROAD
4.3.3.1 Traffic and accompanying
surfaces in the cross section
The road cross section comprises the lanes for
motor vehicle traffic (carriageway) and
accompanying surfaces which ensure the
functionality of the road, road body protection,
drainage, snow collection and visibility, as well as
other road user traffic (pedestrians and/or cyclists,
agricultural machinery).
When choosing cross section elements, the
following must be taken into account: speed,
structure, density and time distribution of the
expected traffic, the dimension of the chosen
design vehicle, the number of expected
encounters of vehicles, the traffic importance
or function of the road, efficiency, terrain
topography, environmental protection and the
demands of winter maintenance.
The standard composition of traffic and
accompanying surfaces, and their redistribution
in the cross section for roads with separated
carriageways according to driving direction
(motorways) are shown in Figure 4.2.20, and
for roads with a single two-way carriageway in
Figure 4.2.21.
The codes in figures 4.2.20 and 4.2.21
correspond to those assigned to specific types
of surfaces in the text below.

K – road width

B- carriageway B- carriageway

Figure 4.2.20: Standard composition of surfaces in a cross section of a road with carriageways
separated by direction (motorways)

K – road width
tped,bic

B- carriageway

Figure 4.2.21: Standard composition of surfaces in the cross section of a road with a single two-way
carriageway

The minimum composition of the carriageway

is a single traffic lane on a one-way
4.3.3.2 Carriageway lanes in the cross carriageway or two lanes on a two-way
section carriageway. Other surfaces are added to the
cross section in line with the program
The surface for motor vehicle traffic conditions for specific functional types of road
(carriageway) is composed of the following in relation to the traffic conditions on the road
types of traffic surfaces: (quantity and structure of traffic and type of
• traffic lanes (tv), terrain) and in relation to the functional
• crawler lanes (ts), importance of the added surfaces and for
• lanes for exiting (diverging), entering reasons of traffic safety. For this purpose, a
(merging), weaving and guiding (tp), standard geometric cross section has been
• public transport lanes (tjp), prepared for national roads which can be
• hard shoulder (ti), adapted in cases where it is justified.
• emergency stop lanes (tz),
• lay-bys (tzn).

PE Roads of Serbia 41
Road design elements
4.3.3.2.1 Traffic lanes and overtaking lanes
4.3.3.2.1.1 Traffic lanes (tv)
Traffic lanes are intended exclusively for motor
traffic and ensure safe and unhindered driving
at the level of service envisaged by the
Table 4.2.20: Width of traffic lanes (tv)
Vri [km/h] tv [m]
Vri > 100 3.75
80 < Vri ≤ 100 3.50
60 < Vri ≤ 80 3.25
40 < Vri ≤ 60 3.00
Vri ≤ 40 2.75
4.3.3.2.1.2 Overtaking lanes
Overtaking lanes are traffic lanes which are
added to the usual number of traffic lanes on a
two-way carriageway when there is a large
share of heavy traffic or on larger ascents.
They are located on the inner side of each
driving direction. As a rule their width is equal
to the width of traffic lanes. If traffic
signalisation signifies that they can only be
used by passenger cars, the width of
overtaking lanes can be one degree (0.25 m)
less than the width of the traffic lanes, but they
cannot be 3.25 m less.
Overtaking lanes are a normal, fundamental
part of carriageways with three lanes for two-
way traffic (4.3.4.0.0 – type VP-2).
When executing overtaking lanes, attention
should be paid to the starting and ending parts
of these lanes, as they must be designed
Figure 4.2.22: Minimum length of the ending part of the overtaking lane
In order to ensure the driving-dynamic line of
the traffic lane, it is recommended that on a
section of a road on which an overtaking lane
is designed, the road centre line is designed
for each driving direction individually (two
42
Serbian Road Design Manual
program conditions for a specific road variety.
The width of the traffic lane depends on the
width of the standard goods vehicle (chapter
4.3.2.1) and the design speed (Table 4.2.20),
which is (can be) different for the same road
variety in different problematic conditions.
Standard GSC and terrain type
AP (flat)
AP (hilly, mountainous), VP, PP
PP
PP
PP
linearly in the layout so that they provide
visibility and lane-changing without drivers
needing to brake. The minimum length of the
lane-changing depends on the driving speed,
the width of the movement and the acceptable
speed of the lateral motion of the vehicle
(chapter 4.2.2.4.0).
The same condition defined for widening by
entering the crossing (chapter 5.2.0.0) is
applied to the minimum length of the transition
part of the overtaking lane. The minimum
length of the ending part of the overtaking lane
is shown in Figure 4.2.22. Where the traffic
volume is large, the length of this part also
needs to be traffic dimensioned (HCM).
It is not considered adequate to locate the
starting and ending parts of the overtaking lane
in the zone of horizontal curves, where
R<400m (maxVr is not possible) and in the zone
of the vertical curves of the grade level, where
there is no visibility for overtaking.
centre lines). The distance between primary
and parallel road centre lines is the width of the
overtaking lane.
4.3.3.2.1.3 Changing the number of traffic
lanes
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

The number of traffic lanes on the carriageway
can be increased or decreased. The number of
traffic lanes can only be increased or reduced
one by one and according to the order
stipulated in chapter 5.2.2.0 (interchanges).
The transition parts need to be executed
according to the procedure stipulated for
overtaking lanes.
The transition from two lanes to one lane (in
the same direction) has to be done very
carefully otherwise it will lead to excessive
speeds and traffic accidents. In the two lane
zone, the left traffic lane is removed first and
then the right (the only remaining lane) is
diverted to the left. The procedure is the same
if the road is being narrowed from three to two
lanes. The essence of this procedure, which
also applies to the temporary closing of a lane
during maintenance work, is that the traffic flow
already in the wide carriageway zone moves
as close to the road centre line as possible to
have the same driving position as on the
narrower carriageway (Figure 4.2.23).

prevention
sprečavanjeof
A crossing
prelaskatona
redirection flow to na
preusmeravanje right trafficvoznu
desnu lane traku opposite
suprotnu traku
direction
(ograda)lane
(fence)
B
preusmeravanje
redirection flow of desne
right tovozne trake
left traffic na(side
lane izlivtou left
exit levu
levu (bliže
closer to thesuprotnoj voznojlane
opposite traffic traciand
i manji
smaller curvekrivinu
horizontalni
horizontal radijus)
radius)

C
transitional area (barrier
prelazno područje in form of
(do prevojne
safety
tačke fence up tozaštitnom
prepreka the transition
point)
ogradom)

Figure 4.2.23: Illustration of the transition from a four lane road to a two lane road

4.3.3.2.2 Widening of carriageway in curves - chosen from special tables for widths of
circular arc areas (apply as for
In horizontal curves with 25 < R < 200 m, traffic intersections), or
lanes need to be widened to ensure lateral - checked graphically using a graphical
clearances for all intended vehicles on the drawing (template) of the circular arc area,
road. On dual-carriageway roads, separated by or
direction, whose curve radii are as a rule - a computer program should be used for
greater than R = 200 m, widening is not drawing the track curve.
necessary. For circular arches with R < 25 m,
widening has to be calculated in accordance to
precise equation or
4.3.3.2.2.1 Size of widening

PE Roads of Serbia 43
Road design elements
The width of traffic lane widening depends on
the curve radius value and length of vehicles
intended to use. The vehicle length, influencing
on the amount of lane widening, is determined
by the wheel base and the clearance (LOP) of a
vehicle.
The widening of individual lane is calculated in
accordance to the equation
Figure 4.2.24: The widening of individual traffic lane according to type of vehicle
Total amount of carriageway widening is
determined as the sum of widening for all
traffic lanes on the carriageway. According to
quantity and structure of traffic, it can be
envisaged that not only trucks encounter each
other at a critical point, but also different
vehicles (PA and BUS, PA and GV etc.). In
such a case, a traffic lane at the outer side of
the curve shall be widened for smaller vehicle,
and a traffic lane at the inner side of the curve
shall be widened for bigger vehicle.
On national roads the widening for the largest
vehicle should be usually taken into account on
both sides of the lane.
As determined by technical regulations for
roads in several European countries, the
widening of the carriageway can be omitted
only for economic reasons
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Serbian Road Design Manual
∆bpp = R ZU − (R 2
ZU
− L2OP )
or it can be read out in graph given in Figure
4.2.24. For vehicles, which are not listed in the
graph, the widening should be calculated
separately.
- it can be omitted if the number of heavy
vehicles does not exceed 15 vehicles/day
- it can be omitted if total widening does not
exceed 0.50 m,
- it can be omitted if only passenger cars are
moving on the road, while other vehicles
are moving periodically
- on carriageways wider than 6.00 m, it can
be reduced for difference of carriageway
width over 6.00m.
4.3.3.2.2.2 Designing of widening
A widening of the carriageway should be made
on inner side of a circular arc. The widening
should be carried on along connecting
transitional curve and it comprises 7.50 m
more on both sides of the transitional curve
(figure 4.2.25).
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
Figure 04.2.25: Zone and layout of the widening in a transitional curve area
The value of the widening (physically executed
edges) at the distance Lx from the PP for
3 4
length ratio ζ = Lx/L is ∆px = ∆p (4ζ -3ζ ), i.e. it
can be read in the graph prepared for this
purpose.
If not otherwise specified in the design plan of
the road, centre dividing line on the
carriageway should be drawn at the centre of
widened carriageway. It is more acceptable
when the widening, if different vehicles
encounter each other, has been calculated first
for both lanes and after that additionally for the
outer lane, while the centre dividing line should
be drawn along the line of this outer widening.
4.3.3.2.3 Crawler lanes (tp)
Crawler lanes (lanes for slow vehicles) are
additional lanes on larger and longer upgrades
and on large falls of the grade level. They are
one of possible measures for providing
required level of service on roads. They are
usually built on long distance roads and
connecting roads, and they are built on other
roads only if other measures are not sufficient
enough to provide undisturbed traffic on these
roads.
Need for additional crawler lane should be
determined on the basis of the following:
Table 4.2.21: Design speed for determination of start/end of an additional crawler lane at upgrades
Design speed Vri [km/h]
100 < Vri ≤ 130
80 < Vri ≤ 100
Vri ≤ 80
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
- driving-dynamic condition – the decrease of
relevant truck speed
- traffic conditions – the (non-)achievement of
required level of service
- the calculation of cost-efficiency – justified
costs and
- conditions of traffic safety – dangerous
overtaking.
The driving-dynamic condition is the speed of
heavy vehicle at the end of upgrade. If at the
end of an upgrade a heavy vehicle cannot
achieve the limit speed Vgr, given in table
4.2.21, an additional lane should be
envisaged.
If the calculation of the road capacity at an
upgrade shows that required level of service
would not be achieved or it would considerably
deviate from the level for entire section of the
road, an additional lane should be envisaged.
Justified costs of building additional lane are
determined by the calculation of efficiency for
entire section of designed road. For
comparison, both calculations for the road with
and without additional lane should be made.
In addition to both basic conditions, for roads
with a single two-way carriageway, conditions
of traffic safety have to be examined during the
decision making procedure.
Vmin [km/h] Vgr [km/h]
50 60
40 50
30 40
45
Road design elements
The number of vehicles, which would perform
overtaking at an upgrade, has been
considerably higher due to the decrease of
heavy vehicle speed.If the calculation of the
level of service confirms that an additional lane
will be needed only after several years, road
construction design should include space for
later upgrade.
The physical start of an additional crawler lane
should be envisaged at the chainage, where
the speed of a vehicle would be decreased to
Vmin. Therefore, transitional part – the change
Figure 4.2.26: The execution of a transition part for an additional lane in a curve R<400 m
The physical end of an additional lane should
start at the point where the speed of slow
vehicle is increased to the value Vgr, given in
table 4.2.21. The design of transitional part at
the end of an additional lane is same as the
one determined in section 4.3.3.2.1.2
(overtaking lanes, figure 4.2.22).
Classic position for placing of an additional
lane is immediately along traffic lane on outer
side of the carriageway. This position showed
to be less acceptable, because slow vehicles,
having usually very low acceleration, cannot
join the traffic flow when traffic load is higher
(high occupancy of traffic lane or overtaking
lane). Therefore, at the end part of an
additional lane very dangerous traffic situations
and accidents may occur. They very often
occur on a two-way carriageway, because
frontal crashes of vehicles heading different
directions occur at such a place due to the
overtaking of slower vehicle by a faster vehicle.
Lately, additional lanes are designed as:
- overtaking lanes (section 4.3.3.2.1.2) by
adding the lane on centre line side of the
road or
- additional lanes on outer (right) side of the
carriageway, which continue as nearside
(outer) traffic lane at the end, while offside
(inner) traffic lanes (if there are two or
more) end as the overtaking lane.
46
Serbian Road Design Manual
of traffic lanes – should be planned prior to the
physical start of an additional lane. The length
of this part should be calculated with elements
given in section 4.3.3.2.1.2 (overtaking lanes).
Classic shape of a transition part line is the
reverse curve. If the start of a transitional part
is located in a curve with R < 400 m, the
transition line should be carried out as the
compound curve (figure 4.2.26). In such a
case, the length of transition part is adjusted
with the edge directing line and usually it is
longer than necessary.
An additional lane on a two-way road with two
lanes must be carried out in accordance with
previous paragraph.
To provide appropriate traffic conditions, the
width of a carriageway should not be changed
too often. The limiting conditions are:
1. Minimum length of additional crawler lanes
on highways of 1,000 m, and on other
roads of 400 m,
2. On highways the distance between two
subsequent additional crawler lanes or
between a crawler lane and an additional
lane for other use should not be smaller
than 700 m, while on other roads it should
be 300 m. If it is smaller, subsequent
additional lanes should be interconnected.
Standard width of additional lanes is 3.50 m or
it is equal to a width of traffic lanes, but not
smaller than 3.00 m. On highways, regardless
of additional lanes, it is mandatory to keep 2.50
m wide emergency stop lane.
4.3.3.2.4 Exclusion, inclusion, turning and
guiding lanes (td, ta, tm)
Lanes for exclusion (diverge), inclusion
(merge) and turning (weaving) are additional
elements on a carriageway in the interchange
area. They are used to adjust the speed when
exiting from carriageway and entering the
carriageway, as well as for change of traffic
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
flows in an intersection. Standard width of
these lanes is either 3.50 m or equal to the
width of carriageway, but not less than 3.00 m.
Traffic flow guiding lanes (right, left, lane for
waiting) are additional elements of carriageway
in the grade intersection area. Standard width
of these lanes is 3.00 m.
More detail description of these lanes is given
in section 5.2.0.0.
4.3.3.2.5 Public transport lanes (tjp)
Specific traffic lanes can be envisaged for
public transportation vehicles (bus, taxi). They
can be marked within existing width of a
carriageway, if it contains more than two lanes
in the same direction, or as an additional lane
on the outer side of a carriageway. The width
of these lanes is equal to the width of traffic
lanes, but not smaller than 3.00 m. Lanes for
public transportation should be properly
Table 4.2.22: Width of a hard shoulder (ti) in dependence of a design speed (Vr)
Design speed Vri [km/h]
Vri ≥ 100
80 ≤ Vri < 100
60 ≤ Vri < 80
Vri ≤ 60
On dual-carriageway (motorways) the hard
shoulder on the inner side of each carriageway
is 1.00 m wide, while on the outer side
(between traffic lane and emergency stop lane)
it is 0.5 m wide. If a separate device for
longitudinal drainage (for example, gutter) is
envisaged on the inner side of a carriageway,
the hard shoulder can be narrower than 1.00
m. In transversal direction the hard shoulder
has same inclination as a carriageway.
The hard shoulder,, which divides traffic lanes
by the direction of driving on a carriageway
with two or more lanes (for example, a
carriageway with three lanes), is called border
line. On border lines, the longitudinal
continuous marking shall be drawn along both
edges of the line (double markings).
4.3.3.2.7 Emergency stop lanes (tz)
Emergency stop lanes are continuous traffic
lanes added to a carriageway on the outer
side. They are intended for short stop of a
vehicle in case of vehicle malfunction or in
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
marked (traffic signs and continuous yellow
dividing line).
If a lane for public transportation is physically
separated with a lateral separation lane, the
width of this lane is 3.50 m, while the width of
the separation lane has to be ≥ 1.75 m (both
clear spaces plus a profile of man).
Lanes for other types of public transportation
(light railways, BRT – Bus Rapid Transit)
should be designed according the rules and
standards applicable for these vehicles.
4.3.3.2.6 Hard shoulder (ti)
Hard shoulders are continuous traffic belts,
which end a carriageway on both sides. Hard
shoulder provide higher stability of a
carriageway (carriageway edge is more distant
from carriageway line), higher comfort for
driving (physiological influence on driver) and
place for the longitudinal continuous marking.
Hard shoulder widths are given in table 4.2.22.
Width of hard shoulder [m]
1.00 (0.75), (0.50)
0.35
0.25
0.20
other cases when it is justified. Also, they
serve as a traffic surface for temporary
directing of traffic flows during a renewal of a
carriageway. Emergency stop lanes are
usually built along roads of the highest
category (DP, VP-m) and during the first phase
if these roads are built phase by phase. In
transversal direction, an emergency stop lane
has the same inclination as a carriageway. On
motorways, the normal width of an emergency
stop lane is 2.50 m. In case of the “phase by
phase” construction, the width of emergency
stop lane is 2.25 m, and exceptionally 2.00 m.
On the highest category two-lane roads (VP),
where there is no significant freight traffic, an
emergency stop lane can be omitted. In such a
case lay-bys should be mandatory envisaged
at distances up to 1,000 m. In tunnels on
highways, which are longer than 300 m, an
emergency stop lane can be omitted. In such a
case lay-bys should be mandatory envisaged
with the frequency given in section 9.2.0.0.
47
Road design elements
4.3.3.2.8 Lay-bys (tzn)
Stopping lay-bys are traffic surfaces, which are
located on certain points alongside the outer
side of a carriageway on more important roads.
They are intended for short stop of a vehicle in
case of vehicle malfunction or in other cases
when it is justified. They have to be equipped
with appropriate traffic and telecommunication
equipment (emergency call post -SOS).
The layout of a stopping lay-by is shown in
figure 4.2.27. The width of a bay is minimum
2.50 m and crossfall is same as the crossfall of
a carriageway.
SOS phone
Figure 4.2.27: Standard shape and dimensions of a stopping lay-by
4.3.3.3 Ancillary longitudinal surfaces in
the cross section
Surfaces for a traffic of motor vehicles
(carriageway) can satisfy their purpose under
required condition only if they are stable
enough, equipped with installations for safety
and directing of traffic and if within their
direction they have surfaces for other types of
traffic as well (pedestrians, cyclists) To achieve
this, alongside a carriageway one should built
surfaces which are called ancillary surfaces
due to their function. These surfaces together
with a carriageway represent the width of a
road (crown of a road).
Standard ancillary longitudinal surfaces are:
• central reserve (Rp) and separation lane
(Rt and Rti)
• longitudinal elements for drainage (r)
• shoulder (b) and berm (b')
• lanes for cyclists and pedestrians (tped,bic)
• slope (k).
Ancillary longitudinal surfaces are added to the
cross section in accordance with the program
conditions for specific functional types of roads
in relation to the traffic conditions on the road
(quantity and structure of traffic and type of
terrain) and in relation to the functional
importance of the added surfaces and for
reasons of traffic safety.
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Serbian Road Design Manual
The distance between these traffic surfaces
depends on a speed and traffic volume.
Maximum distance between them should not
exceed 1,000 m. Stopping lay-bys should be
located on places, where sufficient visibility will
be provided during the return of vehicle to the
road.
For stopping lay-bys along roads, which are
important from traffic point of view, the speed V
≥ 80 km/h is recommended to enable entering
and exiting.
On each side of the road body, the roadside,
envisaged in the Law on Public Roads in RS,
should be also added to these surfaces. The
roadside, which should be measured from the
limit points of slope roundings at the contact
with terrain, is intended for the maintenance of
road body slopes and the maintenance of
safety fences (see 4.3.1.1.0, figures 4.2.11 and
4.2.12) alongside highways.
All mentioned ancillary longitudinal surfaces
represent border area of the road, which
together with a carriageway define the width of
space needed for construction and
maintenance of the road (construction
property).
4.3.3.3.1 Central and edge reserve
Reserves along the carriageway are intended
for physical separation of traffic surfaces
according to direction, storage of traffic and
construction equipment, separation of
pedestrian and cyclist zones from
carriageways and as well as to reserve space
for later upgrade of the dual carriageway road,
separated by direction. Central reserve has
positive psychological influence on drivers. In
terms of purpose, we distinguish:
• central reserve (Rp) and
• separation lane - verge (Rt, Rti).
4.3.3.3.1.1 Central reserve (Rp)
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
Central reserve is ancillary area in cross
section of the road designed in phase
construction of the road to provide space for
later upgrade of carriageway with additional
lanes or for physical separation of
carriageways from slip roads for
inclusion/exclusion near the intersections,
when they are at approximately same level.
Central reserve is typical dual carriageway
roads, separated by direction. Width of the
reserve must be designed in a way to enable,
after construction of all possible additional
traffic lanes, sufficient space between
carriageways for provision of central reserve
Figure 4.2.28: Central reserve for further adding of traffic lanes
4.3.3.3.1.2 Separation lane (Rt, Rti)
Separation lane is a longitudinal surface in
cross section of the road intended for physical
separation of carriage way on roads with
different driving directions (central reserve
lane– Rti) and for physical separation of
surfaces (verge - side separation lane – Ri) for
other users of the road (pedestrians, cyclists
and special purpose areas). Separation lanes
can be used for construction of longitudinal
drainage of carriageway or for placement of
traffic equipment, provided that its edge is not
closer than 0.50 m from the carriageway edge.
External appearance and/or noticeability of this
lane is visibly different compared to traffic
lanes on carriageway. As a rule it is
constructed as grassy surfaces. In such cases,
due to maintenance requirements, its minimum
width must be 1.20 m. Depending on the road
type the separation lane surface can be paved
or equal to carriageway. If the surface of the
separation lane is equal to carriageway, it is
necessary to make visible distinction of these
two lanes (painted with colour or with
horizontal white stripes)
Width of central reserve separation lane is the
same along the entire length of the road,
except in intersection areas or other regulation
points (tolls etc.) In case of pretentious terrains
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
width as envisaged in final construction for
individual type of selected profile. If future
upgrade of the highway is envisaged from 4
lane highway to 6 lane highway, the central
reserve must be at least 11.50 m wide (Figure
4.2.28).
The area between carriageway and
inclusion/exclusion slip road in the area of
interchange (loop) is edge reserve. It is
intended for future upgrade of additional traffic
lanes at interchanges.
and spatial and economic conditions, the
separation lane can have variable width.
Minimum width of the central reserve
separation lane should be equal to the width of
protection reserve (between the traffic and
clearance of the road) for each traffic direction,
and it depends on designed speed. Depending
on the type of road and terrain requirements,
various widths of separation lanes are used at
highways – from 4.00 to 2.5 m. In exceptional
cases, on roads for lower driving speeds (80
km/h) the separation lane width may be
reduced to 1.50 m but in this case it is
mandatory to implement vehicle retaining
system.
During designing the separation lane width, the
applied drainage system (width of input and
inspection shafts inside the lane) and its
maintenance (working width) should be taken
into account. In the central reserve separation
lane planting of bushes may be designed up to
1.20 m height, which has to be away from
carriageway at least 0.50 m, or equally to the
width of shoulder or drainage regulation
including the berm. Plantings must not interfere
with the clearance of the road. Planting trees in
the central reserve separation lane is generally
not allowed since it has negative impact on
driving conditions on road (fallen leafs, shade).
Central reserve separation lane should be
interrupted each 2 - 3 km, by constructing
49
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

