Engineering Materials II

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 Lecture - 1

Introduction to Engineering materials

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 Introduction
Selection of Material
• A particular material is selected is on the basis of following
considerations
1. Properties of material
• Mechanical properties - strength, ductility, toughness,
hardness, strength to weight ratio etc.
• Physical properties - density, specific heat, thermal
expansion, conductivity , melting point etc.
• Chemical properties - oxidation , corrosion, flammability,
toxicity etc.
• Manufacturing properties - formed, casting, machined,
welding
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 …cont.
2. Cost of material
3. Availability of material (desired shape and size and
quantity) & reliability of supply.
4. Service in life of material
Dimensional stability of material wear , corrosion etc.,
shorten life
5. Appearance of material
– Color
– Surface texture etc.

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 Engineering materials
• Materials are that out of which anything is made.
e.g. Wood, cement, air, water and any other
matter are all examples of materials
• Engineering materials are the parts required to make
something else, from car and airplanes to buildings
and computers
• Engineering materials are substances with certain
physical properties that are used as inputs to
production or manufacturing

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Classification of Engineering materials

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 Metals
– Ferrous
• Pure iron is rarely used as an engineering material
• It is used in the form of alloys; composed of two or
more elements
• Generally these are classified on the basis of %C with Fe
• %C >2.11: Cast Iron; %C<2.11: Steels
• Ferrous materials are the most important metals/alloys
in the metallurgical and mechanical industries because
of their extensive use.
– Non-ferrous

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 …cont.
• What are some applications of metals?
– Metals are used in:
• Transportation -- Cars, buses, trucks, trains, ships, and
airplanes.
• Aerospace -- Unmanned and manned rockets and the
space shuttle.
• Computers and other electronic devices that require
conductors (TV, radio, stereo, calculators, security
devices, etc.)
• Communications including satellites that depend on a
tough but light metal shell.
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 …cont.
• Food processing and preservation -- Microwave and
conventional ovens and refrigerators and freezers.
• Construction -- Nails in conventional lumber
construction and structural steel in other buildings.
• Biomedical applications -- As artificial replacement for
joints and other prostheses.
• Electrical power production and distribution -- Boilers,
turbines, generators, transformers, power lines, nuclear
reactors, oil wells, and pipelines.

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 …cont.
• Farming -- Tractors, combines, planters, etc.
• Household conveniences -- Ovens, dish and clothes
washers, vacuum cleaners, blenders, pumps, lawn
mowers and trimmers, plumbing, water heaters,
heating/cooling, etc.

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 …cont.
• The widespread use of ferrous alloys is accounted for
by the following three factors:
1. Iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantity
within the earth’s crust;
2. Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using
relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying and
fabrication techniques and
3. Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may
be tailored to have a wide range of mechanical and
physical properties.
• Disadvantage
– Susceptible to corrosion
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 Introduction
What does 'iron' mean?
• Symbol Fe, from Latin ‘ferrum’ which means Iron.
Hence familiar term ‘ferrous’.
• unlike gold and copper for example, iron reacts
readily with oxygen and so is never found as metal
nuggets on the earth(with the rare exception of iron
meteorites, rock from outer space, which are in fact
an iron-nickel alloy). Hence, when iron is extracted
from iron ore it is never pure and contains other
elements.
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 …cont.
• Therefore, some extraction process is always
needed to obtain iron in its metallic form. Iron
will also readily turn back into ‘ore’ by rusting.
• For extraction, high temperatures are
required, and so over many years people have
developed various furnaces to do this.

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 Ore
• An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals
such as gemstones, and metals that can be
extracted through mining and refined for use.
Metal ores are generally oxides, sulphides,
silicates...
• E.g. haematite (from the Greek word meaning
'blood-stone') is a red ore of iron and is
responsible for the red colour in rocks.

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 Iron ore
• Iron ore is the rock from which metallic iron (Fe) can
be economically extracted.

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 …cont.
Iron ores are mostly dark grey to rusty red in color and
of high specific gravity. The iron ore is composed
primarily of two forms of oxides, magnetite (Fe3O4) and
hematite (Fe2O3).
Types of Iron Ore
• Common iron ores and their chemical formulas
include:
– Haematite Hematite - Fe2O3 – 70% iron
– Magnetite - Fe3O4 – 72% iron
– Limonite - Fe2O3 + H2O – 50% to 66% iron
– Siderite - FeCO3 – 48% iron
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Thank you for your attention

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 Lecture - 2
Pig-iron production process

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 Iron
• Properties:
– Pure iron is soft (softer than aluminum) and easily worked,
but is unobtainable by smelting.
– Iron is one of the 4 substances that are magnetic. The
others are: steel, cobalt and nickel.
– Iron is a silver-grey metal which quickly corrodes or rusts
(it forms a red powder called iron oxide) when exposed to
air and water.
– Iron has a very high melting point of 1535oC.
– When made into steel iron is very strong.