established road connection between two alternative method should be used for
carriageways. The interruption is needed in preventing vehicles from uncontrolled transit.
case of closing one of the carriageways (traffic
Verge - side separation lane is different than
accident, maintenance works at one of the
the carriageway surface by its external
carriageways), for channelled redirection of
appearance, and it is intended for separation of
traffic flows to other carriageway, and in case
surfaces for other participants from
of traffic accident, for access of emergency
carriageway on roads where this is allowed by
vehicles from opposite direction. Length of the
road program requirements (SP, exceptionally
interruption depends on the width of separation
VP-r). It is arranged at one or both external
lane and the interruption should be designed
sides of the carriageway (Figure 4.2.29).
for reduced speed of 50 km/h. The removable
safety fence or disassembling safety fence
should be placed on the interrupted part or

tped, bicyc

Figure 4.2.29: Areas for pedestrians and cyclists routed along a carriageway

Width of hard shoulder is defined by width of
protection reserves of carriageway and parallel
surfaces for other users, but it cannot be less
than 1.75 m (Fig. 4.2.29).
On the roads where speed limit is ≥ 70 km/h,
separation lane must be physically separated
from carriageway, either by system for
retaining vehicles (e.g. protective barrier) or by
kerb, or by combination of both.
Flat or inclined verge - side separation lane
may be designed to contain planted trees. In
this case trees must be placed at proper
distance from the carriageway. Minimum
distance is defined by clearance of the road
and additional distance which is, in case of
high category roads (DP, VP) Cb = 4.00 m,
and in case of lower category (SP, PP) Cb =
2.00 m, while the height is defined by height of
the clearance increased by 0.5 m. Tops of the
trees, except for the lowest category roads
(PP) must not interfere with the width of
clearance of the road. Profile of the road with
allowed distances of the trees is shown on
Figure 4.2.30 where Hsp is height and Bsp is
width of clearance, and Cb is additional
distance which is different for various types of
the road. Width of the verge - side separation
lane also depends on the selection of trees
(width of top and width of roots basis).

On PP only

Figure 4.2.30: Road cross section with permitted distances of trees

On roads with speed limit ≥ 70 km/h planting traffic safety level should be checked (placing
tree lines is not recommended for safety safety fences and regular removing of fallen
reasons (slipping, accident). In such cases, leafs or speed limit in certain periods of time).

50 PE Roads of Serbia
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4.3.3.3.2 Longitudinal drainage devices (r)
Carriageway and all its components must be
constructed to enable regular and fast
drainage. Atmospheric waters from
carriageway
• in the cross direction run off freely over the
shoulders into natural space,
• are collected in the cross direction over the
shoulder into ditch alongside the road which
may have separate gradient, compared to
carriageway one
• or are collected in elements for longitudinal
drainage along the carriageway.
Shape, cross section and dimensioning of the
drainage elements alongside the road are
given in chapter 10.3.0.0.0 (Drainage system
on roads).
Surfaces for collecting surface waters from
carriageway in the area of trenches and their
directing to installations for channelled draining
(into the sewage or through the culvert in
longitudinal direction) are gutters and
segmented channels. The same drainage
installation is used at high embankments with
steep drops of road grade level. At the high
embankments and higher drops of road grade
level where large amount of running water is
collected (mainly highways), surface water
should not freely run off over the shoulder, to
avoid possible erosion of slopes.
Gutters are in the cross section of the road
placed near the hard shoulder or emergency
lane. For safety reasons at the highways it is
recommended, for quality longitudinal drainage
and for psychological reasons, that the hard
shoulder width should not be less than 1.00 m.
Gutter width depends on the road width (0.50
m for drainage of two lanes and 0.75 m for
drainage of more than two lanes on the
carriageway), while its depth is 0.10 m. Gutters
can be made of concrete kerb at the outside
and with asphalt or cement concrete stabilized
inclined surface between carriageway and kerb
(Figure 4.2.31), or can be precast.
berm
Figure 4.2.31: Drainage installation of a
carriageway – gutter
For providing higher safety on road it is
recommended for highest category roads to
use segmented channel instead of gutters
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
(figure 4.2.32). Segmented channels can have
different surface finish (asphalt, concrete
elements, grassy cover). They can be placed
immediately along the carriageway or can be
separated from it by shoulder. Construction
with shoulder in the inter-space is
recommended for highest category roads and
in case when segmented channel is covered
with grass. Width of segmented channel
covered with grass is, due to bad longitudinal
drainage through it, (as a rule) between 1.00
and 1.50 m.
w=0.60-1.00
berm
carriageway
1/10 w
Figure 4.2.32: Elements for drainage of
carriageway – segmented channel
At the external side of the gutter or segmented
channel it is necessary to place the berm, at
least 0.50 m wide. When this way of drainage
is applied at high embankments, the berm
should be designed with safety fence.
4.3.3.3.3 Shoulder and berm (b')
4.3.3.3.3.1 Shoulder (b)
The shoulder is longitudinal, ancillary area,
located immediately adjacent to the road. The
stabilization and external appearance of
shoulders are apparently different from those
of the traffic areas (sand, grass, paved,
painted). If the shoulder is carried out in the
same way as the carriageway, it has to be
mandatory separated by continuous white
border marking.
The shoulders are intended for the following:
• to provide a physical stability of the
carriageway (a prevention of carriageway
edge deformations)
• better safety of the traffic (use of an
additional width in case of emergency)
• the placement of equipment for linear
directing and safety of the traffic (directing
signs and systems for retaining vehicles)
• for placing elements for longitudinal
drainage of the carriageway (gutter,
segmented channel, raised kerb with a
safety lane).
The shoulder width depends on a type of the
road and the terrain, driving speed and
installations (traffic equipment, drainage)
placed on it. The part of an embankment or
embedded slope, which is covered with
humus, should not be included in the shoulder
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Road design elements
width. The shoulder widths (normal and
minimum) are given in table 4.2.23. On
highways with emergency stop lanes the
Table 4.2.23: Shoulder width (b)
Carriageway without
Design speed Vri [km/h] emergency stop lane tz
norm b [m]
Vri > 100
80 < Vri ≤ 100 1.50 (2.50)
60 < Vri ≤ 80 1.50
Vri ≤ 60 1.25
Shoulders are always inclined toward outer
side of the carriageway. The cross slope is
generally between 6 and 12 %. If the shoulder
is stabilized (paved, coated with asphalt) its
slope is minimum 4% or equal to a cross slope
of the carriageway, if a cross slope of the
carriageway is not greater than 4%, or is 4% if
the shoulder is inclined in opposite direction of
the carriageway.
The edge connecting sand or humus covered
shoulder and the carriageway has to be
executed at the same height or up to 2 cm
lower, and the shoulder should be properly
stabilized to prevent sinking of wheels. If the
shoulder is not stabilized, the carriageway has
to be equipped with visible traffic signalization.
4.3.3.3.3.2 Berm (b')
The berm is longitudinal, ancillary area, located
between drainage elements and the boundary
of an embankment or embedded slope (high
embankments). It is usually covered with
grass, and its cross slope is 6%. The berm
width depends on the width of planned
shoulder (b' = b – r), reduced by width of
longitudinal drainage elements, but it never
should be narrower than 0.50 m. The berm
width should be raised on sections of the road,
where visibility is required.
The berm in trenches is also intended for a
removal of snow and placing of atmospheric
water sewer system, as well as for placing of
different technical installations and
maintenance of built-in installations. In such
cases the berm should be appropriately
widened. The width depends on type,
dimension and depth of placed installations as
well as requirements set by management
entities for installations.
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Serbian Road Design Manual
shoulder adjacent to the emergency stop lane
can be even narrower.
Carriageway with
emergency stop lane tz
min b [m] norm b [m] min b [m]
1.50 1.25
1.25 1.00 0.75
1,.25
1.00
Also the berm width has to provide space for
placing of the traffic equipment. For placing of
directing devices the minimal width of a berm
is sufficient. During the placing of traffic
equipment sufficient visibility should be
ensured.
4.3.3.3.4 Lanes for pedestrians and cyclists
(bpedbic)
General programme conditions (section
4.2.2.5.1 – table SPP-3) define roads where
pedestrians and cyclists are allowed on the
carriageway, or next to it on special areas
designed for them (footway, cycle track). The
width and the distance of these areas are
designed in the clearance for motor vehicles
related to driving speed of motor vehicles. In
such cases the area for pedestrian and cyclists
is usually physically separated. If 0.12-0.13 m
high kerb separates the carriageway and the
area for pedestrians and cyclist, clear widths
for both types of the traffic are overlapped. In
case of physical barrier (fence) such
carriageway as the area for pedestrian and
cyclist should be distanced from the barrier for
the clear width. When parallel pedestrian area
is spread along continuous facility, it has to be
wide at least 1.5 m. For this kind of execution
of the road cross section it is recommended
that driving speed on the road do not exceed
70 km/h.
On roads where it is envisaged by the
programme conditions (SP, exceptionally BP-
r), pedestrians and cyclists should be directed
to special areas, separated from the
carriageway, on one or both sides of the
carriageway. The distance between the
carriageway and the area for pedestrians and
cyclists (verge - side separation lane - Rti) is of
minimum 1.75 m (figure 4.2.33). If an element
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
for drainage is envisaged in the verge (side
separation lane), the distance on both sides of
the area should be determined upon element
widths in this space, as shown in figure 4.2.33.
In this figure label sk denotes installation for
longitudinal drainage, and label b denotes
required width of berm. On roads where driving
speed is greater than 70 km/h, it is
recommended to mount the system for
retaining vehicles (safety fence) in verge (side
separation lane) and to comply with clear
widths on both sides of the system for retaining
vehicles.
tped, bicyc
Figure 4.2.33: The width between a
carriageway and an area for
pedestrians/cyclists with drainage installation.
If the road is spread over a bridge, the area for
pedestrians or cyclists, or for combined traffic
of pedestrians and cyclists, can be routed over
the same bridge. It has to be separated from
the carriageway physically and by height, as
shown in figures 4.2.34 and 4.2.35, where the
minimum widths are specified as well.
Figure 4.2.34: The area for pedestrians at a
bridge
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
Figure 4.2.35: The area for combined traffic of
pedestrians and cyclists at bridge
4.3.3.3.5 Road slopes and roadside (k)
Slopes of trenches and embankments
alongside the road depend on geometrical
properties of the hill in trenches and soil
materials in embankments. Besides geo-
mechanical parameters, designing of slopes of
trenches and embankments should also
include landscape design of the relief and the
maintenance of slopes. While selecting the
inclination of slopes during the road design the
slopes inclination characteristic for the
designed area should be followed to the
greatest extent.
At the foot of embankment slope the channel is
usually placed for drainage of surface waters,
originating from surrounding hills and the road.
If excessive amount of surface water,
originating from surrounding terrain, is
expected, the channel for longitudinal drainage
of surface water should be also envisaged on
the top of trench slopes and/or behind support
walls.
The following should be done:
• the joint between a slope and a terrain
should be designed using rounding tangent
field of 2.00 m on low slopes and of 3.00 m
on high slopes
• for low trenches and embankments (height
< 2 m), the slope angle should be reduced
in a way to provide contact between a slope
edge and a terrain, for slope angle 1:n, at
the distance k = 2n, measured from the
edge of the carriage way for embankments,
and from outer side of longitudinal drainage
installation for the trenches.
• in very shallow trenches or embankments
the subgrade formation of road should be
extended to the terrain
• in sharp horizontal curves the optical
guidance of the route should be improved
by easing the slope angle on inner side of
the curve
• long slopes should be aesthetic designed
with inserted barrier berms on the
embankment or into the trench; the inflow of
surface water to an area of subgrade of the
road should be reduced and the possibility
of easy maintenance should be provided.
More detailed description of the roadside
design is given in chapter 7.9.0.0.0.
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Road design elements
TRAFFIC TRAFFIC
LANE LANE
Figure 4.2.36: An example of road cross section in an embankment
4.3.4 STANDARD GEOMETRIC CROSS
SECTIONS
Standard geometric cross sections (in further
text standard GCS) are graphical presentations
of typical structure of the carriageway elements
and their widths as well as of basic elements of
the road equipment for providing basic traffic
safety, where different contents and different
dimensions of elements, based on the traffic
significance of certain road route and general
programme conditions, are used to determine
consistent planning and designing of roads in
the country.
During the process of designing, individual
elements in standard GCS can be amended, if
required by specific conditions of the terrain
where the road is routed, use of space
conditions and the assessment of investment
efficiency.
The selection of the appropriate standard GCS
for certain road route shall be done in two
steps.
During the first step the appropriate GCS,
which is suitable for anticipated traffic load and
anticipated driving speed, should be selected
in accordance with functional type of the road.
After the drafting of general project the level of
service shall be calculated and on the basis of
that it should be determined whether the
selected profile is appropriate. If the level of
service is higher than programme level, the
profile should be adjusted or one level up
profile should be selected. If the level of
service is lower, modest profile can be
selected (rationality).
During the second step the retest, comprising
the calculation of a level of service on whole
route and on individual critical sections of the
road, shall be done after the drafting of higher
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Serbian Road Design Manual
BERM FOR MAINTENANCE
AND DRAINAGE
ROUNDING OF
EMBANKMENT
level of project. If possible disproportion of
driving conditions (level of service, driving
speed) can be solved by implementation of
specific measures on critical sections, the GCS
shall be approved. If this is not possible,
different route of the road should be sought or
more appropriate GCS has to be selected.
Standard geometrical cross-sections are
separately envisaged for: roads with dual
carriageway for each direction (label AP),
roads with one carriageway and one or more
lanes for traffic in certain direction (label VP)
and for roads with one carriageway and two
lanes for traffic in each direction (label PP).
In the Guidelines on the conditions which
transport structures and other elements of a
public road must fulfil from the aspect of traffic
safety (Official Gazette of RS, 50/2011, pages
238 and 239), following standard GCS are
prescribed.
• with label AP
AP-1 – highway with six lanes – bv = 3.75 m
AP-1 – first phase
AP-2 – highway with four lanes – bv = 3.75
m
AP-2 – on bridge
AP-3 – highway with four lanes – bv = 3.50
m
• with label VP
VP-1 – two-lane road with emergency stop
lanes – bv = 3.50 m.
VP-2 – road with three lanes
VP-3 – four-lane road without emergency
stop lanes – bv = 3.25 m.
• with label PP
PP-1 – two-lane road – bv=3.50 m –
for driving speed of 100 km/h
PP-2 – two-lane road – bv=3.25 m –
for driving speed of 80 km/h
PP-3 – two-lane road – bv=3.00 m –
for driving speed of 60 km/h
PP-2 – two-lane road – bv=2.75 m –
for driving speed of 40 km/h
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

Figure 4.2.37: Standard GCS of AP type

PE Roads of Serbia 55
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Figure 4.2.38: Standard GCS of VP type