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 Pig-iron
• Pig iron is the intermediate product of smelting iron ore
[Hematite (Fe2O3) and Magnetite (Fe3O4)] with a high-carbon
fuel such as coke, usually with limestone as a flux in a blast
furnace.
• Pig iron is crude iron obtained directly from the blast furnace
• Ordinary pig iron as produced by blast furnaces contains 92 %
iron, 3 or 4% carbon, 0.5 to 3% silicon, 0.25 to 2.5 %
manganese, 0.04 to 2 % phosphorus, and a trace of sulfur.
• Pig iron is very brittle and not very useful directly as an
engineering material.

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 …cont.
Raw materials
– Iron Ore

– Limestone -----------------

– Coke
– Air (lots of it!!)
The three raw materials are dumped into a blast furnace
and are heated together at high temperatures.
 …cont.

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 …cont.
• The iron ore
– iron oxides (primarily magnetite (Fe3O4) or
hematite (Fe2O3)) plus gangue minerals (such as
oxides of calcium, silicon, phosphorous, and
sulphur)
• Ores are prepared as pellets, near the ore mines, by
bonding together very finely ground ore.
• The blast furnace basically separates the iron from the
oxygen in a reduction process
– Mined primarily in Australia, Brazil and Canada.
 …cont.
• Coke - grayish-black residue left after the destructive distillation
of coal.
• Coke is obtained from coal by removing moisture and other volatile matter
from it.
Coke= Coal- Moisture- Volatile matter
Coke is about 98% carbon
– Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in metallurgical
processes.
– provides the heat & supplies carbon (C) to extract iron
– Coke is burned as a fuel to heat the furnace. As it burns it gives off
carbon monoxide, the CO reduces the iron oxide to iron.
C + O2 → CO2
CO2 + C → 2CO
3CO + Fe2O3 → 2Fe + 3CO2
 …cont.
• The limestone
– sedimentary rock composed largely of
the minerals calcite and aragonite, which
are different crystal forms of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).
– Acts as a flux and is used to reduce the
impurities.
– Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) combines
with impurities to form slag. Slag is oxides
of silicon, aluminum, calcium, and
manganese.
CaCO3 + heat => CaO + CO2
limestone lime
2CaO + SiO2 => 2CaO-SiO2
Calcium silicate (slag )
 …cont.
• Air
– Pre-heated air at about 1000oC is blasted into the furnace
through nozzles near its base at 6,000 m3/min .
– Hot air is blasted into the furnace, to helps drive the
chemical reaction. The coke forms CO and the CO reduces
the iron oxide to iron.
• Blast Furnace
• The Blast Furnace is a large steel structure (about 30
meters high) lined with refractory firebricks that can
withstand temperatures approaching 2000oC.
• The furnace gets its name from the method that is used to
heat it
 …cont.
• The slag floats to the top and the metal is
transferred to molds and cools. IT IS NOW PIG
IRON, ready for more iron work or
steelmaking.

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Lecture 3

Steel

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 Introduction
• Molten iron as it comes from the blast furnace has some
impurities. Some grades of pig iron—generally those low in
sulphur and phosphorus—are used for the manufacture of
iron castings but the bulk of pig iron produced is transferred,
still molten, to the steel making plant.
• Pig iron is either transformed into cast iron or converted into
steels in a secondary process
• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and other elements.
• Steels are a large family of metals. Steels are one of the most
important and widely used products in the world.
• To change the iron into steel, the impurities must be turned
out.
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 …cont.

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 …cont.
 Steel is an alloy of Iron
 Contains < .05% to 2% Carbon
 90% of all steel is plain carbon, under 1% carbon
content
 Ingredients in steel
 Manganese [Mn] - No steel is without this
 Removes oxygen and to control sulfur
 Bismuth is added to make free machining steel
 Steels usually contain up to 2% Carbon (C), 1%
Manganese (Mn), 0.5% Silicon (Si), 0.05% Sulfur (S)
and 0.05% Phosphorous (P).
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 Steel manufacturing process
• the production of steel from pig iron by any process
consists of burning out the excess carbon and other
impurities present in the iron
• Steels are made by removing excess C and other impurities of
pig iron by “oxidation "process followed by a
“deoxidation”process and addition of C and other alloying
elements to the “required level”.
• Oxidation is carried out by blowing air or oxygen through
molten pig iron in either:
– Bessemer-Thomas furnace
– Siemens-Martin (open hearth)furnace
– Basic Oxygen Furnace
– Electric Furnace MEng 2501 33
 …cont.
Bessemer process
• molten pig iron is refined by blowing air through it (to
remove/burn out excess carbon and make steel) in an egg-
shaped vessel, known as a converter, of 15-25 tones capacity.
• The "blowing" of the charge, causes an intense flame at the
mouth of the converter, which takes about 25 minutes and
such a short interval makes exact control of the process a little
difficult.
• The oxidation of the impurities raises the charge to a suitable
temperature.
 No longer used in the United States

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 …cont.