56 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

Figure 4.2.39: Standard GCS of PP type

PE Roads of Serbia 57
Road design elements
4.4 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF THE
CARRIAGEWAY
Design elements of the carriageway include:
• geometric elements of the road centre line
and grade level, and
• technical elements
On its route within a land-space, the line of the
road is composed of geometric elements which
together with technical elements of the
carriageway (above all the crossfall) provide
the driving-dynamic conditions for traffic safety
and the aesthetic appearance of the road. This
is achieved using geometric elements which, at
the selected driving speed, provide travel
without surprising changes in curvature
(geometric conditions), where the change in
speed must be uniform (driving-dynamic
conditions) and within the framework of the
physiological boundaries of acceptability
(physiological condition).
The geometric elements of the road centre line
are straight lines, round curves and clothoids.
The geometric elements of the grade level are
straight lines (tangents) and round curves
(vertical curve).
The technical elements of the carriageway are
the crossfall of the carriageway, the minimum
slope of the carriageway for water drainage,
intensity of cross slope changing inside the
zone of carriageway rotation and field of
visibility.
The proper course of the line of the road axis
line is achieved by fulfilling the criteria for
conformity of geometric elements in both
projections. With the routing of a road with
greater traffic significance it is recommended
that the process of computer visualization,
which has the primary goal of ensuring the
aesthetic appearance of the planned road, be
used to verify the adequacy of the course of
the road centre line.
4.4.1 FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE
SELECTION AND HARMONISATION
OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE
CARRIAGEWAY
The design elements of the carriageway
should be selected so that the road
corresponds to the program and technical
conditions (section 4.2.2.5.0), as well as
enable safe driving.
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Serbian Road Design Manual
4.4.1.1 Driving-dynamic dimensioning of
the elements of the carriageway
The dimensioning of the technical elements of
the line of the road axis line should be
determined on the basis of:
• the functional type (category) of the road,
• the design speed (Vr) and
• the defined level of service at the end of the
planned service life.
The design speed Vr is determined in table
4.2.10 (4.2.2.4.1) for various types of terrains.
If the form of the terrain allows for the road to
be routed for the most part using geometric
elements which are significantly greater larger
than the minimums for the envisaged design
speed on that terrain, it is necessary to
determine a greater design speed in advance,
but which may not be greater than the speed
which is specified by law as the highest on the
specific type of road.
During the selection of the elements of the
route, it is obligatory to attain the highest
possible level of conformity with the conditions
of the space and rationality during planning. A
lower design speed is accepted over the
envisaged computed speed in the following
cases:
• very demanding spatial conditions
(previously defined utilization of the space,
natural properties, cultural heritage, urban
environments, avoiding massive
interventions within the space, decreasing
the disruptive effects of the road),
• more demanding relief forms (large height
differences, significant jaggedness),
• demanding geological-geomechanical
conditions or
• other reasons due to which construction at
the highest possible design speed would be
spatially unacceptable and/or which would
carry a cost that is disproportional to the
envisaged traffic function of the road and
the traffic which would flow over it.
All deviations in the design of the road must be
especially explained and argued (state the
reasons for the deviations).
With two-lane roads of the highest category
(DP-m, VP-m, VP-r), certain elements of the
carriageway must be corrected in relation to
the free flow speed (Vp)
If a shorter section of a certain road is being
arranged which was for the most part already
previously arranged, the section should match
the dimensions of the elements which were
applied to the already arranged neighbouring
section (continuity of arrangement), except
when envisaged otherwise by the planning
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
documentation, or when on such a section a
volume of traffic has been observed which
significantly exceeds or is significantly less
than the volume on the already constructed
neighbouring section. This ascertainment must
be specified in the terms of reference.
From the aspect of traffic safety, it is necessary
to ensure:
• as uniform a driving speed as possible,
• adaptability of certain elements,
• width of the carriageway lanes which
correspond to the design speed,
• selection of elements in relation to the
psychophysical traits of drivers,
• selection of elements in relation to the
permitted value of the coefficient of slide
friction,
• permitted slopes of the carriageway for
water drainage,
• separation of the carriageway according to
the direction of roads management for the
highest driving speed,
• conformity of the geometric elements of the
road centre line,
• conformity of the elements of the road
centre line and grade level,
• satisfactory visibility.
In order to provide greater traffic safety, it is
recommended that the free flow speed be
applied for the determination of the size of the
radius for curve between the tangents of the
gradient, if allowed by the space and economic
feasibility.
Figure 4.2.40: Crossfall dopiP and longitudinal slope iN with resulting slopes of the carriageway of irez=
10% and 8%
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
With construction in phases, the phased
arrangement in the design should be created
and shown on the basis of the final stat.
Furthermore, in the initial phase it is necessary
to also take into full consideration the traffic-
safety conditions.
4.4.1.2 Resulting slope of the carriageway
Traffic safety is especially jeopardised when
ice appears on the carriageway during
unfavourable weather conditions. In such
instances, the coefficient of the slide friction is
very low (according to PIARC between 0.09
and 0.19). The travel speed does not matter
much as stability is not provided even to a
vehicle that is stationary. An indicator of this
danger is the resulting slope of the
carriageway which represents the vector
collection of the crossfall and longitudinal slope
of the carriageway. In order to ensure traffic
safety, it is necessary for the size of the radius
of horizontal circular arcs to be selected so that
their crossfall in combination with the
longitudinal slope does not exceed the
permitted value of the resulting slope irez= 10%
which is an empirical value and is applied in
the technical regulations of certain countries
(e.g. in RAS-L - Germany). For high category
roads which are planned in areas where ice
often occurs, it is recommended to use a lower
permitted value for the resulting slope of 8%.
59
Road design elements
On sections of roads with large longitudinal
slopes (iN) it is not permitted to use values of
circular arcs with a crossfall (iP) which would
be greater than the permitted value (dopiP)
which is given in the diagram on Figure 4.2.40.
When one takes into consideration that irez=
10%, the critical value of the longitudinal slope
is iN = 7.14%, and when irez= 8% it results in iN
= 3.87%.
It is especially necessary to envisage the
proper protective measures against sliding
(obligation of strict control and deicing,
protective barriers, etc.), and on long-distance
roads closure in the case of danger.
4.4.1.3 Minimal slopes for water drainage
When determining the dimensions of the
technical elements (lateral and longitudinal
slopes of the carriageway) it is necessary to
take into consideration the following minimum
slopes for drainage of surface water into the
devices for dewatering:
• on cement concrete surfaces 0.2%
• on asphalt surfaces 0.3%
• on grass surfaces 0.5%.
4.4.1.4 Road centre line and grade level
4.4.1.4.1 Definition and position in the cross
section
4.4.1.4.1.1 Definition
The projected line of the longitudinal spatial
profile of the road is a spatial line which in the
plane of the road is defined in two projections:
in the horizontal plane (situational display of
the road centre line) and in the vertical plane
(in the longitudinal section as the grade level).
The road centre line of the road represents the
longitudinal section of the route of the road
through a land-space. On the horizontal plane
(lay-out) it represents the projected line
selected in the cross section of the road, where
each point of the road centre line in the plane
is defined by X and Y coordinates. That
projection is a combination of straight lines and
circular arcs, geometrical elements with a
constant curvature, interconnected with
transitional curves in the form of clothoids,
which enable linear (directly proportional)
curvature changes among the circles.
The grade level of the road is the height profile
of the route through a space. On the vertical
plane (second projection) it represents the
projected longitudinal line, selected in the
cross section of the road, where each point of
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Serbian Road Design Manual
the grade level in the plane is defined by Z
coordinate. This projection is a combination of
longitudinal slopes (tangents), through which
the height route of the road is adapted to the
terrain, and the circular arcs, which serve as
the connecting change of the longitudinal slope
between two tangents. The tangents, in
practical application, are also called “gradient”,
and circular arcs are called “vertical curves”,
which can be convex (crest) if their central
point is located below the grade level, or
concave (sag) if their central point is located
above the grade level.
For the purpose of better adaptation of the
height profile of the road to the terrain, and
which is facilitated through computer
processing, we could reform the definition of
grade level and say that the projection is a
combination of consecutive circular arcs, with
which the design engineer follows the form of
the terrain in the projected route, and the
tangents with various slopes, which each
connect two consecutive circular arcs.
4.4.1.4.1.2 Position of the centre line and
grade level in the cross section
The road axis line for the driver is the line
which he/she follows during driving and
changes the direction of travel in accordance
with the optical representation of the route of
the road which lies before him/her. As a result
of the adopted “right of way”, the driver sits on
the left side of the vehicle. For his/her view
looking forward, the most important part is the
left edge of the driving surface from where the
rule originates that the road centre line must
always be located on the left edge of the
driving lane in the direction of travel or at least
on the left edge of one of the driving lanes, if
for an individual direction of travel on the same
carriageway there are two or more driving
lanes which have been envisaged.
That is why the line of the road axis line in the
cross section of a two-lane road for traffic in
both directions, as a rule, is located in the
middle of the carriageway (for both directions
of travel on the left side), and that position is
called the "normal position of the road centre
line". With roads that have divided
carriageways, that “normal positions of the
road centre line” is located in the middle of the
central reserve (in Figure 4.2.41 designated by
a dashed line).
The rule for running the road centre line along
the left edge also applies in cases when the
driving surfaces for a certain direction of travel
are separated and run differently than the
basic line of the road. And above all:
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
• at a change in width of the central reserve
on roads with divided carriageways,
• at on and off lanes on up-grade
intersections,
• on oneway single- or multiple-lane slip
roads on up-grade intersections,
• at on and off lanes on grade intersections,
when the flow of traffic on them is
independent from the travelled way,
• on additional lanes for turning left at
intersections when that interval is not made
according to a special process (see the
section Grade intersections and access
points) and
• (it is recommended) at the widening in
curves with a radius R<200 m.
In special cases (e.g. setting out of the
direction during rehabilitation of a road) the
road axis line may be selected at the edge or
normal
favourable
In exceptional cases
Figure 4.2.41: Position of the road centre line and grade level in the cross section of the road
The road axis line, as a rule, is also the line of
the height profile of the road - grade level. With
roads that have divided carriageways, the line
of the grade level runs along the left edge of
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
the carriageway or in any longitudinal line on
the carriageway.
When the central reserve of a dual-
carriageway is widened due to structural needs
(tunnel, separation of traffic going in different
directions), the line of the road axis line runs
separately for each direction; or along the left
edge of the carriageway, or along the left edge
of one of the driving lanes.
Deciding on how the road centre line runs
according to any other line in the cross section
of the road requires a separate argumentation
to be included in the design. Consecutively it is
necessary to take into consideration the
calculation of changes to the longitudinal
edges of the carriageway (rotation) and in
devices for longitudinal dewatering.
each carriageway, parallel to the road axis line.
That position is known as the “normal position
of the grade level” (in Figure 4.2.41 designated
by a small circle). “Normal” is also considered
61
Road design elements
the position in which the line of the grade level
is located at the edge of the carriageway. That
is used for the renewal of an existing two-
directional carriageway or when due to very
small gradients on the carriageway it is not
possible to ensure a longitudinal slope on the
sections sufficient for dewatering.
The line along which the grade level runs may
also be selected in any other position in the
cross section of the road within or outside of
the carriageway, if there are justified reasons
for this (very mild gradients, rotation,
preventing hydroplaning, etc.).
The selection of the position of the line of the
grade level in the cross section, as a rule,
greatly affects the quantity of earthworks on
the route of the road. Above all, it affects the
size of the elements which provide the change
in the crossfall (grade level at the edge -
doubled length of rotation zone).
On roads with separated carriageways
(“normal position”), the grade level is run along
the left edge of both carriageways and
provides a unique arrangement of the central
reserve, which is suitable for placement of
devices for dewatering (constant symmetric
profile of the longitudinal ditch) and for
providing access between the two
carriageways.
By running the grade level through the middle
of each carriageway, fewer earthworks are
required and a shorter rotation length is
achieved, and in curves - which is especially
important - for the most part blinding of the
driver by vehicles in the neighbouring
carriageway lane travelling in the opposite
direction is prevented.
4.4.1.4.2 Centre line and/or grade level
running separately
Roads with dual carriageway can run
separately according to layout and grade level
when required by spatial conditions or for
economical building. The following options are
available:
• completely separating both carriageways
(parkway), where the centre line and grade
level as a rule run in the middle of each
carriageway (due to significantly higher
costs of investment and maintenance, this
method is selected only under special
conditions)
• dividing both carriageways by layout and
grade level in an area of large civil
engineering structures (tunnels - wider
intervals for geotechnical reasons, viaducts
- narrower central reserve or for
geotechnical or spatial reasons)
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Serbian Road Design Manual
• dividing one or both carriageways by layout
when it is necessary to widen the central
reserve for the purpose of placing support
pillars for overbridges (widening the clear
profile of the carriageway) or individual spot
located fixed obstacles which must be
preserved (landmarks, columns for
infrastructure lines - it is necessary to
adhere to the required spacing and angle of
intersection!) where it is necessary to take
into consideration the effect of movement
on the grade level (other centre line,
different length between the start and end
of separation)
• dividing both carriageways according to
grade level and layout (steep drops in the
terrain or some other justified reason) with
constant or variable spacing between both
centre lines.
Separation according to layout and grade level
is also applicable on slip roads of up-grade
intersections where the centre line and grade
level of the slip roads at the beginning and end
run parallel to the road centre line from which
they separate or onto which they connect.
Separation according to layout of the road
centre line is also applicable for the line of
additional lanes on the carriageway
(intersections, overtaking lane), as well as
where certain traffic lanes are widened. The
general principle is that in an area where the
carriageway widens or on individual lanes it is
necessary for both directions of travel to
provide equal geometric and technical
conditions for driving.
4.4.1.4.3 Implementing a jump of the road
centre line and grade level
When there are technical, spatial or other
reasons related to construction due to which it
is necessary on a certain part of a section of
the road for the line of the road centre line
and/or grade level in the cross section of the
road to be moved, that movement must be
carried out through a process called a "jump"
of the centre line or grade level.
A jump of the centre line and/or grade level is
implements in the case of:
• very small gradients in an area of rotation
(jump of the grade level onto the edge of
the road),
• single or multiple rotation on long viaducts
(aesthetic appearance),
• separation of the carriageway lanes, if the
centre line and grade level of one or both
carriageway lanes in the cross section of
the road do not maintain their initial position
and
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Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

• planning of on and off slip roads (jump of curvature of the basic line of the road axis line
the centre line and grade level from the and grade level (in an area of a circular arc or
primary onto the secondary centre line) on straight line) in order to ensure the parallel flow
up-grade intersections and up to of the line (Figure 4.2.42 and 4.2.43).
accompanying content facilities.

Each jump of the road centre line and/or grade

level must be implemented in an area of equal

in the area of the same in the area of the opposite

direction crossfall direction crossfall
centre line centre line

road grade level

road grade level

grade separated grade level

Figure 4.2.42: Jump of the centre line and grade level in an area of rotation

tunnel (or other structure)

jump of the centre line

Figure 4.2.43: Jump of the centre line and grade level on a dual-carriageway

Additional (secondary) centre lines for on and
off slip roads separate from the base (primary)
centre line or grade level and connect to the
external edge of the right lane of the
carriageway. The line of the secondary centre
line and grade level are located on the left side
of the carriageway of the slip road, regardless
of how many lanes have been envisaged on
the road, in order to facilitate the unobstructed
forming of a crossfall on the additional lane.
The initial and/or final section of the centre line
of the additional lane is formed through the
process of centre line or grade level jump
(Figure 4.2.44).

PE Roads of Serbia 63
Road design elements
The jump of the centre line and grade level is
implemented in an area where the elements of
the primary centre line have a constant
curvature regardless of where the additional
lanes begin or end. Even if they start and end
in the area of a transitional curve, the jump
must be implemented in the area of an element
Figure 4.2.44: Position of the centre line and grade level at junction slip roads
The jump of the grade level for aesthetic
reasons is recommended to also be
implemented in an area of long viaducts, when
the direction of the crossfall of the carriageway
changes along the viaduct. Running the grade
level in the line of the “normal position” through
more than two consecutive oppositely oriented
curves results in the grade level of the edge of
the carriageway change in the longitudinal
direction as well due to a change of the
crossfall of the carriageway. On open sections
Figure 4.2.45: Non-aesthetic rotation on a long viaduct
64
Serbian Road Design Manual
of the primary centre line with a constant
curvature in order to obtain a secondary centre
line that is parallel to the primary centre line. A
part of the secondary centre line (between the
jump and the start of the additional lane or
between the end of the additional lane and the
jump) is then marked by a negative chainage.
position of road centre line and
grade level (primary centre line)
position of slip road centre line and
grade level (secondary centre line)
of the route and in tunnels it is unnoticeable,
but it is very noticeable in long viaducts. The
view on a viaduct is exceptionally non-
aesthetic for someone who is looking onto the
viaduct from the surroundings, and for the
driver it prevents a view over the carriageway
in front of him/her. On Figure 4.2.45 (a picture
from USA, photo: A. Juvanc) both effects can
be seen quite well. A person gets the
impression that the road is shaking due to an
earthquake.
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

permitted values of the coefficient of slide

friction (COF) in a tangential direction, the
4.4.2 VISIBILITY gradient and the resistance of air. The
equation for the stopping distance is as
follows:
4.4.2.1 Definition and types of visibilities

4.4.2.1.1 Definition of visibility

Visibility on the road is the length of free view

in the field of vision of the driver which is gde su:
necessary to provide on a road in order for the Lz [m] stopping distance
driver to notice obstacles while driving at the V [km/h] speed
free flow speed and conduct a manoeuvre with V0 [km/h] starting speed - before braking
the vehicle with the vehicle necessary for safe starts
driving. V1 [km/h] braking speed - upon
Such traffic manoeuvres include the following: completion of braking (braking
decreasing speed, stopping the vehicle or speed, when stopping: V1=0
overtaking. No fixed obstructions may be V2 [km/h] speed of vehicle before braking
located inside the free field of visibility. An starts = starting speed V0
exception is the installation of traffic signs tr [s] reaction time tr=2.0 sec
which provide direct instructions for safe g
2
[m/s ] gravitational acceleration
driving (danger signs, explicit order signs, fT [-] coefficient of slide friction (COF)
notification signs). in a tangential direction
With regards to purpose, the following types of iN [%] gradient
visibility exist: u [-] coefficient of air resistance
• stopping sight distance (Pz) (dynamic air resistance)
• required visibility (Pzp)
• overtaking visibility (Pp) The coefficient of air resistance depends
• available visibility (Pr) greatly on the shape and weight of the vehicle.
For practical calculations one may use the
4.4.2.1.1.1 Stopping sight distance (Pz) formula where the coefficient depends only on
the travel speed, namely (according to Fürth):
Stopping sight distance is the length of road
extended by the safety distance (7 m) which a
vehicle covers from the moment when the
driver notices an obstacle until reaching a
complete stop (stopping length). The stopping In the Guidelines on the conditions which
length (Lz) is the shorts distance in which a transport structures and other elements of a
driver on a wet and clean carriageway can stop public road must fulfil from the aspect of traffic
the vehicle. This consists of: the distance safety (Official Gazette of RS, 50/11), the
which depends on the reaction time of the stopping sight distance at a gradient (iN=0) has
driver and the distance which depends on the already been calculated (Table 4.2.24).

Table 4.2.24: Stopping sight distance in the function of (design) speed

Vr [km/h] 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Pz [m] 40 55 70 90 115 145 180 215 255 300

In the case when the wearing layer of the
pavement structures has been constructed
from a mixture of silicate aggregates (igneous),
the COF is greater, and the stopping length is
shorter. It is around 60% of the length
calculated with the COF for calcite aggregates.
It is used for the rehabilitation of existing roads,
and for designing new roads only in special
conditions (section 4.2.2.4.3.3).
If the shortened stopping length is used
exceptionally on a carriageway constructed
with a wearing layer from a carbonate rock
aggregate, it is necessary for the design to
specify the scheduling for prior control
measurements of the COF on such a section.
On a dry carriageway, the COF is
fundamentally greater than that on a wet
carriageway and is calculated according to the

PE Roads of Serbia 65
Road design elements
general physical formula for decreasing speed
located in section 4.2.2.4.5. A deceleration of
-2
a=7 ms can be used to obtain a sufficiently
precise calculation.
4.4.2.1.1.2 Required visibility (Pzp)
During the design of roads, great effort is made
to use geometric elements of the carriageway
which are more comfortable for the user. That
is why the user, when driving through certain
elements of an “open” road achieves travel
speeds which are greater than design speed.
Speed depends on the radius of the circular
Figure 4.2.46: Diagram of required visibility in the function of speed and gradient
The diagram on Figure 4.2.46, depending on
the gradient, is also used for determining the
stopping sight distance at the design speed.
The shaded area designates the degrees of
the gradient which are less than the maximum
values for the various speeds according to
regulations.
The required visibility is achieved during the
design of the road if the free flow speed is
used in the calculation for fields of visibility for
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Serbian Road Design Manual
arc of the curve, the width of the traffic lane
and the length of the arc, and also depends on
the extent of the gradient. Because it depends
on the size of the elements of the road
selected in the design, it is called the free flow
speed (Vp). On high category roads of a
functional type (general program conditions) it
is necessary to, instead of the design speed,
when defining visibility, take into consideration
the free flow speed. Visibility defined in this
manner is called the required visibility.
Lengths of required visibility (Pzp) can be read
from the graph on Figure 4.2.46.
both directions of travel. If in a certain curve
that visibility cannot be reached (fixed objects,
protected trees, etc.), the speed in that
direction must be limited using traffic signs to a
speed which depends on the available width of
the field of visibility.
4.4.2.1.1.3 Overtaking visibility (Pp)
The overtaking visibility (Pp) is a vital
parameter for designing safe driving on two-
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
lane roads. That is the distance over which is it
possible to safely overtake a slower vehicle in
front of oneself and represents the collection of
the length which the overtaking vehicle and
vehicle being overtaked cover, at a time which
allows the driver of the overtaking vehicle
Table 4.2.25: Minimum overtaking sight distance
Vr [km/h] 40 50
Pp [m] 260 320
• According to the valid technical regulations
of the Republic of Serbia it is necessary to
provide the ability to overtake on at least
20% of the length of two-lane roads.
Areas on the road, where overtaking is not
possible, must be defined in the design
• that the proper traffic signs and road
markings can be placed (overtaking
forbidden and continuous central dividing
line) and
• to find out, if a sufficient portion of the
length of the sections for the overtaking is
attained.
4.4.2.1.1.4 Available visibility (Pr)
During maintenance, reconstruction and
rehabilitation of existing roads it is necessary
to determine the extent of visibility in individual
curves and the extent of overtaking visibility.
Additionally, the process of 3D spatial analysis
is used or the visibility in both directions of
travel is measured on site. The measured or
3D modelled obtained value is entered into the
layout and in the longitudinal section at certain
chainages. The graphical representation of
both visibilities in the longitudinal sections
serves for:
• determining the locations on an existing
road where it is necessary to implement
construction intervention to increase the
length of visibility,
• determine the portion of the length of the
road on which it is possible to overtake and
define the construction measures, if that
portion is insufficient,
• prior defining of intervention on surrounding
land for the purpose of providing the
required visibility when designing the
reconstruction or rehabilitation of a road
and
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
observe the situation (reaction time),
accelerate and achieve the overtaking speed,
overtake the other vehicle and safely return to
the proper traffic lane. The minimum length of
the overtaking sight distance depends on the
design speeds provided in Table 4.2.25.
60 70 80 90 100
370 430 480 540 600
• input information for the design engineer
designing the reconstruction or
rehabilitation of a road.
4.4.2.2 Impacts on visibility
Visibility, according to numerous studies, is
one of the most important parameters for
ensuring traffic safety on the road. It
represents the basis for determining the limited
dimensions of individual geometrical and
technical elements of the carriageway such as:
field of visibility, minimum radius of a crest
curve and the smallest possible radius of a
horizontal curve in a physically confined space
(tunnels).
4.4.2.2.1 Horizontal visibility
The horizontal visibility (Pz) must be provided
for both directions of travel on a road by
removing all continuous fixed obstacles from
the inner side of a horizontal curve, including
moveable obstacles (parked cars, deposit
areas, etc.) which are under the authority of
the inspectorate and not the design engineer.
The space which is thereby defined represents
the field of visibility. The same regulations
apply to that area as on the driving area (area
of controlled space along roads). The width of
that space depends on the length of the
stopping sight distance and the radius of the
curve of the road centre line on the individual
element. The position of the driver’s eyes are
taken as the starting point (hv = 1.10 m) at a
distance of 1.50 m from the right edge of the
carriageway lane as shown in Figure 4.2.47.
67
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

bb

bp
1,50
Pz

Figure 4.2.47: Diagram for determining the field of horizontal visibility

The width of the field of visibility is determined road on the stopping visible length. The height
by the following simplified formula of an obstacle on the road is in principle 0.10
m. Because higher speeds lead to
and the width of
uneconomical solutions, the part of the
the berm is
obstacle which is not visible is tolerated. The
recommended values of the non-visible part of
where:
an obstacle (according to RAS-L) are
bb [m] ... width of field of visibility
displayed in Table 4.2.26.
bp [m] ... width of visibility
With the vertical visibility, the minimum size of
Pz [m] ... length of required visibility
the radius of a crest curve (convrmin) is
R [m] ... radius of horizontal curve
calculated according to the display in Figure
4.2.48.
In the area of a transitional curve (clothoid), the
field of visibility is simply determined through
the direct proportional change in the width
along the transitional curve.
Steel protective walls fall under traffic
equipment which may be placed in the field of
visibility. On an embankment it is always
necessary to assess the impact that the wall
has on visibility and when necessary, remove it
(widening of the verge). If the road is at the
same time located in a vertical curve, the
impact of the protective wall must be assessed
according to the process which is valid for
providing visibility in a physically confined
space. Special attention must be given to the
placement of a noise protection barrier. If they
cannot be moved to the edge of the field of
visibility, the assessment must be done
according to the process which is in force for
ensuring visibility in a physically confined
space.
On existing roads it is possible to eliminate the
lack of width of the field of visibility by
removing the obstacle, limiting the speed or
constructing the wearing layer of the pavement
structure from a silicate aggregate.

4.4.2.2.2 Vertical visibility

Vertical visibility on the road is determined by

the height of the position of the driver’s eyes
(1.10 m) and the height of obstacles on the

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Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

h2=0.10 (obstacle height)

convrmin

Figure 4.2.48: Diagram for calculation of the minimum size of the radius of a crest curve

and according to the formula:

2 2
Pz = (r minkonv + h1 ) − r2
minkonv + (r minkonv + h2 ) − r2
minkonv

where:
Pz [m] stopping sight distance
rminconv [m] minimum radius of a crest curve
h1. [m] height of the position of driver’s eyes above the carriageway - h1 = 1.10 m
h2 [m] height of obstacle on the road (Table 4.2.26)

Table 4.2.26: Minimum visible height of obstacle on the road (recommended by RAS-L)

Vi [km/h] 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

[km/h]
h2 [m] 0.00 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.45
[m]

The values of the minimum radius of a crest
curve convrmin are provided in Table 4.2.33 in
section 4.4.4.31 (Vertical curves). For an
approximate calculation, the following form is
sufficient:
2
convrmin = 0.25*(Pz) [m]
In order to ensure the highest possible degree
of traffic safety on the road, it is necessary to
take into consideration the required visibility
length Pzp during the calculation of the
minimum radius of a vertical crest curve on
high category roads which results from the free
flow speed.
4.4.2.2.3 Visibility in a confined space
The problem of visibility in a confined space
comes up in tunnels and on an open route
alongside which protective walls or noise
protection barriers are placed.
In tunnels, the widening of the tunnel-arc for
the purpose of providing visibility is not an
economical solution and is only implemented
as a last resort (Figure 4.2.49). The design
solution is to increase the radius of the curve to
such a value that the required visibility is
provided within the tunnel.
On an open route alongside which walls have
been placed, with regards to visibility the
problematic areas are primarily sections on
which the carriageway simultaneously goes
through a horizontal and vertical curve.

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Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Legend:
a distance of the offside (inner) traffic lane
edge from the obstacle
b driver’s position (b= 1.80 m or ½ of traffic lane
width)

Figure 4.2.49: Visibility on the far left traffic lane of a oneway carriageway (source: RAS-L)

The value of the required size of the radius Rh

for various gradients and visible berm "a" are
provided in the graph on Figure 4.2.50.

clean and dry pavement

dry pavement

perm

Figure 4.2.50: Size of the radius Rh depending on the distance between an obstacle and the edge of
the nearside (outer) traffic lane, as well as the gradient (source: RAS-L, 1995)

70 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
4.4.3 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF THE
SITUATIONAL LAYOUT
4.4.3.1 Types of elements of road centre
line and forms of the curve
sequence structure
In the technical sense, the sizes of the
parameters of the geometric elements of the
road centre line are the values which depend
on the dynamic of driving. With the selection of
these values, the following should be taken
into consideration:
• functionality of the road (envisaged travel
speed and defined degree of comfort),
• spatial limitations (morphology of the
terrain, natural and linear structures,
existing utilisation of the space,
urbanisation and other),
• environmental impacts (emissions of
hazardous materials, landscape and natural
resources, aesthetic appearance, etc.),
• psychophysical traits of the driver and
passengers in the vehicle (comfort, traffic
safety),
• conformity of selected elements (traffic
safety),
• traffic characteristics of the planned road
(type of users of the road, arrangement of
the road and alongside the road, frequency
of grade intersections, frequency of
junctions, etc.) and
• rationality of invested resources
(construction of the road and measures
from preserving and protecting the
environment).
If the terrain conditions (large elevation
differences) do no permit the guiding of the
horizontal course of the route with elements
which start from the design speed (Vr),
hairpins can be constructed on lower category
roads. A hairpin turn is a bend which contains
a circular curve with a small radius and which
has a central angle of α > 180° . Two circular
curves are attached to it (entry and exit) so that
the speed in the curve gradually decreased.
The geometrical elements of the road centre
line, which are called the horizontal
geometrical elements, are the straight (Ž = ∞),
circular curve (Ri) and clothoid (Ai) as a
transitional curve between the curves. The
circular curve and the straight are elements
with a constant curvature, which change on a
clothoid directly proportional in relation to the
curvature of the circular curve from which it
begins, through the curve point, where the
curvature is zero, to the curvature of the
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
circular curve towards which it leads. Observed
in the direction of chainage, the diameter of the
circular curve is positive if it curves to the right,
and negative if it curves to the left.
Each of the aforementioned geometrical
elements are used in the dimensions which
correspond to the design speed selected on
the basis of the program conditions and are
mutually harmonised so that during driving not
physical quantities are created which would
exceed the physical characteristics of the
driver and vehicle.
When composing the geometric elements the
following should be taken into consideration:
• geometric condition – both tangents of
neighbouring curves are homologous
• driving-dynamic condition – change of
lateral acceleration must be uniform
• physiological condition – change in lateral
acceleration within the limits which are
acceptable for the driving.
Direct connecting a circular curve and a
straight or two circular curves fulfils only the
geometric condition. Because of this
connecting these two elements is permitted
only in the special cases which are technically
defined in this section. The sequence which
also fulfils the driving-dynamic conditions is
such that between a straight or circular curve
or between two circular curves there is always
a clothoid inserted which is therefore called a
transitional curve. And through the proper
selection of the length of the clothoid the
physiological conditions is also fulfilled. With
medium and high category roads (SP-r, VP-r,
VP-m, DP-m and DP-d) it is always obligatory
to apply a sequence which fulfils all three of
the aforementioned conditions.
The basic types of connection of the geometric
elements of the road centre line are:
• simple curve:
straight – clothoid – circular curve – clothoid
– straight,
• Reverse curve:
circular curve – clothoid – oppositely
oriented circular curve,
• O-curve:
circular curve – clothoid – circular curve
curved in the same direction,
• double O-curve:
circular curve – clothoid – larger circular
curve – clothoid – smaller circular curve.
Other combinations of the elements of the road
centre line are also possible (see: Guidelines
on the conditions which transport structures
and other elements of a public road must fulfil
71
Road design elements
from the aspect of traffic safety (Official
Gazette of RS, 50/11), and which are
applicable only for roads designed with a lower
design speed Vr ≤ 80 km/h. Specifically, each
combination of the sequence of two sizes of a
certain type of geometric elements causes a
certain discontinuity of the line of travel which
does not help to provide traffic safety on roads
for a design speed Vr > 80 km/h.
4.4.3.2 Straight
A straight is a geometric element of the road
centre line which during the design of roads is
used for adapting to the terrain forms on the
route of the road. The length of the used
straight (short straight) is in these cases nearly
identical to the lengths of the other elements
used on the road centre line. A length which
corresponds to an interval of five to seven
seconds of driving is very acceptable.
A long straight is used only in special cases.
Aside from the fact that it is most often an
unnatural form in the environment, it also has a
Figure 4.2.51: Road with insufficient sag (a) and crest (b) curve of the gradient
The length of a long straight is limited in
relation to the design speed and in relation to
the direction of curvature of connecting curves,
that being:
• a straight between two oppositely
oriented curves and
• a straight between two curves, curved
in the same direction.
The length of a straight (Lst) between two
oppositely oriented curves falls within the
limits:
2.Vr [km/h] ≤ Lst [m] ≤ 20.Vr [km/h]
If the length of the straight is less than 2.Vr, it
is recommended that instead of using a
straight, both connecting circular curves be
linked by a single clothoid (transitional curve)
in the form of a reverse curve. In this case to a
certain extent it is necessary to increase the
radius of both connecting curves so that the
72
Serbian Road Design Manual
series of negative characteristics such as the
difficulty of assessing the speed of an
oncoming vehicle, poor visibility behind
preceding vehicle, tiring driving experience,
blinding by lights during the night and unstable
position of the steering wheel while driving.
That is why they are used only in special
topographical conditions (roads through
valleys, wide plateaus), in special spatial
conditions (along other infrastructure facilities,
insertion into surroundings that have already
been built up), in the case of demanding road
structures (on bridges with large spans,
tunnels) or on sections where its use is justified
by traffic-technical reasons (intersections and
junctions, enabling overtaking, large structures,
etc.).
From a design aspect, with long straights, it is
especially important to ensure that the
sufficient size of connecting curves (radius of
circular curve and length of transitional curve)
and the sufficient size of the applied radius of
vertical curve of the gradient are provided
(Figure 4.2.51).
length of the transitional curve is not too large
and does not give the impression of a straight.
The length of a straight (Lst) between two
curves oriented in the same direction falls
within the limits:
4.Vr [km/h] ≤ Lst [m] ≤ 20.Vr [km/h]
If the length of the straight is less than 4.vr, for
the highest category roads it is recommended
that instead of a straight between both
connecting circular curves, one more circular
curve be inserted with a large radius in order
for the composition to obtain the form of a
double O-curve. Such a solution is favourable
from a driving-dynamic standpoint because it
preserves the direction of the effect of lateral
acceleration on the driving. The solution with
the inserted oppositely oriented circular curve
is possible, although only in the case that the
distance for positioning this curve is sufficiently
large. With this driving-dynamic favourable
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
solution it is especially important to ensure
rotation of the carriageway is implements
(hydroplaning).
4.4.3.3 Circular curve
A circular curve is a geometric element which
is the simplest method for enabling the
adapting of the line of the route to the forms of
the terrain over which it passes. It is an
element that enables change in direction of the
route through its curvature (1/R - const.) in
accordance with the natural forms within a
space. The extent to which construction works
on the route will be necessary depends on the
conditions of the design speed. Because of
this, the limited size of the used curves on a
mild terrain is larger than the curves which
would be used on a more demanding terrain
(impact of terrain conditions on selecting of
design speed). At the same time it is
necessary to take into consideration that the
travel speed on circular curves of a greater
radius will be increased proportionately to the
increased radii (free flow speed Vp).
In general, the following applies:
• the size of the circular curves should be
selected so that they fit into the natural
space as much as possible and facilitate
the harmonisation of the elements of the
road centre line and grade level,
• the most suitable size of the radius of
circular curves should be selected so as to
enable the speed of control which is closest
to the envisaged basic speed on a certain
road,
• in the case of a large gradient the size of
the radius of a circular curve should be
adapted to the resulting slope of the
carriageway,
• the circular curve must be sufficiently long
as to ensure driving on it lasts at least two
seconds (driver's reaction time), and
comfortable driving five to seven seconds,
• the recommendation that a circular curve
on long structures be bridges (when
possible) does not change the curvature
(rational construction of viaducts),
Table 4.2.27: Minimum radius of a circular arc connected to a long straight
Lstraight [m] Rprim [m]
≥ 500 m ≥ 1.5 Rmin m
≥ 300 m ≥ 400 m
< 300 m > Lpreme m
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
• it is recommended that the radii of
horizontal circular curves in the zone of
intersections and junctions be selected so
that the crossfall (ip) within them does not
exceed 4% (resulting slope during driving
when exiting and the required visibility),
• it is recommended that within the zone of
up-grade intersections, the radii of
horizontal circular arcs be selected so that
the off slip road, both in the sense of the
guiding of traffic (visibility) and structurally
(slopes) can be built to suit the driver as
much as possible, and
• the size of the circular curves should be
mutually harmonised with the grade level to
ensure that excessive changes and
oscillations in the free flow speed (Vp) do
not occur.
4.4.3.3.1 Limited values of the radius and
length of a circular curve
The limited values of the radius of circular
curves are:
• the minimum radius of a circular arc,
connected to a long straight (Rprim),
• the minimum radius of a circular arc (Rmin),
• the minimum radius of a circular arc with
the minimum crossfall of the carriageway
(Rg),
• the minimum radius of a circular arc with
the opposite crossfall of the carriageway
(R’),
• the maximum radius of a circular curve
(Rmax),
and the minimum length of the curve is also
defined.
The minimum radius of a circular curve,
connected to a long straight (Rprim) is a value
which depends on the type of road and the
length of the straight (Lstraight) which follows the
circular curve (with inserted transitional curve)
in the direction of travel. The minimum values
are provided in Table 4.2.27. The selected
radius must also fulfil other conditions for
control (driving-dynamic, structural and
aesthetic).
note
for highways
for other roads
73
Road design elements
The limited values of the radii of circular curves
are defined depending on the selection design
speed (Vr) for providing greater traffic safety
during driving, the selected share of utilisation
of the coefficient of slide friction in the
transverse direction (fR – Table 4.2.8, section
4.2.2.4.3.3) and the limited values of the
crossfall of the carriageway. The calculation s
of all limited values are made according to the
equations for the calculation of Rmin, provided
in Figure 4.2.52 where for the various types of
limited values the corresponding different
values of fi and ipk are taken into consideration.
All values are defined for asphalt pavements
and rounded up to the nearest whole number.
The minimum radius of a circular curve (Rmin)
is the value which (still) ensures safe travel at
the selected design speed (Vr) and with the
Figure 4.2.52: The size of the radius of a horizontal circular curve depending on the maximum crossfall
of the carriageway
The minimum radius of a circular curve with
the minimum crossfall (Rg) is the smallest
value which (still) ensures safe driving at the
selected design speed (Vr) and with the
minimum crossfall of the carriageway (minipk =
2.5%). The values of Rg are provided in Table
4.2.28.
The minimum radius of a circular curve with an
opposite crossfall of the carriageway (R’) is
defined for a crossfall ipk = - minipk = - 2.5%
(counterslope). As a rule it is applied on
divided dual-carriageway roads according to
direction of travel, and on two-way road only in
74
Serbian Road Design Manual
maximum crossfall of the carriageway (max ipk =
7%, exceptionally with the renewal of roads
absmax ipk = 8%). A graph of these values for an
arbitrary speed (Vi) is shown in Figure 4.2.52.
The application of Rmin should be separately
verified with the routing of a road through an
area of large structures (tunnels, viaducts –
technical regulations for design and
dimensioning of civil engineering road
structures should be taken into consideration),
through an area of large gradients, as well as
with the specific placement of the central
reserve on divided dual- carriageway roads
according to direction of travel. Generally on
these types of sections Ri > Rmin should be
applied in order to ensure the required visibility
and fulfil the condition of the resulting slope of
the carriageway. The values of Rmin are
provided in Table 4.2.28.
exceptional cases. It is applied if a
counterslope:
• introduces a simpler system for dewatering
of the carriageway,
• prevents the occurrence of hydroplaning on
roads with a very mild gradient or
• if it significantly affects the investments
costs.
The values of R’ are provided in Table 4.2.28.
The maximum radius of a circular curve (Rmax)
is the recommended value which should be
taken into consideration above all on long-
distance roads and amounts to Rmax = 5,000 m
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

(as an exception 10,000 m). Namely, with radii
greater than 5,000 m the feeling of curvature
disappears and the movement of the steering
wheel becomes so small that the driver cannot
perform it.
The minimum length of a circular curve (Lk) is
defined by the physical conditions of the
driver’s reaction time and amounts to two
seconds of control or Lk = 7.2*Vi [m], where Vi
is in km/h. The recommended value of this
length which provides safe driving is five
seconds (Lk = 18*Vi) and is provided in Table
4.2.28.

Table 4.2.28: Limited values of the radius and length of a circular curve

Vr [km/h] 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Rmin [m] 45 75 120 175 250 350 450 550 675 800
Rg [m] 180 300 500 700 1,015 1,410 1,810 2,415 3,015 3,620
R’ [m] - - - - 2,500 2,500 3,000 4,000 4,500 5,000
Lk [m] 40 55 70 90 115 145 180 215 255 300

- gradual directly proportional change in

4.4.3.3.2 Size of radii of two neighbouring curvature of the road centre line between
circular curves two curves,
- gradual direct proportional change of
As a rule, during design the values of the lateral acceleration (within permitted limits),
radius of a circular curve Ri are applied which - length for implementing a change in the
are greater than Rmin. In an area of Rmin < Ri < crossfall between two curves (rotation) and
Rg their crossfall changes from ip maks = 7% to ip - an aesthetic appearance of the outer lines
min = 2.5% (for asphalt pavements), and in an of the carriageway.
area of Ri > Rg the crossfall is constant (ip min).
The dependency Vr – Ri – ipi is provided in The equations for a clothoid and the angle
section 4.4.5.3.0 (crossfall of the carriageway between the start and end tangents (central
in a curve). angle are
Due to the driving-dynamic and technical ) Li A i2
conditions it is recommended that the size of A i2 = Ri ⋅ Li and τ = =
neighbouring circular curves on the road centre 2 ⋅ Ri 2 ⋅ Ri2
line be selection with the ratio of R1 : R2 ≤ 1 : where:
1.5. Increasing this ration, when constructing
the transition between the curves, leads to Ai [m] parameter of a clothoid
discontinuity in the sense of the dynamic of radius of a the circular curve on a
Ri [m]
driving, which can be resolved only through the clothoid distance of LI
proper selection of a transitional curve Li [m] length of clothoid up to Ri
)
(clothoid), where, as the ratio between radii τ [rad] central angle of the clothoid
increases the interval of the limited lengths of
the transitional curves narrows. A clothoid is a +/- symmetrical curve and
enables the identical connection of each pair of
circular curves regardless of the size of its
4.4.3.4 Clothoid (transitional curve)
radius or orientation. The used value of the
size of the clothoid parameter (Ai) is within the
A transitional curve is an element of the route
which provides the uninterrupted connection of limits:
circular curves together or with a straight, as Ri
≤ A i < Ri ,
well as the optical and aesthetic placement of 3
the route. For the implementation of the where Ri is the size of the radius of the circular
transition, a mathematical curve of a clothoid is curve onto which the clothoid connects.
applied which provides:
- complete homology to the tangents on the The aesthetic effect of the transitional curve
points of connection with a circular curve or (Figure 15), which directly affects the
straight, psychophysical state of the driver and his/her
decisions, is of exceptional importance for

PE Roads of Serbia 75
Road design elements
safety in traffic. Figure 4.2.53 shows two cases
in which under (a) the transitional curve is not
Figure 4.2.53: Aesthetic appearance of a road without a transitional curve (a) and with a transitional
curve (b)
The complete omission of a transitional part
between two arcs is not permitted. An
exception is made for large radii of circular
curves with their lower value stated in Table
4.2.29 (note: the values in the parentheses are
Table 4.2.29: The minimum radius of a circular curve when omitting the transitional line
Vr or Vp [km/h]
≤ 80
> 80
4.4.3.4.1 Minimum length of transitional
curve (parameter Amin)
The minimum length of a transitional line is
determined by three criteria, namely:
• driving-dynamic (DD-criterion),
• structural (S-criterion) and
• aesthetic (A-criterion).
The deciding criterion is that which provides a
greater value of parameter A of the transitional
curve. Table 4.2.31 provides the values on the
basis of all three criteria for practical
application as they are stated in the Guidelines
on the conditions which transport structures
and other elements of a public road must fulfil
from the aspect of traffic safety (Official
Gazette of RS, 50/11).
The proper length of the transitional curve is of
extreme importance with regards to traffic
safety. Short lengths (Amin) when driving at a
speed Vp often leads to braking on the road
(more intensive use of friction on the
carriageway, frequency of sliding off the
carriageway), and when too long (Amax) don’t
given the driver the feeling of curvature
(excessive speed upon entry into the next
curve, consequences similar to those with
short distances). That is why in this section,
along with the minimum and maximum lengths
of transitional curves (clothoids), the
recommended value (Arec) has been
introduced which starts from the assumption
that each Ri is the minimum for a certain
76
Serbian Road Design Manual
included and under (b) is included.
valid as an exception). However, even in these
cases it is recommended that instead of a
transitional line, a straight be inserted with a
length that corresponds to an interval of two to
five seconds of driving.
min R [m]
≥ 1500 (1000)
≥ 3000
design speed Vr. The values of Arec are
provided in Table 4.2.30.
With the A-criterion there are two possible
conditions (∆R = 0.30 m and A = R/3) which
provide various values for Amin. For a single Ri
a larger one needs to be selection among
them. And these values of Arec are also
provided in Table 4.2.30.
According to the DD- and A-criteria, the
minimum and recommended values of Amin and
Arec are provided via graphical display in Figure
4.2.54.
4.4.3.4.1.1 Minimum length of transitional
curve – DD-criterion
With the interconnection of circular curves and
circular curves with straights, the length of the
inserted element (transitional curve) which
defines the speed of changing of lateral
acceleration (lateral thrust – sN). The
psychophysical capabilities below the average
driver are also limited and on the basis of that
the minimum necessary length of the
transitional curve or its parameter (Amin) are
defined.
The parameters of the DD-conditions for
determining Amin are the travel speed Vi and
the permitted value of side impact sN, and the
minimum size of the clothoid parameter Amin is
determined by the driving-dynamic
circumstances, under the conditions of the
maximum crossfall of the carriageway
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

according to the equation (driving-dynamic where:

criterion), which also provide comfortable
Amin [m] parameter of minimum length
driving through the area of the clothoid.
of transitional curve
The equation for this dependency is:
Vr [km/h] free flow speed
3
Rmin [m] radius of the smallest circular
V  1 curve for the applied Vr
Ai2 =  i  ip max [%] maximum permitted crossfall
 3,6  s N dop sN dop
3
[m/s ] permitted lateral thrust for the
applied Vr
and when supplemented with the crossfall
ipmax: The values of parameter sN dop are provided in
Table 4.2.30.
ip max ⋅ Vr ⋅ Rmin
3
2 V r
Amin = −
46,656 ⋅ s N dop 0,367 ⋅ s N dop

Table 4.2.30: Permitted lateral thrust (sN dop) and design speed (Vr)

Vr [km/h] 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

3
sN dop [m/s ] 0.80 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.45 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.30

The value of Amin for the VD-criterion for an
individual Vr is determined only for Rmin = f(Vr).
Larger radii of circular curves (Ri > Rmin) at the
same design speed (Vri) can only be applied in
the event that Vr ~ Vperm (permitted speed) and
it cannot be expected that speeds in individual
curves when Ri > Rmin will significantly exceed
the design speed Vr.
Otherwise, when Ri > Rmin it is always
necessary to apply the value of parameter Ai >
Amin, which is determined through the following
equation:
R The maximum value of RLS (∆iN max) depends
A i2 = A 2min i
Rmin
4.4.3.4.1.2 Minimum length of transitional
curve – S-criterion
The minimum value of the clothoid parameter
Amin S must provide a sufficient length of the
transitional curve for implementing the crossfall
changing of the carriageway. The conditions
for determining Amin S are:
• position of the axis of rotation in the cross
profile,
• rotation wing (larger than two possible
intervals between the edge of the
carriageway and the axis of rotation) – b,
• value of the crossfall of the carriageway –
iPi = f(Vri) and
• value of the maximum permitted relative
longitudinal slope of the edge of the
carriageway, known as the relative
longitudinal slope of the rotation ramp
(hereinafter: RLS) – ∆iN max, which
depends on the design speed.
The value of the RLS depends on the travel
speed and the torsion speed (speed of
changes of the crossfall) which for comfortable
-1
driving amounts to 4%s , and also depends on
the width of the traffic lane. The values of the
RLS are provided in section 4.4.5.4.2 (limited
values of RLS). It is recommended to take into
consideration the free flow speed Vp with the
selection of ∆iN max for the functionally most
important roads.
on the difference of the crossfalls along the
road and is valid for each carriageway lane
separately. With multi-lane carriageways
(roads with dual carriageway and with rotation
of a two-lane road around the edge of the
carriageway) the factual value of RLS of the
edge of the carriageway ∆iN max is obtained by
multiplying this value by the number of
carriageway lanes on the carriageway which
are located on the individual side of the axis of
rotation. In such a case the visual appearance
of the carriageway could become disruptive
(non-aesthetic) and it is recommended that a
smaller value (comfortable) be taken into
consideration for ∆iN max, which requires a
longer transitional curve.
The minimum length of the transitional curve
according to the S-conditions depends greatly
on the design speed and varies for a system of
identical consecutive curves with various
values for Vr. That is why this condition is used
as a control and calculated only when the

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Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

elements of the road centre line are connected R2min

(subsequent control). When in a specific case A 2 = 7,2 ⋅ Rmin
3
and A 2min =
min
9
the actual slope RLS exceeds the maximum
i
permitted slope, the clothoid (A ) should be
increased in size. where:
Amin [m] minimum clothoid parameter
Informative values of Amin according to the S-
criterion depend on the values for Vr provided Rmin [m] minimum radius of circular curve for
in Table 4.2.31. the selected Vr
RM [m] radius of circular curve,
4.4.3.4.1.3 Minimum length of transitional where the A-conditions change
curve – A-criterion
The section of both functions is at RM = 583.2
The minimum length of a transitional curve with m, where Amin is equal according to both
the A-criterion is defined by two conditions: conditions. Because with the calculation with
• minimum spacing between the circular several conditions the most favourable
curve and the tangent of the clothoid (∆R = condition is selected, for the series of circular
0.30 m) and curves where R < RM = 583.2 m the first
• minimum value of the central angle of the condition should be chosen, and for a series
clothoid (τ = 3011' when A = R/3). where R ≥ RM = 583.2 m the second condition
The conditions are provided in the form of should be chosen. Graphs of both of the
mathematical functions functions are presented in Figure 4.2.54.