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 …cont.

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 …cont.

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 …cont.

• Spiegeleisen: a pig iron containing high concentrations of manganese and

carbon. It is added to steel in the late stages of production to adjust the
final composition MEng 2501 38
Open hearth furnace

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 Open hearth furnace
• Used to burn excess carbon and other impurities out of pig
iron to produce steel.
• Since steel is difficult to manufacture owing to its high melting
point, about 1370° C (about 2500° F), normal fuels and
furnaces were insufficient and the open hearth furnace was
developed to overcome this difficulty.
• open-hearth furnaces can reach temperatures as high as
1650° C
• heat for melting the charge is supplied by oil or gas. But the
gas and air are preheated by regenerators, two on each side
of the furnace, alternatively heated by the waste gases.
• Inputs/charges - scraps, pig iron (cold or molten), limestone,
iron ore MEng 2092 40
 …cont.

Fig. Open hearth furnace

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 …cont.
• The oxygen in iron oxide and other impurities decarburize the
pig iron by burning the carbon away, forming steel. although
increasing use is being made of oxygen lancing.
• As Bessemer converter it didn't expose the steel to excessive
nitrogen (which would cause the steel to become brittle)
• The process is far slower than that of Bessemer converter
usually takes 8 h to 8 h 30 min and thus easier to control and
take samples for quality control and is not necessary to burn
all the carbon away as in Bessemer process
• The raw steel may be cast into ingots; this process is called
teeming, or it may be used on continuous casting for the
rolling mill.
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 Basic oxygen processes
• The high nitrogen content of Bessemer steel is a disadvantage
for certain cold forming applications
• In Austria the LID process (Linz-Donawitz) converts low
phosphorus pig iron into steel by top blowing with an oxygen
lance using a basic lined vessel
• To avoid excessive heat scrap or ore is added. High quality
steel is produced with low hydrogen and nitrogen (0,002%). A
further modification of the process is to add lime powder to
the oxygen jet (OLP process) when higher phosphorus pig is
used.

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 Basic oxygen processes
• The high nitrogen content of Bessemer steel is a disadvantage
for certain cold forming applications
• Uses oxygen lance to burn out impurities
• In Austria the LID process (Linz-Donawitz) converts low
phosphorus pig iron into steel by top blowing with an oxygen
lance using a basic lined vessel.
• To avoid excessive heat scrap or ore is added. A further
modification of the process is to add lime powder to the
oxygen jet (OLP process) when higher phosphorus pig is used.
• Makes high quality steel with low hydrogen and nitrogen
(0,002%).
• Rapid production - 200 ton heat per hour
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 …cont.
Fluxes and coolants Fumes to cleaning plant

Water-cooled fume hood

Moveable seal

Water-cooled lance

Tap Hole

Steel shell Refractory lining (Dolomite)

 …cont.
The Sequence
• Charging
• Scrap Iron and Steel
form 30% of the charge
• Molten Iron from the
blast furnace makes up
the rest
 …cont.
• Blowing
• A water cooled pipe carries oxygen to the surface of the
hot metal
• Oxygen blows at high pressure which increases
temperature and burns off impurities
 …cont.
Sampling - Samples are taken to check the composition of the
steel

Tapping and removing

– Once chemical analysis indicates correct composition, lance is
lifted out. Molten steel is poured through Tap Hole

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 Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
• steel scrap is heated and melted by heat of electric arcs
striking between the furnace electrodes and the metal bath.
• direct (DC) and alternating (AC) may be used in Electric Arc
Furnaces. Three-phase AC Electric Arc Furnaces with graphite
electrodes are commonly used in steel making.
• The main advantage of the Electric Arc Furnaces over the
Basic Oxygen Furnaces (BOF) is their capability to treat
charges containing up to 100% of scrap. About 33% of the
crude steel in the world is made in the Electric Arc Furnaces
(EAF).

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 …cont.
• The furnace consists of a spherical
hearth (bottom), cylindrical shell
and a swinging water-cooled
dome-shaped roof.
• The roof has three holes for
consumable graphite electrodes
held by a clamping mechanism.
The mechanism provides
independent lifting and lowering
of each electrode.
• The charge door is also used for
removing the slag (de-slagging).
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Summary (AISI Flow Sheet)

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Thank you for attention

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