Table 4.2.31: Minimum and recommended values of Amin and Aprep

Vr [km/h] 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Amin vD [m] 35 55 75 100 125 155 195 230 270 300
Amin S-O [m] 25 30 45 55 80 100 120
Amin S-O [m] multi-lane profiles 120 140
Amin S-I [m] 35 50 60 80 115 140 170
Amin S-I [m] multi-lane profiles 170 200
Amin S-I [m] motorways 190 220 245 270
Arec VD [m] 35 60 85 115 150 190 220 250 290 310
Amin E [m] 15 25 40 60 85 120 150 185 225 270
Arec E [m] 35 70 90 115 145 185 215 240 270 300

where:

Vr [km/h] design speed

Amin [m] minimum parameter of transitional curve for Vr and iPk 7%
Arec [m] recommended value of parameter of transitional curve for applied Vr
VD DD-criterion
K–O S-criterion with rotation in the axis of the carriageway
K –I S-criterion with rotation along the edge of the carriageway
E A-criterion

78 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
Figure 4.2.54: Minimum and recommended values of parameter of transitional curve (clothoid)
4.4.3.4.2 Maximum length of transitional
curve (parameter Amax)
The selection of the parameters going upward
(Ai >Amin) in principle are not limited. However,
because there is a limitation (same as for Rmax)
which relates to the possible values for rotating
the steering wheel (driver and vehicle), Amax
has also been defined. This value is at the
same time the limit value in relation to the
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
physical output of increasing side pressure
(control of travel speed), because for Ai > Amax
the transitional curve loses its driving-dynamic
function. The maximum length of a transitional
curve is expressed as A max = R where τ =
0 '
28 39 .
79
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

4.4.3.5 Selection of consecutive circular of neighbouring circular curves is simply read

curve radius
The sequence of circular curves,
interconnected by transitional curves (in the
form of clothoids), must, in the road centre line,
be selected to enable driving on the road
without great changes in speed. The travel
speed in a circular curve primarily depends on
the size of the radius and its central angle
(length of the arc), and in great measure also
by the width of the traffic lane.
Numerous studies show that in R = 400, the
possible travel speed amounts to 100 km/h.
However, with all smaller radii, attention must
be given to their ratio. With lower speeds that
ratio is allows to have a greater value, and with
larger the value must be smaller. In principle, it
can be said that the ratio between two
neighbouring radii should not be greater than
R1 : R2 ~ 1:1.5. For the initial definition of the
elements of the road centre line, sufficient
precision can be obtained if the size of the radii
R [m]
from the graph in Figure 4.2.55. The
harmonisation of the values of the radii of
consecutive circular curves should be
observed by on long-distance roads
(highways) as well. At the same time the
harmonisation of the road is significant from
two aspects – driving-dynamic and aesthetic.
Although the driving-dynamic aspect has a
significant role, more important is the aesthetic
aspect which greatly affects the driver’s
perception of the route of the road before
him/her as well as the effort exerted during
driving and with that fatigue, which on such
roads does not contribute to safe driving.
The designators A, B and C on Figure 4.2.55
have the following meanings: A –
recommended area, B – acceptable area C –
acceptable under special circumstances and
for the functional level of roads PP. Areas
outside of those marked on the surface should
be avoided.

50 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1800

1800

1800
A
B
C
1000

1000
500 600 800

500 600 800

400

400
300

300
200

200
100

100
50

50

50 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1800

R [m]

Figure 4.2.55: Recommended values of the radii of neighbouring circular curves

From the aspect of traffic safety it is necessary
to insert transitional curves between the
circular curves in the form of clothoids, which
facilitate driving along a connecting line.
Because the travel speed through curves with
a radius Ri > Rmin as a rule is greater than the
design speed, the parameter must also be Ai >
Amin. It is recommended to insert transitional
curves which are provided as recommended
(Arec) between circular curves on more
significant highways, where the envisaged
travel speed is 80 or more km/h. A clothoid is a
geometric element which connects both
circular curves with the same orientation as

80 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
well as circular curves with opposite
orientations. That is why a clothoid should be
used from one circular curve to another in a
uniform value of parameter A.
In unfavourable terrain or spatial conditions,
the transitional curve can, instead of a single
clothoid (Ai), be made up of two clothoids (Ai
and Ai+1) connected at the curve point, or even
a combined clothoid, where two clothoids (Ai
and Ai+1) are connected at an arbitrary point.
With compiled clothoids it is necessary to
ensure to conditions: driving-dynamic, so that
the ratio of their parameters does not exceed
A1:A2 ≤ 1:1.5 and geometric, so that the
contact point has a shared tangent.
On roads for speeds over 80 km/h, the use of
combined clothoids is not recommended. In
that case, namely, on the connection of two
different transitional curves, the value of lateral
thrust unexpectedly changes, which from the
driving-dynamic aspect is uncomfortable and
negatively affects the driver.
Omitting the clothoid is permitted, but only with
very large radii of the circular curves on roads
which are less demanding for traffic.
The length of the circular curves (central angle)
significantly affects the forming of the travel
speed on the road. On short curves the driving
develops greater speed than on long curves.
That is why it is desired that the difference in
the length of consecutive curves not be great.
Greater uniformity of the lengths should be
provided on wider traffic lanes because the
width of the traffic lane also affects the forming
Figure 4.2.56: Graphic templates for turning areas (not drawn to scale!)
A change in the direction of the route of the
road where the azimuth of the direction
changes by more than 180 degrees represents
a hairpin. In special terrain conditions
(mountainous terrain), when the greatest
envisaged gradient cannot connect the start
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
of the travel speed through the curve. Namely,
a traffic area with a greater width, primarily
defined for freight vehicles, enables the driver
of a personal vehicle to travel through a curve
along a line which is significantly less curved
than the line of the axis of the carriageway.
For the most significant highways it is therefore
necessary already by the initial designing to
perform a verification of the driving-dynamic
conditions on the designed road.
4.4.3.6 Special forms of road curves
Special forms of road curves are used on
section of a road where it is necessary to use a
circular arc with a very small radius, in which
the speed is significantly decreased (to less
than 30 km/h) and the widening of the driving
lane is necessary. Two such examples are
curves at intersections and hairpins, which are
elements of the road centre line in especially
demanding terrain conditions.
The surfaces areas required for driving through
the curve depend on the type and dimensions
of the vehicle (see: 4.3.3.2.2.1) and on the
angle of the change in direction of travel.
Graphic templates drawn to scale or even
computer programs can be used for design.
The graphic templates (Figure 4.2.56) contain
all of the areas which are required for the
turning of individual types of vehicles, while the
computer programs make it possible to also
draw the line of the cart track (curve of traces).
and end heights, the line of the road should be
extended. Extension of the line can only be
done by developing the road centre line along
the side of the hill. In a location where the
route of the road changes direction and extend
into a side of the hill, a circular curve should be
81
Road design elements
applied with a significantly smaller radius than
Rmin = f(Vr).
The typical compositions of the parts of the
road centre line through a hairpin (Figure
4.2.57) consist of the central circular curve
(RC), connecting circular curves (RPG and RPD)
and clothoids for connecting the curves. A
connecting circular curve on the higher side of
the grade level (RPG) is always curved opposite
from the central curve, and its radius, as a rule,
amounts to RPG = 2*RC. The connecting
circular curve on the lower side can be curved
in the same or opposite direction as the central
curve. If it is curved in the opposite direction,
its radius, as a rule, amounts to RPD = 2*RC or
4*RC. The radius of the central circular curve
depends on the type of vehicle which is
selected as typical (turning radius – Table
4.2.6, section 4.2.2.3.2.1), where the radius of
the internal edge of the carriageway may not
be less than 6.00 m. Taking into consideration
hairpin
Figure 4.2.57: Elements of the road centre line through a hairpin
Considering the resulting slope of 10%, the
crossfall in the hairpin can amount to maxiP =
9%, which is otherwise a value that is
permitted by the Guidelines on the conditions
which transport structures and other elements
of a public road must fulfil from the aspect of
traffic safety (Official Gazette of RS, 50/11).
4.4.4 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF THE
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
4.4.4.1 Grade level element types
The vertical course of the line of the road
(grade level) consists of the geometric
82
Serbian Road Design Manual
the widening in sharp curves, the radius of the
central curve which allows the passage of
lorries with trailers amounts to RC = 15 m,
while with the minimum presence of such
vehicles amounts to RC= 10 m.
The widening of the traffic lane should be done
along the length of the entire hairpin and also
on the transitional curves and through the
connecting curves.
Gradient in a hairpin should be decreased to a
maximum of iN = 4.5%. Due to large forces
during braking, it is recommended that the
gradient also be decreased through the
connecting curve on the upper side of the
hairpin.
hairpin neck
elements which provide an uninterrupted line
and uniform change in the elevation along it.
The elements of the grade level are tangents
(direction and gradient) and vertical curves
(circular, crest and sag curves). In a vertical
projection, a circular curve for rounding off
transforms into a shape of double square
parabola. In special conditions, to implement
the rounding off between tangents, other
geometrical curves can be used, but the
uniform change in curvature in the longitudinal
direction must be provided.
The longitudinal section of that line generally,
as a rule, coincides with the road centre line or
is even parallel to it. The position of the line of
the course of the grade level in the cross
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
section can also change along the route
(implementation of rotation along the edge of
the carriageway with small gradients, etc.).
From the technical standpoint, the value of the
longitudinal slope of the tangent and the size of
the radius of the arc of a vertical curve are
values which depend on the driving dynamic
and visibility on the road. With the selection of
the values of the longitudinal slope of a tangent
the following must be ensured:
• braking conditions at various travel speeds
(limiting the value of slope at higher
speeds, traffic safety),
• weather conditions (traffic safety),
• harmonisation with the natural environment
(aesthetics),
• smallest possible spatial intervention
(environmental protection and rationality),
• traffic characteristics of the planned road
(type of users of the road, arrangement of
the road and alongside the road, frequency
of grade intersections, frequency of
junctions, etc.),
• route in the area of large structures for
bridging (viaducts, tunnels),
• user operational costs (smaller slopes with
large quantities of traffic and vice versa)
and
• conditions for implementing devices for
longitudinal dewatering of the carriageway.
With the selection of the values of the radius of
the arc of a vertical curve the following must be
accounted for:
• impact of vertical force in the vertical
direction (decreasing gravitational force)
• visibility on the road (functionality of the
road and traffic safety),
• overtaking visibility (service flow on the
road and traffic safety),
• size of radius of neighbouring vertical
curves (aesthetic, comfort for driving).
• harmonisation with the horizontal geometric
elements of the road centre line (traffic
safety, aesthetics),
• routing through an area of large structures
for bridging (viaducts, tunnels) and
• possibility of implementing longitudinal
dewatering of the carriageway.
When selecting the values of the parameters of
the elements of the grade level, on roads with
high speeds (≥ 80 km/h) it is recommended to
ensure the visibility which was calculated on
the basis of the free flow speed (Vp).
The gradient should be selected so that:
• in the area of rotation of the carriageway it
is not smaller than the necessary minimum
(hydroplaning),
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
• in the area of grade intersections it does not
exceed 4% (driving while exiting = resulting
slope towards the outer edge),
• it does not exceed 2.5% in tunnels (air
pollution, traffic accidents, fire etc.), except
in special conditions (shorter tunnel length,
installed equipment, type of traffic, climate),
when it can reach up to 4%, and
• on hairpins it is made milder through a
central circular arc and in the braking area
on the upper side of the hairpin.
When elements of the grade level cannot
achieve the planned travel speed, it is
necessary to change either the cross section
(additional traffic lanes) or horizontal routing of
the road centre line (size of elements) or even
both.
4.4.4.2 Gradients (tangents)
The size of the gradient has a significant
influence on investment costs and costs for the
users. Depending on the functional type of the
road and the indicative traffic volume, in
according with the conditions of the terrain, it is
necessary to select:
• mild slopes: greater traffic safety, greater
traffic service flow, less operational costs
for drivers, energy savings, less emissions
of harmful gasses and noise, favourable
psychological effects on drivers or
• greater slopes: less construction costs,
general economic feasibility of investment,
smaller scope of intervention in the natural
space, greater operational costs for drivers.
If they do not significantly affect the economic
aspects of the investment, the vertical curves
should be dimensioned for the free flow speed
(Vp) which is enabled by the designed
geometric elements of the road centre line.
It is desired for the individual elements of the
grade level to be as long as possible and for
changes in the slope to not occur too often.
Jagged changes (changes in slope +, –, +)
should especially be avoided because they
create loss in height level. The calculation of
losses in height level is a normal constituent
part of the road design.
The gradient (iN%) should be selected on the
basis of the actual evaluation of the objective
conditions which result from the configuration
of the terrain, traffic volume, design speed and
the environment through which the road is
routed. Depending on the design speed (Vr),
for the design of roads, slopes within the limits
of the minimum (iN min) to the maximum are
used (iN max).
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Road design elements
4.4.4.2.1 Minimum gradient (iN min)
The minimum gradient is determined in order
to ensure the runoff of water from the
carriageway, through the devices for
longitudinal dewatering (minihid) which have
been built alongside the edge of the
carriageway (gutters, segmented channels).
On sections of the road where there are no
changes in the crossfall of the carriageway (no
rotation) and on embankments on which no
devices have been envisaged for concentration
of runoff water alongside the edge of the
carriageway (kerb, channel), the minimum
gradient may be iN min = 0.0%. However, it is
recommended that it never be less than the
minimum value for runoff of water through
those devices (4.4.1.3.0). While accounting for
the likely deformation of the surface of the
dewatering devices, a majority of technical
regulations provide the value iN min = 0.5%.
The minimum gradient in short tunnels, on
bridges and viaducts amounts to iN min = 0.5% if
there is no rotation. If dewatering on structures
is not implemented through non-standard
systems for dewatering (often releasing water
into the sewer), it is recommended that in such
locations, due to the specific conditions for
collecting and runoff of water (along the kerbs),
the gradient be increased to iN min = 0.7%.
On sections of the road where dewatering
devices have been envisaged along the
carriageway on which a change in the crossfall
is provided through rotation, the minimum
longitudinal slope has to be increased by at
least the amount necessary to ensure that in
the area of rotation the same direction of runoff
of water is provided through the devices for
longitudinal dewatering. The value of the
minimum slope is determined according to the
equation:
iN – irv = minihid
where:
iN [%] gradient
slope of the carriage edge by
irv [%]
rotation
minimum hydraulic slope
for the runoff of water depending
minihid [%]
on the surface material of the
device
Table 4.2.32: Maximum permitted values of the gradient (dopiN maks)
Vr [km/h] 40 50 60
dopiN maks [%] 10 9 8
exception [%] (12) (10) (9)
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Serbian Road Design Manual
Under that condition the minimum gradient on
the rotation part of two-lane roads, when
rotated around the road centre line, amounts
miniN ≥ 0.8%. Meaning it is greater if the devices
for longitudinal dewatering are not
implemented with a cement-concrete surface
or if the rotation is done with a steeper slope
(irv > minirv).
The minimum gradient must also be greater in
the following cases:
• with rotation around the edge of the
carriageway,
• with rotation of multi-lane carriageways,
• with rotation of multi-lane carriageways
around the edge of the carriageway.
For a four-lane highway with stopping lanes,
where the rotation is implemented around the
inner edge of the carriageway, the minimum
gradient is ~ 1.35%.
In locations where the slope of the rotation
ramp for various methods of rotation and for
various carriageway widths, it is recommended
that the minimum gradient in the area of
rotation be calculated separately for each case
in the design (technical report).
If the minimum gradient for justified reasons
cannot be achieved, the proper measures
should be envisaged (selection of another
centre line of rotation, asphalting the area with
drainage asphalt, use of other types of
elements for longitudinal dewatering or
implementing slanted or diagonal rotation.
4.4.4.2.2 Maximum gradient (iN max)
The greatest possible gradient depends on the
pulling force of the motor and the maximum
limit of the slope amounts to:
• for an average passenger vehicle 30%,
• for a heavy freight vehicle 15% (driving in
1st gear).
The greatest gradient may be used only in
special cases (incline of ramps for approach).
The maximum gradient (iN max) on public roads
depends on the functional type of the road and
on the type of terrain. The permitted values,
provided in Table 4.2.32, depend on the
selected design speed. The values provided in
parentheses may only be used in exceptional
cases.
70 80 90 100 110 120 130
7 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 4
(8) (7) (6)
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
The values provided in Table 4.2.32 should be
adhered to in the designs with regards to the
required level of service for an individual road
(traffic dimensioning), which indicate when and
where it is necessary to introduce an additional
traffic lane or to decrease the rise. At the same
time a deciding factor is the quantity of heavy
vehicles. Rises up to 8% do not have any
practical impact on the travel speed of
passenger vehicles. The decision on whether
to introduce an additional lane or whether to
decrease the slope should be based on the
calculation of the economic feasibility of the
investment.
The most significant factors in the use of the
maximum permitted gradient are the length of
the rise or fall and the quantity or share of
heavy vehicles. In the case of long gradients in
a fall, with heavy vehicles there is an extreme
danger of the brakes overheating.
That is why it is recommended that the size of
the horizontal geometric elements at the end of
a slope be increased significantly (for high
speeds) and/or to envisage the construction of
an emergency exit before the end of the slope
for stopping heavy vehicles (escape ramps).
Modern computer programs (e.g. PIARC Road
Safety Manual, 2003) make it possible to
calculate the probability of brakes overheating
and to define the length on which that could
occur. With the design of an emergency exit for
stopping heavy vehicles it is necessary to
abide by the relevant technical instructions.
4.4.4.3 Vertical curves
The rounding off of a break of neighbouring
tangents of the grade level is implemented
through a circular curve (Rv). The form of the
curve is a double square parabola which with
sufficient precision approaches the shape of a
circle. It is also allowed to use square and
cube parabolas if the spatial conditions allow
(forced guiding of the grade level). In such a
case the roundness may not at any point be
less than that which was specified as the
minimum for the circular arc. According to the
position of the middle of the curve, the
following are differentiated:
• crest (convex) curve (difference of slope
values of neighbouring tangents is positive,
central point of curve is below the line of the
grade level) and
• sag (concave) curve (difference of slope
values of neighbouring tangents is
negative, central point of curve is above the
line of the grade level).
The transition from a tangent to a circular arc
is, as a rule, implemented without inserting a
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
transitional curve. However, the use of a
transitional curve is not prohibited.
The radii of the vertical curves should be
selected so as to achieve:
• traffic safety, with the proper length of
stopping sight distance (Vs),
• balanced spatial guidance of the line of the
route of the road (harmonisation of the
vertical and horizontal elements and
harmonisation of the length of tangents and
length of curves).
• adaptation to the terrain and reduction of
building costs (for poorly utilised roads) and
• preservation and protection of the
environment (cut instead of additional
barriers for noise protection, etc.).
The size of the radius of vertical curves on
roads of a functional type DP and VP-m should
be selected according to the free flow speed
(required visibility – Pzp = f (Vp)), and for VR-r
and SP-r roads that is recommended.
With renewal, modernization and
reconstructions of roads in certain locations,
the required radius sizes of vertical curves
cannot be achieved (road surrounded by wall,
arrangement of junctions, etc.). :
• on roads of a high functional type (DP, VP)
that is not permitted
• for other roads it is permitted, but the speed
must be limited by placing the proper traffic
signalisation (either generally or only when
the carriageway is wet)
For the purpose of providing sufficient length
for overtaking, the radii of vertical curves
should be selected according to the free flow
speed.
4.4.4.3.1 Minimum values of curve radius
The minimum values of the radius of crest
curves convrv min are determined on the basis of
the stopping sight distance on the road (Table
4.2.24, section 4.4.2.1.1.1) which depends on
the design speed and is calculated for the
gradient of iN = 0. The values are provided in
Table 4.2.33.
The minimum values of the radius of sag
curves concrv min are determined on the basis of
night driving when it is necessary to ensure
that the light beam illuminates the road in front
of the driver for at least the length of the
stopping sight distance. The values are
provided in Table 4.2.33. Due to the various
starting bases, the radii of these two types of
curves are not in the same relation to the
design speed. At lower speeds (Vr < 60 km/h)
the condition of the length of illumination of the
road prevails.
85
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

where:
Pz [m] stopping visible length
rminconc [m] minimum radius of a sag curve
Pz = 2 ⋅ rmin konk ⋅ ( h + Pz ⋅ sinϕ ) h [m]
height of headlights on a vehicle –
normally h = 0.70 m
o angle of illumination according to
ϕ [] o
tangential plane – normally ϕ=1
Table 4.2.33: Minimum values of radius of vertical curves

Vr [km/h] 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

convrv min [m] 400 800 1,250 2,000 3,500 5,500 8,000 11,500 16,500 22,500

concrv min [m] 550 900 1,250 1,800 2,500 3,250 4,250 5,750 8,250 11,250

The minimum values of the radius of vertical
curves are used only in the break of a tangent
with an opposite slope, where the indicative
gradient is ~ 0%. Namely, the stopping sight
distance, which should be provided on the
road, depends greatly on the gradient,
therefore in real road conditions it should be
replaced with the required visibility (Pzp), which
depends on the free flow speed and the
gradient (Figure 4.2.46, section 4.4.2.1.1.2).
During design it is necessary view the diagram
in Figure 4.2.58.

concave

convex

Figure 4.2.58: Radii of vertical curves depending on the required visibility

The minimum radius of a vertical curve should
be selected also in relation to the expected
driving-dynamic effect which occurs if a vertical
curve and horizontal circular curve coincide on
the road. In such a case, the effect of
centrifugal force on the vehicle in both
directions should be taken into consideration,
in the lateral and vertical direction. Centrifugal
force in the vertical direction, which is the
consequence of driving through a curve, with a
crest curve causes a decrease in the weight of
the vehicle which also decreases the force of
friction on the vehicle. That effect is especially
present on roads which are designed for lower
design speeds, where at larger horizontal
circular curves it is possible to achieve a high
free flow speed, while the decreasing of the
force of friction results in sliding off the road.

86 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
4.4.4.3.2 Minimum size of radius of crest
curves for overtaking
For safety reasons, the radii of crest curves on
two-way carriageways should be especially
increased in order to facilitate overtaking on
such sections of the road. The minimum size of
the radius of a crest curve which under all
conditions would facilitate safe overtaking
cannot be determined by regulations because
it depends on the type of impact factors, such
as the length of the curve, curvature of the
road centre line and the free flow speed. That
is why it is necessary to, during design for
each individual case, evaluate whether or not
overtaking is possible on the envisaged curve
(traffic signalisation).
Informative values for the minimum size of the
radius of crest curves are provided in Table
4.2.34. When determining the values in that
table, the ability of two vehicles travelling
towards each other in the same traffic lane to
stop in a timely manner was taken into
Table 4.2.34: Minimum values of radius of crest curves for overtaking
Vr [km/h] 40 50 60
stoprv min [m] 800 1,450 2,350
overtakerv min [m] - 28,200 30,000
4.4.4.3.3 Specificities with the selection of
curve radius sizes
When planning the grade level which is routed
under an obstacle (e.g. through an underpass),
the radius of a sag curve should be selected so
as to ensure sufficient visibility:
• at the free flow speed Vp and
Figure 4.2.59: Visibility when driving a freight vehicle through an underpass (source: Road Safety
Manual, 2003)
The upper limit for the size of the radius of
vertical curves which can be used practically
does not even exist. Although during designing
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
consideration. The stopping sight distance (Vs')
(taken from the technical regulations of
Germany (RAS-L) is separate for each vehicle
and is calculated with the condition that the
height of an obstacle (h2) is greater than 1.00
m, while for the calculation of the radius (stoprv
min), the length of the sum of both visibilities
(Vs1' + Vs2') were taken. The sizes of the radius
of the curve are provided in Table 4.2.34. If the
sizes of the radius of the curves are not
calculated in the design for each case
separately, it is necessary to take the sizes of
the radius for the free flow or permitted speed
(Vp or Vperm) from the table instead of the
design speed (Vr).
The same table also provides the sizes of the
radius of crest curves, calculated for overtaking
visibility (overtake rv min). The data was taken from
the technical regulations of German RAS-L.
Those values are of an informative nature,
because overtaking visibilities at a speed of Vi
> 60 km/h are as a rule longer than the length
of the curves.
70 80 90 100
3,850 6,300 10,000 15,500
35,000 40,000 48,000 52,000
• for drivers of freight vehicles which are
located in the cab of a lorry (Figure EVP-5),
with the height of the eyes at around 2.50
m.
The size of the radius used also depends on
the length of the obstacle being driven under.
a common problem which arises is dewatering,
which becomes critical in curves between two
87
Road design elements
tangents with opposite slopes (+/–), where the
gradient decreased below the minimum value.
If that part of the curve with an insufficient
longitudinal slope, less than iN min, coincides
with an area of decreased crossfall of the
carriageway which is smaller than iP min, the
generating of rotation is brought into question.
In the case of a crest curve, the water from the
surface runs off poorly or not at all, while with
sag curves the quantity of water on the
carriageway increases, and even with low
intensity rain the danger of hydroplaning
arises.
The length of the area with an insufficient
longitudinal slope Ds is defined by the
expression
Ds = 0,01. iN min . ri
where:
area with insufficient
Ds [m]
longitudinal slope
iN min [%] minimum gradient
rmin [m] radius of vertical curve
Such mild sections of the grade level on very
large radii of vertical curves are long, due to
which serious problems can occur for ensuring
runoff of water through the devices for
longitudinal dewatering. For example: with a
longitudinal slope of neighbouring tangents +/–
1% and r = 25,000 m, the length of the section
of the road with iP i < iP min amounts to 250 m.
The environment of such an area is located at
the chainage of the highest or lowest points of
the grade level.
The length of a vertical curve represents a
significant parameter in the selection of the
size of the curve for an individual case,
especially with small gradient tangents. It has
been recommended that each individual curve
from the aesthetic aspect be at least Lkv [m] ≥
2*Vp [km/h], and from the aspect of
comfortable driving not be shorter than Lkv [m]
≥ Vp [km/h].
In the case of small breaks in the grade level it
is not necessary to insert vertical curves. The
limited value of the different of the slope of
neighbouring tangents (max µi) in that case is ≤
0.2%.
As a rule, it is necessary to use the curve
radius sizes which are larger than the
minimums. Use of the minimum curve radius
sizes is not comfortable for the driver and
passengers in the vehicle (bus, back seat!) due
to the centrifugal force which when driving,
especially at the free flow speed, occurs in the
vertical direction (upward or downward).
88
Serbian Road Design Manual
Studies conducted in Germany have shown
that such an impact does not exist (or it is
negligibly small) if the radius of sag curves is at
least 5-10 times greater than the radius of the
horizontal circular curve with which the curve
coincides.
On the parts of the road where the coincidence
of horizontal and vertical curves exists it is not
advisable to use the minimum radii with both
projections.
4.4.4.3.4 Structure of vertical curve
Vertical curves are circular arcs where the plan
projection of the length of the curve (Lvk) and
corresponding tangents (tT, xi) due to the
proportionately small angle of projection are
practically equal to their original length. For the
same reason, with the design of road, instead
of distance between individual points on a
curve and the radial extension to the tangent,
the vertical distance between the point and
vertical extension to the tangents (yT, yi) are
used. Because of this, the data, instead of for a
circular arc, is calculated according to the
equations for a square parabola with
roundness 1/ri.
The turning point of the curve (S), where the
gradient ii = 0%, exists on curves between
tangents with an opposite slope and is located
at the chainage of the fictive top of the break of
the grade level which occurs with symmetrical
tangents with a slope ii = ii+1. In the case of a
crest curve, the grade level at point S between
neighbouring tangents is the highest, while in
the case of a sag curve in that location it is the
lowest.
The vertical curve radius is selected in relation
to the required visibility which depends on the
travel speed (recommended: free flow speed)
and the gradient. For practical use it is
sufficiently precise if the mean value between
the slopes of two neighbouring tangents is
taken as this longitudinal slope. The structural
elements of a vertical curve are displayed in
Figure 4.2.60.
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

Figure 4.2.60: Structure of a vertical curve

where:
ri [m] curve radius
ii [%] gradient
im [%] indicative slope of the tangent
T point of top - tangent break
ti [m] tangent on the vertical curve
yi [m] distance between points on curve and tangent
Lvk [m] length of curve
µi [%] difference in slope of neighbouring tangents
PK beginning of curve
KK end of curve
S turning point of grade level (highest, lowest)

The characteristic values in the structure of a vertical curve consist of:

• difference between the slope of neighbouring tangents [%] µi= ii – ii+1
• indicative slope of the tangents for determining Pzp [m] im = ½*(ii – ii+1)
• curve radius [m] ri
ri µi
• tangent of the vertical curve [m] ti = ⋅
2 100
2
xT
• distance between top and arc [m] yT =
2ri
2
xi
• distance between points on curve and tangent [m] yi =
2ri

• distance between S and KK [m]

The calculated sizes of individual elements of

the curve in the design for a road are adhered
to completely in the horizontal and vertical 4.4.4.4 Selection of consecutive vertical
projection (no reduction due to slope). curve radius

When crest and sag curves are composed, the

size of the radius of the sag curve should be at
least 2/3 of the size of the neighbouring radius

PE Roads of Serbia 89
Road design elements
of the crest curve. Considering the aesthetic
requirements, it is recommended that the
radius of a sag curve on roads for high speed
not be less than 1/2 of the radius of the
neighbouring crest curve when the tangent
between them is significantly shorter than the
length of the individual curve.
Along with the size of the smallest radius of a
vertical curve, its sufficient length must also be
provided in the sense of duration of travel over
an individual geometric element (5-7 seconds).
From both an aesthetic and psychophysical
standpoint, it is quite suitable for the length of
the elements in the sequence of curve –
tangent – curve to be nearly equal.
When guiding the grade level through a climb,
where vertical curves are used with a
sequence of sag – crest – sag, the size of the
radii included in the curve depend on the type
rkk
rkv
brežuljkasta
hillock
rkk rkk rkv rkv
flat land topography
Figure 4.2.61: Composing a curve with the course of the grade level over a climb
With the selection of the curve radius size it is
necessary to pay attention to the “shadow”
(Figure 4.2.62), the inserted part of the road
which is invisible to the driver which is created
when an insufficient radius of a crest curve is
selected. That most often occurs when the
designed speed is not taken into consideration
during the selection of the required visibility.
Figure 4.2.62: Creation of an invisible part of
the road due to the failure to account for the
free flow speed
90
Serbian Road Design Manual
of terrain. On uneven terrain the selection of
elements of the grade level is “normal”, while
on flat terrain it is common for the radii of the
sag curves to be greater than the radius of the
mean crest curve (Figure 4.2.61).
If the slope of the outer tangent of the sag
curve is different that the slope between the
sag and crest curves (crest curve is between
the tangents with an opposite slope), when
selecting the size of the radius of the sag curve
on the horizontal alignment (e.g. of a highway)
it is necessary to pay attention to the optical
impression when driving in the direction
towards the turn point. Namely, a small radius
and long inserted tangent to the crest curve
create the illusion of a wall in front of the driver.
The extent of that impact can most easily be
verified through the visualization of the route of
the road.
rkk
rkv>rkk
rkv
/ brdovita
/ hill topography topografija
rkk rkk
rkv<rkk
ravničarska
topografija
With the land communications crossing the
highway, the course of the grade level of the
communication should be formed so as to
follow as much as possible the lines in the
natural environment where the highway runs
through. If it does not go against any
regulations related to the minimum dimensions
of elements in relation to the design speed, the
largest possible slope of the tangents on both
sides of a turn may be calculated using the
equation in Figure 4.2.63.
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
Figure 4.2.63: Elements of vertical alignment of a land communication over the road
In order to ensure visual harmonisation with
horizontal geometric elements of the road
centre line, the length of the vertical curve
should be selected so that it does not begin
and end in the area of the same horizontal
geometric element of the road centre line.
In order to ensure traffic safety (hydroplaning),
it is not permitted to implement a vertical curve
between two neighbouring tangents of different
sign, when a portion of the arc of that curve
with a slope of iNi < iN min (0.2%, 0.5% or 0.7%
on a viaduct) either completely or partially
coincides with an inmost area of rotation of the
carriageway within the limits of the crossfall iPi
< iP min.
Properly selected sizes of vertical curves have
a significant aesthetic effect (Figure 4.2.64),
and also favourably affect the driver (view of
the road ahead) and traffic safety (overtaking,
collisions, etc.). That should be kept in mind
above all on high category roads (functional
type of road DP and VP), although it is
recommended to be used on other roads as
well, especial on those with more frequent
intersections (limiting the longitudinal slope to
4% at the location of intersections). Several
basic instructions for the design engineer
include:
• longitudinal slopes less than 0.8% feel
almost flat and are practically unnoticeable
• longitudinal slopes of 1% to 3% are more
recognisable and noticeable
• longitudinal slopes of 4% to 8% are visually
very steep
• short vertical curves should be avoided
(aesthetics and driving dynamics)
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
• use of the minimal radii of vertical curves at
small changes of the gradient (µi ≤ 3%)
results in very short segments, and
therefore also a poor visual effect
• visually appealing solutions are achieved by
using vertical curves which are at least
three times larger than the minimums
• when on flat terrain or a significantly
stretched out route of the road generally
after a very long tangent comes a sag and
crest curves, the radius of the sag curve
must be greater than the radius of the crest
curve (preventing the creation of a wall
effect)
• when a tangent between two oppositely
oriented vertical curves is disproportionately
short in relation to the length of both curves,
it is necessary for it to be "excluded"
(curves brought as close together as
possible), which contributes to the harmonic
guidance of the longitudinal section at the
crossing of one curve into another.
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Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Figure 4.2.64: Highway in an inadequate sag (a) and crest (b) vertical curve

The line of the course of the grade level must
be harmonised with the forms of the terrain as
much as possible. Classic design, which during
the first step in the longitudinal section calls for
the selection of the “best positions” of the
tangents and after that inserting vertical curves
between them, often leads the designers
towards newer and newer corrections to the
course of the grade level. However, modern
means in road design make it possible for the
vertical curves, best adapted to the terrain and
the areas of rotation on the road centre line, to
be selected in the first step instead of the
tangents The tangents between them
represent only a connection between the
curves with which the degree of the
longitudinal slope is then verified. If it is too big
or too small, it can be corrected with minimal
changes to the size of the radius of the vertical
curve.
4.4.5 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF THE CROSS
SECTION
4.4.5.1 Types of crossfalls of the
carriageway
The crossfall of the carriageway (iPi) in
principle must be one sided and raised towards
the inner side of the curve in order to provide
the highest level of traffic safety (Figure
4.2.65). However, in certain cases it is allowed
to be two-sided, or a roof-shaped slope.

* *allowed
dopustno pri
forrekonstrukcijah
reconstructionin and
obnovi obstoječih
repair cest roads
of existing

Figure 4.2.65: Types of crossfalls

Transversal two-sided (roof-shaped) slope is crossfall. On roads of a high functional type it

allowed on roads with multiple lanes, and
above all on roads with carriageways divided
by directions (highways) in circular curves with
a radius Ri ≥ R'. The radii R' for certain travel
speeds are provided in Table E4.2.28, section
4.4.3.3.1. In such a case all traffic lanes for the
same direction of travel must have the same
is not recommended to use a negative crossfall
on section where the gradient is greater than
3%.
For two-lane roads, a two-sided (roof-shaped)
slope is allowed as an exception when
implementing the required renewal of road on

92 PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
which a roof-shaped slope already exists. In
such a case, the top of the break of the slope
(roof) should be rounded off so that when
driving from one lane into the other (when
overtaking) the proper vertical curve is
Figure 4.2.66: Curve of a roof-shaped crossfall of the carriageway
The crossfall of all additional lanes on the
carriageway (additional traffic lanes and
secured side lanes) must be the same as on
the primary traffic lane. An exception is the
lane for decelerating (exiting) and accelerating
(entering), which have a crossfall that should
be harmonised with their horizontal element.
Furthermore, the difference between the slope
of the carriageway and the additional lane at
the location of separation, or junction (at the
end of the stabilized area) may not exceed 5%.
When implementing rotation on an additional
lane, high quality dewatering must be
maintained.
4.4.5.2 Limited values of crossfalls of the
carriageway
To ensure the high quality runoff of water from
the surface of the carriageway, the
carriageway must be constructed with the
minimum crossfall (iP min). Deviation from that
minimum is permitted only in an area of the
crossfall changing between horizontal circular
curves going in opposite directions (rotation)
and in the area of an grade intersection.
According to quality, or the type of material of
the wearing layer of the carriageway, the
minimum crossfall amounts to:
• on asphalt pavements
iP min = 2.5%
• on cement-concrete carriageways
iP min = 2.0%
• on macadam carriageways
iP min = 4.0%
In order to prevent sliding in the transverse
direction, in the case of a decreased coefficient
of slide friction (ice, etc.) the maximum
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
provided. Unless specified otherwise by the
design, this rounding off should be
implemented over a width of 3.0 m (1.5 m on
each side) and with a bisection at the apex
point 0.03 m (Figure 4.2.66).
permitted crossfall (iP max) in circular curves has
been determined:
• on open roads
iP max = 7.0% (exceptionally 8.0 %)
• on junctions and on roads PP, SP-I
iP max = 5.0% (normal)
• on hairpins
iP max = 9.0%
The crossfall iP max = 8.0% may be used only for
the renewal and reconstruction of road in order
to improve the driving-dynamic conditions on
the carriageway if due to spatial or even
technical constraints (impact on the size of
neighbouring curves and on the length of
transitional curve) the radius of a problematic
circular curve cannot be increased.
The maximum crossfall iPmax = 5.0% is applied
on roads which are less demanding with
regards to traffic, when their route runs along
or through a settlement and when due to the
use of a larger crossfall non-harmonisation in
the utilisation of the space along the road
occurs (height of urbanised surfaces alongside
the road, junctions, intersections).
When constructing the carriageway with a
negative crossfall (counter-fall – slope from the
central point of the curve towards the outer
edge), only a crossfall of iP counter = – (iP min) can
be used.
With the use of the maximum crossfall iP max on
roads with a large longitudinal slope (for iN >
7.15%, on roads of functional type DP
recommended for iN > 4.00%) it is necessary to
adhere to the resulting slope of the
carriageway and according to the size of the
longitudinal slope use a proportionately smaller
crossfall (iPi < iP max) in circular curves on those
sections.
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Road design elements
4.4.5.3 Crossfall in curves
In relation to the limited values of the crossfall
of the carriageway, there are three
characteristic values of the radius of horizontal
circular curves which are provided in Table
4.2.28, in section 4.4.3.2.1, that being:
• for iP max →
Rmin (minimum radius of circular curve with
slope of iP max),
• for iP min →
Rg (smallest radius of circular curve with
slope iP min) and
• for iP counter →
R' (smallest radius of circular curve with
counter-slope iP min).
For sub-values of the radius of circular curves
Rmin < Ri < Rg, the crossfall changes from iPmax
to iPmin so, with an individual centrifugal force,
which depends on speed, the share of
utilisation of the coefficient of friction in the
transverse direction (fR) decreases with the
increase of the radius of circular curves, while
the share of the degree of the crossfall
relatively increases. With that the realistic
relations are taken into consideration from the
standpoint of speed through the circular curve,
which are greater than the minimums. The
Figure 4.2.67: Diagram of interdependencies of speed, curve radius and crossfall
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Serbian Road Design Manual
change of the crossfall is provided by the
expression:
where:
crossfall in a circular curve
Ipi [%]
with Ri
Rmin [m] min. radius of circular curve
Vi [km/h] speed in circular curve Ri
Ri [m] radius of circular curve Ri
For values Ri > Rg the crossfall is a constant
iPmin in order to preserve the ability of water to
run off the surface of the carriageway.
Figure 4.2.67 provides a graphical display of
the interdependencies of the travel speed,
radius of circular curve and crossfall (graph V –
R – i). For a practical application it is
sufficiently precise if for an individual travel
speed and radius of circular curve, the crossfall
is read and rounded up to the closest 0.5%.
The values of the radius of a circular curve
(Rmin < Ri < Rg) for an individual travel speed
(Vi), for the values of the crossfall (ii) rounded
to the nearest 0.5%, ranging from 2 to 8%, are
provided in Table 4.2.35.
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
Table 4.2.35: Values Ri for Vi and for the values of the crossfall ii rounded to the nearest 0.5%
4.4.5.4 Change to the crossfall of the
carriageway – rotation
4.4.5.4.1 General rules
A change to the crossfall, as a rule, should be
implemented along the entire length of the
transitional curve. Changes to the crossfall are
differentiated as:
• change between two crossfalls in the same
direction and
• change between two crossfalls in
opposite directions (rotation).
A changing of the crossfall must be linear.
Breaks in one or more inserted transitional
tangents (RLS – relative longitudinal slope of
the rotation ramp) and the gradient of the
carriageway, which exceed 1%, must be
implemented with vertical rounding off with a
radius of rV ≥ 2*5/irv.
The area of changing of the crossfall between
crossfalls of opposite directions, which is
constrained by the values of the crossfall ± iP
min, represents an area of rotation. If for
technical reasons (e.g. with disproportionate
values of neighbouring circular curves Ri and
Ri+1, when Ri+1 > Rg) it is not specified
otherwise in the design, the crossfall of the
carriageway q = 0% must be located at the
turning point of a clothoid or in its vicinity.
A changing of the carriageway crossfall should
be implemented so that it does not retain water
(hydroplaning) in any direction and at the same
time no changes occur to the sign of the
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Road design elements
longitudinal slope (“saw-blade” principle) of any
longitudinal line on the carriageway. The
longitudinal slope of the edge of the
carriageway may not be less than minirv in order
to provide the possibility of arranging the
proper devices for longitudinal dewatering of
the carriageway. That second condition does
not apply for sections of the road with free flow
of water on the incline of an embankment or
into a ditch along the edge of the road which is
constructed with its own longitudinal slope.
On road where the use of transitional curves in
the form of clothoids is not obligatory
(sufficiently large Ri), one half of the length of
the change to the crossfall should be
implemented on one of the two neighbouring
circular curves and the second half on the
other one.
4.4.5.4.2 Selection of the axis of rotation
The axis of rotation, as a rule, should be
selected on the road centre line, because then
the height differences when implementing
rotation are the least (mild slopes, smaller
scope of earthworks). With small gradients,
when with rotation around the road centre line
the longitudinal slope of the edge of the
carriageway is not sufficient for the runoff of
water through the devices for longitudinal
dewatering of the carriageway or even causes
a change in the direction of the slope (“saw-
blade”), the axis of rotation should be selected
on one of the longitudinal lines in the profile of
the road, normally on the outer edge of the
carriageway (Figure 4.2.68). The edge which
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Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

during rotation around the road centre line
provides a slope that is either too small or even
oriented in the opposite direction (maintains
the basic gradient) should be selected as the
axis of rotation. With very mild gradients (irv <
minirv), it is not possible to implement rotation
which would completely fulfil the established
requirement and conditions.
Rotation on dual carriageway roads
(motorways), for justified reasons, is done
around the inner edge of the each of the
carriageways. With small gradients (iN < 1%),
for the same reasons which were previously
mentioned, the axis of rotation should be
selected on one of the longitudinal lines in the
profile of the road, most often along the outer
edge of the carriageway (along the device for
longitudinal dewatering). With rotation, as a
rule, only one of the two carriageways is
always a problem. With small gradients,
especially on motorways, it is exceptionally
difficult to fulfil the condition which relates to
the slope for dewatering of the carriageway.
That is why it is recommended already in the
first step of designing the route in locations of
rotation to envisage a sufficient gradient (iN ≥
1.35%).
If the position of the axis of the rotation in the
cross section changes, it is first necessary to
implement a "grade level jump" (Figure 4.2.42,
section 4.4.1.4.3), which should begin and end
in the area of the route with a constant
crossfall.

rotation axis
rotation axis

Figure 4.2.68: Axis of rotation in the cross section of the carriageway

carriageway by the value obtained from the

4.4.5.4.3 Limited values of the rotation ramp expression:
slope (irv)
irv = bv.(iPk – iPp) / Lrv
When implementing rotation it is necessary to where:
take into consideration the basis parameters, relative longitudinal slope of
Irv [%]
namely: the edge of carriageway (RLS)
• length of the transitional curve (LA), crossfall of the carriageway
IPk [%]
• difference between the height level of the at end of rotation area
edge of the carriageway at the beginning crossfall of the carriageway
IPp [%]
and end of the transitional curve (h1 + h2) at end of rotation area
and bv [m] width of rotation wing
• limited values of the relative longitudinal Lrv [m] length of rotation zone
slope of the edge of the carriageway (minirv
4.4.5.4.3.1 Maximum relative longitudinal
and maxirv).
slope of the edge of the
carriageway (max RLS)
where h1 and h2 depend on the width of the
rotation wing (bi) (distance between the edge The maximum relative longitudinal slope of the
of the carriageway and axis of rotation) and the edge of the carriageway (maxirv) is defined on
crossfall of the carriageway in neighbouring the basis of the value of the intensity of the
circular curves (iPi). If there are two rotation crossfall changing of a vehicle depending on
wings (Figure 4.2.68), for defining the larger speed (torsion speed in %/s), and the values
one is selected (hi = bi . 0.01 . iPi). stated in Table 4.2.36. On carriageways with
The relative longitudinal slope of the edge of multiple traffic lanes maxirv from Table 4.2.36
the carriageway (RLS) differs from the gradient should be multiplied by the number of traffic
in the area of the change to the crossfall of the lanes which are located on the rotation wing.

96 PE Roads of Serbia
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Table 4.2.36: Maximum relative longitudinal slope of the edge of the carriageway (max RLS)
Vr [km/h] 40 50 60 70
maxirv [%] 1.5
The maximum RLS is a standardised value
through which the satisfactory length of the
connected transitional curve is verified (length
of transitional curve – S-criterion, section
4.4.3.4.1.2). If the standardised value is
exceeded, a longer transitional curve should
be inserted between the two neighbouring
curves. It is especially necessary to be careful
when designing roads on which radii of circular
curves which are close in size to Rmin are
predominantly used.
4.4.5.4.3.2 Minimum relative longitudinal
slope of the edge of carriageway
(min RLS)
With long transitional curve the change to the
crossfall of the carriageway is relative gentle.
Before and after the turning point of the
clothoid (inflection zone), where the crossfalls
of the carriageway are less than the minimum
(iPi < iP min), there is a zone on which the
resulting slope of the carriageway is too small
for the normal runoff of water from the
carriageway. That zone, which is also called
the “inmost rotation area”, should be as short
as possible for traffic-safety reasons. That is
why the values of the limited crossfalls and
minimum longitudinal slope of the edge of the
carriageway are prescribed.
The limited crossfalls of that area (at the
beginning and end of the area) are called
"critical" (min.kritiP), and the prescribed value is:
• at a crossfall changing around the axis of
the carriageway min.critiP = 2.5% and
• at a crossfall changing around the edge of
the carriageway min.critiP = 1.5%.
The minimum relative longitudinal slope of the
edge of carriageway (min RLSR) is a
prescribed value and amounts to:
• at a crossfall changing around the axis of
the carriageway minirv = 0.2%,
• and at a crossfall changing around the edge
of the carriageway minirv = 0.4%.
The length of the inmost rotation area, on
which the resulting slope of the carriageway is
too small, according to the prescribed values
amounts to:
• with rotation of the carriageway around the
axis of the carriageway Lov = 45.0 m at 22.5
m for each side from the turning point of the
clothoid and
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Road design elements
80 90 100 110 120 130
1.0 0.9
• with rotation around the edge of the
carriageway Lov = 23.0 m at 11.5 m for each
side from the turning point of the clothoid.
A zone with an insufficient resulting slope of
the carriageway is also located at a distance
between the crossfall min.kritiP = 1.5% and iP min
= 2.5%. That additional length depends on the
length of the transitional curve and also on the
width of the carriageway and crossfall in the
circular curve which connects the transitional
curve to the neighbouring curve. With long-
distance roads (highways) the radii of the
curves (as a rule) are very large and it may
happen that water, with the application of
min.critiP = 1.5%, is retained along the entire
length of the transitional curve. For the
purpose of achieving high quality dewatering
and taking into consideration the unevenness
of the construction carriageway, it is
recommended that miniP = 2.5% be applied as
the critical limited crossfall (min.critiP) in all cases.
In a majority of foreign technical regulations a
slope of iP =2.5% is provided as the min.critiP,
while irv is determined depending on the width
of the rotation wing and the coefficient of the
intensity of rotation (kv) according to the
equation:
minirv = kv.bv
where:
minimum relative longitudinal
minirv [%] slope of the edge of the
carriageway (minRLS)
coefficient of the intensity of
kv [%/m]
rotation
bv [m] width of rotation wing
According to the German regulation RAS-L,
the coefficient of the intensity of rotation
amounts to 0.1%/m. With flat highways, for
which large dimensions of elements are
characteristics, favourable driving-dynamic
conditions, aesthetic appearance and
prevention of the occurrence of "saw-blade"
are achieved by mitigating the crossfall
changing to the . Even though a length with a
resulting slope of the carriageway insufficient
for dewatering is thereby significantly
extended, in such cases it is recommended
that rotation be implemented with a degree of
rotation intensity of "kv" 0.03, or at most up to
0.06 [%/m], and that for dewatering of the
carriageway special measures be used
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Road design elements
(drainage asphalt, scarification), which can
prevent the occurrence of hydroplaning.
4.4.5.4.4 Conditions and method for
implementing a change to the
crossfall
The basic conditions for implementing a
change to the crossfall are presented in the
beginning of this section. However, an
additional condition is that the degree of the
relative longitudinal slope of the edge of the
carriageway (RLS) at a change to the crossfall
must be:
• between the crossfall of the carriageway of
the same direction within the limits irv ≤ maxirv
, curve – transitional curve – circular curve”, are
• and between the crossfalls of the opposite
direction within the limits minirv ≤ irv ≤ minirv.
On the basis of that additional condition, a
crossfall changing of the carriageway is
implemented in four different ways:
(a) with a linear change to the crossfall from
iPi to iPi+1 (single stage)
(b) with a crossfall changing from (iPi) to (-
iPi+1) through rotation (single stage or dual
stage)
(c) with a jump of the axis of rotation in the
turning point of a clothoid (elbow)
(d) with a roof-shaped change direction of the
crossfall of the carriageway (diagonal)
With the first two methods (a and b), the axis of
rotation can be anywhere in the cross section
of the carriageway, while in special cases it
can even be outside of it. The axis of rotation is
normally located on the road centre line or on
one of the edge of the carriageway.
In the third case (c), the axis of rotation which
in a certain curve extends along the inner edge
of the carriageway, in the turning point of a
clothoid (elbow) jumps onto the other edge of
the carriageway.
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Serbian Road Design Manual
In the fourth case (d), the axis of rotation is
located on the road centre line, except in the
area around the turning point of the clothoid,
the length of which is dependent on the design
speed, where it extends diagonally between
the higher points of the crossfall into both
neighbouring circular curves.
Methods (c) and (d) can only be applied on
long-distance roads in exceptional cases.
The methods for implementing a change to the
crossfall of the carriageway are, for the
elements of the road centre line in the
composition of a “circular curve – circular
curve” and in the compositions of “straight –
transitional curve – circular curve” and “circular
displayed in Figure 4.2.69.
4.4.5.4.4.1 Change in the crossfall in the
same direction
A change to the crossfall of the carriageway
between two circular curves or between a
straight line and circular curve with crossfall of
the carriageway in the same direction, is
necessary with the sequence of geometric
elements of the road centre line in the form of
O- and C-curves, as well as with the
combination of those two sequences. The
value of the relative longitudinal slope of the
edge of the carriageway (irv), which results with
a change to the slope of the carriageway from
iPi to iPi+1, may not be greater than the
maximum (irv ≤ maxirv). If the maximum value is
exceeded, the curves should be spaced out to
insert a longer transitional curve. The change
to the crossfall of the carriageway can be
implemented either around the road centre line
or any other longitudinal line of the road,
normally around the edge of the carriageway.
Figure 4.2.69 provides a diagram of this under
number 5 (single stage).
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

crossfall crossfall
DIRECTION-TRANSITIONAL CURVE- ROUND CURVE-TRANSITIONAL
change change
ROUND CURVE CURVE-ROUND CURVE

curve
from roof- between two
shaped falls of the
(bilateral) same direction

unilateral

curve:

between falls of
between falls of the opposite
the opposite direction and of
direction and of different or same
different or size
same size

curve:

curve: with roof-shaped profile

Figure 4.2.69: Standard modes for change to the crossfall of the carriageway

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Road design elements
4.4.5.4.4.2 Change in the crossfall in the
opposite direction
A change to the crossfall of the carriageway
between two circular curves with carriageway
slopes in opposite directions is necessary with
the sequence of geometric elements of the
road centre line "straight – transitional curve –
circular curve”, in the form of a reverse curve
and with the combination of those two
sequences. The limited condition which affects
the selection of the method for implementing
such a change is the relative longitudinal slope
of the edge of the carriageway (RLS).
With the sequence “straight – transitional curve
– circular curve”, the change to the crossfall in
all cases is completely implemented (only)
along the length of the transitional curve. When
the carriageway is on a straight in a roof-
shaped slope, it is first necessary to implement
a change to the roof-shaped slope on a one
side (one half of the roof-shaped carriageway
or one of the two carriageways on a highway)
in order to equalise it with the slope of the
other half of the carriageway (or one of the two
carriageways of a highway) which amounts to
miniPi = 2.5%.
Depending on the limited values of the RLS
(irv), it is valid that:
• the transition from the roof-shaped into the
single-sided slope in a curve (Figure 4.2.69,
diagram 1), under the condition minirv ≤ irv ≤
maxirv, is implemented linearly along the
length of the transitional curve (single
stage),
• at the transition from a roof-shaped into a
single-sided slope in a curve (Figure 4.2.69,
diagram 2), under the condition irv ≤ minirv,
first the rotation is implemented, while the
remaining height difference up to the edge
of the carriageway in the circular curve is
connected linearly (dual stage),
• the transition from a single-sided slope into
a flat line in a single-sided slope in the
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Serbian Road Design Manual
opposite direction in a curve (Figure 4.2.69,
diagram 3), under the condition minirv ≤ irv ≤
maxirv, is implemented along the length of the
transitional curve (single stage),
• at the transition from a single-sided slope
into a flat line in the single-sided slope in
the opposite direction in the direction of the
curve (Figure 4.2.69, diagram 4), under the
condition irv ≤ minirv, first the rotation is
implemented, while the remaining height
difference up to the edge of the
carriageway in the circular curve is
connected linearly (dual stage),
With the sequence of geometric elements of
the road centre line in the form of a reverse
curve, the change to the crossfall is
implemented completely along the length of
the clothoid which connects the neighbouring
curves. Depending on the limited values of the
RLS (irv), it is valid that:
• the transition between two single-sided
slopes in opposite directions (Figure 4.2.69,
diagram 6), under the condition mnirv ≤ irv ≤
maxirv, is implemented linearly along the
length of the transitional curve (single
stage),
• at the transition between two a single-sided
slopes in opposite directions (Figure 4.2.69,
diagram 7), under the condition irv ≤ minirv,
first the rotation is implemented, while the
remaining height difference up to the edge
of the carriageway in the connecting
circular curves is connected linearly (dual
stage),
With very moderate gradients (irv < iNmin), in the
case of a change to the crossfall of the
carriageway through rotation, as a rule, a non-
aesthetically pleasing appearance is created
for the line of the edge of the carriageway
(„fan“) along with the “saw-blade”
phenomenon. In order to avoid such a solution,
the change to the crossfall may be
implemented with a diagonal axis of rotation
and the application of a roof-shaped profile for
a certain length (Figure 4.2.69, diagram 8).
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

ridge

right edge

base grade level

left edge

Figure 4.2.70: Change to the crossfall of the carriageway with a roof-shaped profile

The transitional part of the carriageway in the

area between ± miniP = 2.5% (Lk)) can be length of the area of the roof-
implemented with a roof-shaped profile, with Lk [m] shaped slope (between ±
which the apex shifts diagonally from one miniP=2.5%)
higher edge of the carriageway to another intensity of lateral shifting of
0,1 [h/km]
(Figure 4.2.70). The zone with the roof profile the apex of the roof profile
of the carriageway should be rounded off at the coefficient of the intensity of
Bv [m]
apex (Figure 4.2.66). The length of the rotation
transitional part depends on the free flow Vp [km/h] free flow speed
speed (Vp) and the width of the carriageway
The minimum lengths of the area with a roof-
(Bv) and in some foreign technical regulations
shaped slope are provided in Table 4.2.37
(e.g. RAS-L) is provided by the equation:
(source: Guidelines on traffic safety conditions
Lk = 0,1.Bv.Vp which transportation infrastructure and other
elements of public roads must fulfil (Official
where:
Gazette of RS, 50/11).

Table 4.2.37:Minimum lengths of the area with roof-shaped slope with a change to the crossfall

Vp [km/h] 50 60 70 80 90 90 100 110 120 130

Lk [%] - 40 50 60 70 80* 100 125 135 150
(*) valid for carriageways with multiple traffic lanes

Due to the non-uniform slope of the traffic
lanes within the area which is arranged with a
diagonal "sliding” roof profile, that method for
changing the crossfall of the carriageway is not
recommended on roads for high travel speeds
(> 100 km/h).
4.4.5.4.5 Hydroplaning
Hydroplaning is a phenomenon where surface
water is retained on the surface of the
carriageway due to insufficient slopes of that
surface or damage to it. The depth at which the
retained water will result in a loss of contact of
the tires with the base and with that the sliding
of the vehicle (hydroplaning) depends on the
travel speed.
4.4.5.4.5.1 Conditions for occurrence
On an inmost area of rotation, the runoff of
water from the surface of the carriageway is
not always completely provided. When on a
certain part of the road there is a coincidence
of longitudinal slope and crossfall, which in
both cases are less than the minimums, the
resulting slope (iresult) is smaller than the
minimum and the water cannot normally flow
away from the surface of the carriageway. That
is why such a section is called a critical
section.

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Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

KP
KP Very
Zelo high thickness value
velika
Veoma velika

SP High thickness value

Velika
Velika
SP
Mid thickness value
Srednja
ZP
ZP

Figure 4.2.71: Thickness of water films over an area of rotation around the centre line with various
gradients (source: Herring, 1980)
In a critical area the direction and intensity of side of the carriageway (return water). The
waterflow on the road surface changes (Figure mechanism for runoff of water on the
4.2.71), and in the worst case the water is carriageway in an inmost area of rotation is
retained on the road (remaining water). In both shown in Figure 4.2.72.
cases a "water film" is generated on the In the Australian manual „Road Drainage
carriageway. Its thickness depends on the Design Manual“, the aforementioned values
intensity of the precipitation, the length over are included in the formula:
which the water flows away from the
0.11 0.43 0.59 0.42
carriageway, the slope in the direction of the D = (0.103 . T .L .I /S )–T
flow of runoff and the depth of the texture
where:
(roughness) of the driving surface, and
D [mm] thickness of the water film
indirectly depends on the uneven spots on the
depth of texture
carriageway, traffic on the carriageway and
T [mm] (roughness) of the
wind above the carriageway. On that section of
carriageway
the carriageway water occurs which,
L [m] length of the line of runoff
depending on the degree of the longitudinal
I [mm/h] intensity of precipitation
slope of the carriageway, inflows along the
S [%] slope of the line of runoff
carriageway and which due to a change in the
crossfall of the carriageway returns to the initial
According to Australian experience and
research, the depth of the texture on which the
optimum runoff from an asphalt surface is
achieved amounts to T = 0.4.

asymptote

Figure 4.2.72: Runoff of water from the carriageway in an area of rotation (source: Herring, 1980)

102 PE Roads of Serbia

Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

Figure 4.2.72, in case (1) shows the area of a
carriageway from which water does not flow
away (flows away only via its own hydraulic
fall), when the carriageway is not longitudinally
inclined. The area from which the water does
not flow away from is the area where water is
retained. On the same figure, in case (2), it
shows the runoff of water on a carriageway
which on an inmost area of rotation, due to a
change in the crossfall of the carriageway, first
flows in one direction, but then returns. Return
water on carriageways is always present.
W. B. Home developed the following formula
for determining the speed at which a vehicle
stops penetrating through the water film on the
carriageway:
1/2
Vcrit = 60,8 * p
where:
Vcrit [km/h] critical travel speed
p [bar] inflation pressure in the tires
away from the road in the manner shown in
Figure 4.2.73.
The withdrawing of the field of retained water
from the carriageway by 1.0 m is achieved
either through the shifting of the axis of rotation
by 1.0 m or by changing the gradient by 0.1%.
This means that the gradient on a road with
two lanes and a carriageway width of 6.0 m
must be at least 0.6% in order to enable the
withdrawing of the field of retained water from
the carriageway. And with wider carriageways,
the slope should be proportionately larger
(Figure 4.2.73). With milder intensities of
rotation kv (on motorways for example, kv =
0.06 %/m), the withdrawing of the field of
retained water by 1.0 m is achieved by even a
change in the gradient by 0.167%. The
coefficient of intensity of rotation directly
proportionately affects the dimensions of the
measures for shifting the field of retained water
from the carriageway.

The pressure in the tires on passenger

vehicles is within the range of 1.8 to 2.5 bar,
and most often between 1.9 and 2.1 bar, while
on freight vehicles it normally amounts to 7
bar. The critical speeds for creating
hydroplaning are:
• passenger vehicle (p = 1.9 bar) →
Vcrit = 83.81 km/h (23.28 m/s)
• passenger vehicle (p = 2.1 bar) →
Vcrit = 88.11 km/h (24.48 m/s)
• freight vehicle (p = 7 bar) →
Vcrit = 160.86 km/h (44.68 m/s)
At speed lower than Vcrit, as a rule,
hydroplaning does not occur. Except in cases,
when the vehicle is fitted with overly worn tires.
Hydroplaning is not typical for heavy vehicles
and only occurs under extremely unusual
circumstances.

4.4.5.4.5.2 Retained water

Retained water exists on a carriageway which

in the lateral and longitudinal direction is flat
(iN=0%, iP=0%) nearly the shape of a circle. At
a critical slope of an asphalt surface iresult =
0.3%, the radius of that circle is R = 3.0 m, and
2
the area of the circle is 28.27 m .
Research which was conducted in Slovenia
indicates that retained water on the
carriageway always withdraws perpendicularly
to the road centre line and that withdrawal
directly depends on the extent of the gradient,
the extent of the change in the position of the
axis of rotation in the cross section and on the
selection of the intensity of rotation kv (see
section 4.4.5.4.3.2). If the longitudinal slope of
the road increases, the retained water is drawn

PE Roads of Serbia 103

Road design elements
Figure 4.2.73: Withdrawing of the field of retained water depending on the degree of the gradient
4.4.5.4.5.3 Possibilities for eliminating the
phenomenon
The measures through which it is possible to
mitigate the problem of the occurrence of
hydroplaning on the carriageway include:
• grooving (Figure 4.2.74) and
• wearing layer from drainage asphalt.
Both systems (grooving and drainage asphalt)
can be evaluated only generally according to
the content and functionality, as well as
according to the technical capabilities of their
elements.
Grooving (gradient > 1%)
104
Serbian Road Design Manual
• is efficient with light precipitations, and after
heavy precipitations contributes to the
runoff of water from the carriageway,
• creates a concentrated flow of water with
increased surface of runoff (flowing away
through an open surface),
• creates an even fall for the runoff of water
and in the case of smaller unevenness on
the carriageway,
• spacing between lines (2.5-5.0 m in the
direction of chainage) is empirical, although
it is well known that the speed of water
runoff on surface of smaller slopes quickly
drops,
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
• the duration of depth is problematic,
especially in cart tracks (towing force of
freight vehicles), which on the basis of
experience is proportionately short
(renewed every two years or even every
year, depending on the volume of traffic),
• the system generates noise.
Drainage asphalt
• is effective even during more significant
precipitation,
• not sensitive to possible unevenness during
construction of the carriageway surface and
on cart tracks,,
• system completely separates the water
which is retained (occurs at very small
gradients),
• the beginning and end of the area depend
on several parameters, above all the
intensity of rain, through which the
thickness of the water film is calculated on
highway axis
direction of travel
highway axis
direction of travel
Figure 4.2.74: Grooving (source: Asfaltex, 2003)
The experience acquired from both types of
measures have indicated that neither of them
is performs equally in all situations. It is
recommended that the type of measure be
selected in accordance with the size of the
longitudinal section (Table 4.2.38).
Table 4.2.38 provides the critical longitudinal
slope (iP crit) as the limited value of the crossfall
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
the carriageway along with the critical slope
(iPcrit),
• informative smallest lengths of drainage
wearing layer (calculated in Slovenia) for a
carriageway width of 8 and 10 m (roads
with dual carriageway) are provided in
Table EQP-16,
• permeability of the installed drainage
asphalt depends on the compositions of the
materials (between 14 and 32% voids, EN
13108-7)),
• requires more intensive maintenance during
the winter period (more frequent ploughing
due to faster collection of snow and more
intensive salting because salt water flows
faster) and
• the service life of the drainage asphalt is
short than the service life of other wearing
layers with modified bitumen.
of the carriageway. The critical slope is the
slope at which on variably wide carriageways a
thickness of water film occurs which
corresponds to the limited thickness for the
occurrence of hydroplaning at the envisaged
(free flow) speed.
105
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

Table 4.2.38: Area of application of various construction-technical measures

Longitudinal slope iN

up to 1% from 1% to 2.5 % over 2.5%

water-flow in water-flow in
Crossfall
direction of opposite direction
iPi [%]
driving of driving
drainage
- iP crit up to –1.0 grooving drainage asphalt no measures
asphalt
no measures
drainage
- 1.0 to +1.0 drainage asphalt drainage asphalt grooving where
asphalt
needed
drainage
+1.0 to + iP crit grooving drainage asphalt no measures
asphalt

For dual carriageway roads (motorways -MW
and express-ways - EW) the values provided in
Table 4.2.39 (PNZ, Slovenia, 2003) can be
applied informatively through which the lengths
of the critical sections for three possible
intensities of rotation are also provided for
various widths of the carriageway over which
water flows off (section 4.4.5.4.4.2). On the
basis of this research it is concluded that the
generally determined critical crossfall (iP min =
2.5%) with narrower roads can be even
smaller. It depends also onf the critical
thickness of the water film, which is different at
different driving speeds.

Table 4.2.39: Critical crossfall and critical length of area of the transition of rotation - informative

Degree of intensity of rotation [%/m]

Width of
Critical thickness of Critical kv= 0.10 kv= 0.06 kv= 0.03
carriage-
water film crossfall
way Length of area with Dcrit
Lcrit [m]
Bv [m] Dcrit [mm] at Vp [km/h] iP crit [%] L0.10 L0.06 L0.03
8.0 MW 1.75 at 120 2.00 40.0 66.0 132.0
10.0 MW 1.75 at 120 2.50 50.0 83.3 166.7
8.0 EW 2.50 at 100 1.00 20.0 33.0 66.0
10.0 EW 2.50 at 100 1.25 25.0 41.7 83.3

where:
kv [%/m] coefficient of the intensity of rotation
Bv [m] width of carriageway from which water runs off
Dcrit [mm] critical thickness of water film
Vp [km/h] design or free flow speed
Lcrit [m] length of area with critical thickness of water film.

Due to the difficulties which result due to

hydroplaning, it is necessary to determine and
eliminate the unsuitable sequence of horizontal
and vertical elements of the road centre line
already in the initial design phases.

106 PE Roads of Serbia

Serbian Road Design Manual
4.4.6 ADJUSTMENT OF CARRIAGEWAY
ELEMENTS
4.4.6.1 Adjustment of horizontal curve
radius in terms of smaller changes
in driving speed
It would be ideal if the road could be design so
that the driver is allowed to drive at the same
speed over a long section. However, due to the
form of the terrain, such ideal conditions for
roads outside of settlements do not exist.
Conditions close to ideal can be achieved if the
road centre line is established with elements
through which, despite not providing a constant
travel speed over a longer section, the speed
changes will not be greater than those which
are achieved by slowing down with a passive
deceleration (a characteristic of a motor
engine). This means that when a driver on
such a road would drive at the speed which is
facilitated by the elements of the road before
him/her (Vp), he/she would not be required to
use the brakes, and in that manner driving
would contribute traffic safety in significant
manner.
In section 4.4.3.5.0, the graph on Figure 4.2.55
displays the basic relations of the size of the
radius of consecutive circular curves (Ri and
Ri+1) which make it possible for the travel
speed from curve to curve does not change in
a greater amount than that which can be
achieved by slowing down with a passive
deceleration. However, those relations should
be taken into consideration with a great
measure of tolerance, because the value Vp,
along with the sizes of the radii of the curves is
also affected by the length of the curve and
width of the traffic lane. A smaller impact is
also had by the gradient, but with modern
passenger vehicles this isn’t very great.
The length of the circular curves represents a
significant element in the design of safe roads
because the curves of various lengths can be
accepted by the driver in various manners. The
experience of a curve depends on the ratio
between the radius of the curve and the length
of the curve. For larger curves it is valid that
the curve is noticeable when the ratio is R:LKL
= 20:1 ( α = 3° ), while for smaller curves it is
taken into account that its length needs to be
so great that the driver drives at least 2
seconds on it (view of driver), and even better
for 5 seconds. The length of the curve with
consecutive curves should be almost equal
and should be changed gradually. Namely, the
length of the curve significantly affects the level
of the free flow speed (Vp or V85%) and on
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
shorter curves it is significantly higher than with
long ones.
Because the method of driving through the
curve and speed which the driver achieves
while doing so depends on the drivers view of
the road (provided visibility on the road and
field of vision of the driver depending on the
travel speed), it is rational to use lengths of the
circular curves with which the driver, before
entering into the curve may see an exit from it.
If the curve is longer (driver does not physically
see the end of the curve), it is necessary to
place the proper traffic signalisation (sign for
dangerous curve plus sign for recommended
speed). In curves with a circular arc R ≥ 400 m
(on two-lane roads), no special measures are
necessary.
On dual-carriageway roads, the elements of
the road centre line, as a rule, should be so
large as to enable a travel speed which is
specified by law (100 and 120 or 130 km/h).
That is why on those roads a more significant
role is played by the aesthetic appearance, the
effects on the landscape and the application
within the space through which the road is
routed rather than the driving dynamics.
The process through which the length of the
elements of the road centre line is also taken
into consideration is the determining of the
curve characteristics (Ku) on two-lane roads.
With those for a certain circular curve and
transitional curve (up to the turning point of the
clothoid) the degree of curvature (Ku u °/km) is
calculated and on the schematic longitudinal
section of the road the summed up values are
entered in, calculated in consecutive circular
curves. In that manner it is possible to
graphically determine the length of the road on
which the degree of curvature is nearly equal
and on the basis of this the free flow speed
(Vp) can be determined. The change of speed
within that section is done only by slowing
down by the motor (does not represent a
danger). Certain curves, where the degree of
curvature more significantly deviates, should
be corrected in the lay-out of the road centre
line. An example of that process is provided in
Figure 4.2.75.
The free flow speed may be read from the
diagram in Figure 4.2.76.
When the design engineer cannot harmonise
the radii of neighbouring circular curves
according to the diagram on Figure 4.2.55, the
route can be sufficiently corrected by improving
the optical guidance of the route (plantings,
directional boards), increasing crossfall and by
traffic signs. Considering a degree of curvature
the designer can choose an adequate size of
107
Road design elements Serbian Road Design Manual

the radius of horizontal curve in the diagram on (smaller Ku) 300-500 m before the curve with
Figure 4.2.77 (taken according to the Ri.
regulations of German RAS-L). However, it
should be known that the traffic danger grows
because the route is more stretched out

angle
angle
change Σ
direction
change

Figure 4.2.75: Determining of free flow speed (Vp) on two-lane roads

(source: Guidelines.... Official Gazette of RS, 50/11)

Figure 4.2.76: Free flow speed Vp depending on the characteristics of the curvature Ku
(source: RAS-L)

108 Curvature degree PE Roads of Serbia

Serbian Road Design Manual
A – very favorable
B – applicable
C – traffic sign ’’sharp turn’’
D – directional boards
Curvature degree
Figure 4.2.77: Adequacy of the value Ri depending on the size of Ku 300-500 m before the curve
(source: RAS-L)
When projecting the size Ri at certain
curvature of the road centre line (Ku), the
smallest radius of a circular curve which can
be connected to a part of a road with such
curvature can be found in the graph in Figure
4.2.77. At the end of long straights the
curvature degree is Ku = 0 [°/km], and at the
end of long straights it is allowed to apply R ≥
500 m (area A), and only as an exception 400–
500 m (area B).
4.4.6.2 Harmonisation of the horizontal
elements of the road centre line in
the sense of avoiding dangerous
locations
Dangerous traffic locations on the road (along
intersections, pedestrian crossings, etc.),
which are the result of a lack of designing, also
include those locations where the driver must
suddenly intensively brake or drive through the
next circular curve at an excessive speed. This
means that there where the dimensions of the
geometric elements of the road centre line are
not sufficiently or not at all harmonised from
the aspect of balancing out the values of the
free flow speeds through neighbouring curves.
The problem comes up with driving from a
larger into a smaller circular curve, where the
smaller curve can be driven through much
more slowly than through the larger one.
In that case the driver:
• either drives a too high of a speed through
a smaller circular curve (exceeding designfR),
• or just before a smaller circular curve
intensively brakes (exceeding designfT),
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
whereby it is for the given dimensions of the
carriageway required to take the coefficients of
friction as indicative, which have been
prescribed as the maximums for the
dimensioning of the elements of the road
(designfi).
On newer carriageways sliding does not occur.
Excessively fast driving through a curve or
heavy braking constantly occur in practically
the same locations. That is why on those
locations the carriageway surface get rapidly
polished. The intensity of decreasing of the
coefficient of friction depends directly on the
volume of traffic.
Speeds, greater than in the design considered,
are problematic because the coefficient of
friction on a wet carriageway decreases with
an increase in speed. The conditions in certain
cases can very quickly become critical. That is
why it is necessary to verify the adequacy of
the sequence of the radii of circular curves
which has not been designed according to the
graph in Figure 4.2.55 (section 4.4.3.1.0).
An indicator that the selected radii of
neighbouring circular curves are not
homogenous is the value of the free flow
speed which the drivers achieve in certain
curves, and which is graphically represented in
the free flow speed profile (Figure 4.2.78). The
free flow speed profile on two-lane roads
should be illustrated for both directions of
travel.
109
Road design elements
Figure 4.2.78:
The most demanding task when creating the
free flow speed profile is determining the free
flow speeds in each and every curve. The free
flow speed is an empirically determined value
and with various authors differs significantly.
The simplest solution is the application of the
German regulation RAS-L and the use of either
the diagram in Figure 4.2.79, which provides
the value V85% depending on the width of the
carriageway, or the diagram in Figure 4.2.76,
which provides the free flow speeds depending
on the curvatures (Ku) of the road axis line. In
both cases the obtained value should be
corrected for the impact of the gradient (Figure
4.2.80).
Figure 4.2.79: Dependency V85% on the width
of the carriageway B and radius of the circular
curve R (source: RAS-L)
110
Serbian Road Design Manual
Free flow speed profile
Figure 4.2.80: Dependency of V85% on the
gradient iN
(source: Guidelines.... Official Gazette of RS,
50/11)
The lines of the speed change on the lengths
of transition curves between each and every
pair of two neighbouring circular curves are
drawn into the free flow speed profile taking
into account the speeds Vp on both sides of the
lengths and the passive acceleration or
deceleration (a characteristic of a motor
-2
engine; a = 0.8 ms - see Figure 4.2.78) for
defining the speed change.
If the difference in the free flow speed in two
neighbouring curves is too large, the driver will
upon entry into the curve with the lower free
flow speed decrease speed by braking or will
drive through that curve at a speed of Vp',
which is greater than Vp. The speed Vp', on the
basis of the free flow speed profile, is
determined by drawing the line of the speed
-2
change with deceleration a = 0.8 ms from the
curve with a greater Vp up to the start of the
next curve.
'
On the basis of the established Vp (V85%) or Vp ,
according to the general equation R = f(V, ii,
fR), with Ri and iPi well known from road design,
the coefficient of friction fRi is calculated and
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

then compared with the permitted value for the For that reason new researches have been
speed Vp or Vp' (model Lamm, Germany). On carried out and new models have been
the base of the method of Lamm a computer developed or are being developed for the
program, inserted in the guidelines HSM change of speed along the route. On the basis
(Highway Safety Manual, PIARC, 2003), has of those, computer programs are also being
been developed. developed which define the input parameters
must more precisely. The differences when
Due to the required creation of the free flow
determining Vp or V85% between older (Lamm)
speed profile (impact of multiple parameters) it
and newer programs are significant (Figure
is suitable to used computer programs in which
4.2.81).
a majority of the key parameters have already
Currently the most widely used is the American
been included. Such calculations are also
program IHSDM (Fitzpatrick, USA, 2000),
featured in some individual computer programs
which as result calculates the free flow profile
for road design (e.g. Gavran, Serbia), but not
by considering the length of transitional curve.
in all of them.
In Slovenia they are in the phase of testing the
Determining the free flow speed Vp is a
program DDC (driving-dynamic characteristic
process in which it is necessary to consider all
of the road), developed according to the model
parameters which can affect the result in a
(Juvanc, Slovenia, 1993). It includes the
harmonised manner. From the method
clothoid length dependent mode of the speed
according to Lamm it is seen that a very
change between two circular curves and as a
important role in harmonising the geometric
result indicates the locations on the
elements of the road centre line is also played
carriageway where the required friction will be
by the length of the transitional curves. If it is
found greater than the permitted value (value
too long, the driver will accelerate on it, and if it
DDC - Figure 4.2.82). This value enables an
is too short, he/she will need to brake before
appraisal of the possibility to renew the
entering into a smaller circular curve or drive
carriageway surface using silicate aggregate
through the curve with excessive speed.
for the wearing layer as well.

0,006
curvature(1/R)

0,004
0,002
ukrivljenost

0
-0,002 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
-0,004
-0,006
105

100

95

90
V85% (km/h)

Model Juvanc
85 Model Lamm
Model IHSDM
80
Vzas
75

70

Figure 4.2.81: Free flow speed profile for models Lamm, IHSDM and DDC (sample)

PE Roads of Serbia 111

Road design elements
Figure 4.2.82: Free flow speed profile and decrease of the coefficient of friction on the model DDC
(sample)
On the basis of previously conducted studies, it
can without a doubt be concluded that the
selection of the proper lengths of transitional
curves of an elements, which affects whether a
driver will be able to safely decrease speed
before entry into the circular curve or not
(effects on intensity of braking), is exceedingly
significant.
Proper selection of the length of the transitional
curve also enable to connect neighbouring
circular curves with radii, that are not in
accordance with the ratio Ri : Ri+1 ≤ 1 : 1.5,
safe for the driver. It has been determined that
as that ratio grows larger, the length of the
transitional curve must be selected more
precisely. Currently, the used Amin and Amax in
this case do not even come into consideration.
But those values are sufficiently close to the
lengths of the transitional curve Aprep which are
provided in section 4.4.3.4.1.3 in Table 4.2.31
and in graph 4.2.55.
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Serbian Road Design Manual
4.4.6.3 Harmonising horizontal and
vertical elements of the road
centre line in the sense of
avoiding hydroplaning
The condition for high quality dewatering of the
carriageway is the adequate harmonisation of
the elements of the horizontal and vertical
guidance of the road centre line (Figure
4.2.83). That is why it is necessary for road
design to always include a diagram of the
resulting slopes of the carriageway which is the
first indicator of the likelihood for the creation
of hydroplaning.
The position of the horizontal and vertical
elements should be harmonised so that not a
single part of the road centre line, on which the
crossfall is less than the minimum (iPmin > iPi > -
iPmin), coincides with a part of the grade level
with the longitudinal slope less than the
minimum (iNmin > iNi > - iNmin).
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual
vertical course
vertical course
horizontal course
Figure 4.2.83: Harmonisation of elements of horizontal and vertical guidance of the road centre line
Hydroplaning is a characteristic phenomenon
on roads with minimum or even small gradient
and is characteristic for valley terrains. Besides
the proper harmonisation of the horizontal and
vertical elements of the road, it is also possible
to avoid with:
• proper selection of the axis of rotation,
• rotation along the internal side of the curve
or
• by height separated guidance of the grade
level (motorways).
Proper selection of the axis of rotation implies
the selection of the edge of the carriageway
which will ensure that during rotation no
change to the sign of the longitudinal slope
occurs without even one longitudinal line on
the carriageway (may only be increased).
Rotation along the inner edge with a jump of
the axis of rotation in the turning point from
once side onto the other side of the
carriageway, which is otherwise permitted, is
as a rule not used because it creates a poor
aesthetic appearance and a problem with
dewatering of the carriageway (occurrence of
“saw-blade”). And if it is already being applied,
the devices for longitudinal dewatering in
critical locations must be reconstructed so as
to enable the complete dewatering of water
from the carriageway. Regardless of the
quantity of water, it is necessary to envisage
more frequent outlets from the devices, and
PE Roads of Serbia
Road design elements
the devices should specify their own
longitudinal slope (within the depth of the
device). On the lowest place of a “saw-blade”
the cover of the inlet manhole is never
permitted to be made from cast iron mesh, but
rather always and only from a two-sided free-
flow inlet.
On a motorway hydroplaning still occurs only
on one of the carriageways. Rotation is more
easily implemented with by height separated
guidance of the grade level (for each
carriageway separately), with which the
obligatory change of the form of the profile in
the central reserve occurs. Because in such a
location it is not possible to arrange a transition
from one carriageway to another (closing one
carriageway in the case of an accident or road
maintenance), the sequence and location of
those transitions should be remodelled.
4.4.6.4 Spatial harmonisation of the
elements of the road centre line
The road centre line is a spatial curve with
which the elements of the centre line and
grade level must be harmonised so that its
route in the space is aesthetically pleasing and
adequate from the standpoint of driving
dynamics. The designing of elements in the
road centre line in the design is implemented
separately in the horizontal and separately in
the vertical projection. When the elements in
113
Road design elements
both projections are joined, their appearance
within the space is obtained together with the
cross section. A real view of the illustration of
the route of the road is obtained when
consecutive 3-D views in the direction of travel
(view of the driver) are provided. Computer
programs make it possible to prepare either a
simulation of driving for the designed road or a
visualisation, through which the spatial
harmonisation of the elements of the road can
be optically tested from various angles of
observance; in the direction of travel (“view
from the road”) and from the angle of an
external observer (“view on the road”).
Good optical guidance of the route of the road
is not important for just the proper appearance
of it within the space, but also for greater
safety on the road and a greater traffic flow. It
can be achieved if the road has a calming
effect and if certain changes can be easily and
timely noticed. Especially important is the
guidance of the edge of the carriageway and
individual traffic lanes, which must provide the
driver with a clear orientation during driving
(lines without optical breaks, entire view over
traffic lane, noticing widening and narrowing in
time etc.).
Besides considering the regulation on ensuring
sufficient slopes for dewatering of the driving
surface (preventing hydroplaning), when
designing the road, it is necessary to also
adhere to the following:
• long straights are useable only in a space
which allows for such, but they should be
avoided, because they bother the driver
and force him/her to increase the speed,
and negatively affect the driver's
assessment of events of the road,
especially the calculation of the speed of
other vehicles
• the smaller is the change in direction, the
greater radii of horizontal curves should be
• with the composition of horizontal elements
in an O-form, the smaller of the two circular
arcs may not be located on the lower size
of the grade level (traffic safety -
carriageway)
• in locations where horizontal and vertical
curves overlap, the ration between the radii
(R : r) of both curves should be smaller or
equal 1 : 5 to 1 : 10
• turning points of the horizontal and vertical
profile of the road centre line should be
located at nearly the same chainages
• the length of the vertical curve should be
greater than the length of the individual
horizontal element of the road centre line
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Serbian Road Design Manual
with which it coincides (not allowed to begin
and end on the area of the same horizontal
element of the road centre line)
• a change in direction (rotation) in the area
of a crest curve may begin only where the
driver receives a sufficient review over of
the route of the road in the continuation
• consecutive vertical curves on long
straights can be envisaged only so that the
driver in front of him (free visibility) can see
the top of one crest curve only
• at the end of the stretched out section,
where the route transitions into a
connecting circular curve with a smaller
radius, the grade level must be designed so
that the crest curve does not block the
drivers view of the connected curve (crest
curve extends into a connected curve)
• in well-expressed relief (greater gradient) it
is preferred between two vertical curves
with various directions of curvature to insert
a section of the road with a constant
longitudinal slope to make it possible for the
driver to acquire the impression of the
horizontal course of the road in front of
him/her, and to locate the horizontal turning
point near the beginning of a sag curve so
that the driver can notice it in a timely
manner
• positioning of two consecutive vertical
curves with the same direction of curvature
in the area of visibility is permitted only on
roads of functionality types (PP), and on
roads SP only if the design speed is not
greater than 70 km/h
• on roads of a high functional type (DP, VP),
the lines of structures for bridging must be
adapted to the line of the road axis line and
not inversely
• if large structures for bridging (viaducts) on
roads of a high functional type (DP, VP) are
located in an area of a vertical curve, the
guiding of the grade level should provide
the visibility (recognisability) of the end of
them.
The optical effects of some of the most
characteristic (non)harmonisations of
horizontal and vertical elements of the road
centre line in combination with the cross
section are shown on Figures 4.2.84 to 4.2.93.
On all figures, the designator HP marks
“horizontal course of route” and the designator
VP the “vertical course of the route”.
PE Roads of Serbia
Serbian Road Design Manual Road design elements

short straight line between 2 circular arcs (inapprorpiate)

insufficient horizontal radius appropriate solution

Horizontal guidance of the route

Figure 4.2.84: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – horizontal guidance of the
route

bad better

Vertical rounding of the road

Figure 4.2.85: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – effect of selection of
vertical curve

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with sag curve - better with crest curve – poorer option

Curve - visibility

Figure 4.2.86: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – visibility in a curve

with short tangent in between (inappropriate) one single verticle curve (appropriate)

Neighbouring sag curves on a long straight line

Figure 4.2.87: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – neighbouring sag curves

in a straight line in a curve with large horizontal radius

Insufficient radius of sag curve (inappropriate) – visually broken gradient

Figure 4.2.88: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – to small radius of sag
curve

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2 crest curves with short tangent in between one single vertical curve (appropriate)
(inappropriate)

2 consecutive crest curves

Figure 4.2.89: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – crest curves with a
separating straight line

Breakage of vertical alignment, as a result of short crest curve in straight line

Figure 4.2.90: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – break in the grade level

Grade level elements incorrectly designed – view is cut off

Figure 4.2.91: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – view is cut off by crest
curve in the wrong location

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in a straight line in horizontal curve

’’fluttering’’

Figure 4.2.92: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – fluttering of the grade
level

’’plank’’ effect and inappropriate design of the left better solution – grade level on the structure is an integral
slope of the approaching curve part of the whole road grade level
Grade level of the structure on the route

Figure 4.2.93: Characteristics of the road centre line guiding in a 3D view – grade level and view on
a viaduct

118 JP Putevi Srbije