ME 2121 Module PDF

MODULE IN
THERMODYNAMICS I
ME 2121
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
Title Page i
Course Overview 1
Course Study Guide and House Rules 3
Study Schedule 5
Study Schedule Table 5
Assessment and Evaluation Guide 11
General Requirements 11
Formative Assessment Guide 11
Evaluative Assessment Guide 12
Technological Tools 13
Grading System 13
Course References 14
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 2
ME 2121
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, the Louisian
Mechanical Engineering students must be
able to:
CLO 1: Solve problems on the

thermodynamic properties using basic
principles and concepts
CLO 2: Solve problems on the law of

conservation of energy by distinguishing
the structures of energy and system
(open/close) to be used
CLO 3: Solve problems on and

demonstrate taking the properties and
processes of ideal and pure substance
CLO 4: Solve problems apply the second

law of thermodynamics in different
problems by implementing
THERMODYNAMICS I thermodynamic cycle, gas cycle and
steam cycle
CLO 5: Recognize and solve problems

under the concepts of internal combustion
engines
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics is the branch of the physical sciences that studies the transfer of heat
and the inter-conversion of heat and work in various physical and chemical processes. The
study of thermodynamics is central to both chemistry and physics and is becoming
increasingly important in understanding biological and geological processes.
There are several sub-disciplines within this blend of chemistry and physics. Classical
thermodynamics considers the transfer of energy and work in macroscopic systems that is,
without any consideration of the nature of the forces and interactions between
microscopic individual particles. Statistical thermodynamics links the atomic nature of
matter on a microscopic level with the observed behaviour of materials on the
macroscopic level. Statistical thermodynamics describes energy relationships based on the
statistical behaviour of large groups of individual atoms or molecules, and it relies heavily
on the mathematical implications of quantum mechanics. Chemical thermodynamics
focuses on energy transfer during chemical reactions, and on the work done by chemical
systems.
Module and Unit Topics
MODULE 1: Introduction to Thermodynamics - This module aims to allow you as a student to

understand and determine the basic concept, properties and laws of thermodynamics, and
will be able to apply engineering methods in solving problems.
MODULE 2: Law of Conservation of Energy - This modules aims to allow you as a student to
understand the 1st Law of thermodynamics, and apply basic engineering principles. This
module will also enable you to distinguish different types of energy and works, and will be
able to apply engineering methods in solving problems.
MODULE 3: Ideal Gas Laws - This module aims to allow you as a student to understand the
concept of Ideal Gas Law, and will be able to apply engineering methods in solving
problems.
MODULE 4: Ideal Gas Processes - This module aims to allow you as a student to understand
the concept of Ideal Gas Processes, and will be able to apply engineering methods in solving
problems.
MODULE 5: Thermodynamic Cycle - This module aims to allow you as a student to understand
the concept of different Thermodynamic Cycle, and will be able to apply engineering
methods in solving problems.
MODULE 6: Internal Combustion Engine Cycles - This module aims to allow you as a student
to understand the concept of Otto Cycle and Diesel Cycle as an ideal thermodynamic
cycle, and will be able to apply engineering methods in solving problems.
MODULE 7: Properties of Pure Substances - This module aims to allow you as a student to
understand the concepts and properties of pure substances and will be able to apply
engineering methods in solving problems.
MODULE 8: Processes of Pure Substances - This module aims to allow you as a student to
understand the Processes of pure substances and other processes related to other
engineering devices and will be able to apply engineering methods in solving problems.
MODULE 9: Rankine Cycle - This module aims to allow you as a student to understand the
Processes of pure substances and other processes related to other engineering devices and
will be able to apply engineering methods in solving problems.
Course Study Guide
Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time management
skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and
independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules specified in the learning
plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs, and mastering the different
technologies and procedures required in the delivery and feedback for this course, will instill
in you important qualities you will need in the future as an engineer practicing your
profession. The following course guides and house rules are designed for you to practice
decorum consistent with standards expected within a formal academic environment. These
guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency, coherence, cooperation, and clear
communication among learners and instructors throughout the conduct of this course:
1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep
requirement deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing visual
cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders (electronically,
online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily activities that take
up your time, not to mention other courses you may be concurrently taking.
Choose a time of day when you are most likely to maximize learning.
Communicate your schedule to other members of your household so they could
help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a dedicated space in your
residence conducive for learning.
2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an
academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the
distance learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a face-to-
face classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already been
answered in the lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or provided.
This reflects your poor focus and uninspired preparation for this course. Practice
Electronic Conversation Etiquette in group chats, open forums, and similar
electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling,
and complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Avoid
text-speak, slang, and all caps in your posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of the
discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of other
participants.
e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute your
microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus on the
main speaker.
3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered making
use of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis University. It would
be worthwhile on your part to devote some time and effort to learn the
applications you will need to access your course materials, interact with me and
your classmates, and submit course requirements. Applications of note are
Google Classroom, Google Drive, and Google Meet. There are also available
alternatives to Microsoft Office tools you might want to explore. Certain
requirements will require you to take a video on your smart phone, save it, and
submit it electronically. Work on this skill as well. If you are offline, identify the
most convenient means for express mail correspondence and inform me as
early as possible so we can make the necessary arrangements ahead of time.
4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning
outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you
are to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit you from performing
beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work reflects the amount of
thought and care you put into the process of completing it. It provides a very
tangible measure of how much of the competencies you have developed and
fully obtained throughout this course.
5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline
modes to ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the
needed learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from
me or from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and
updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of this document
and will be made available and widely disseminated to enrolees of this course.
6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in
electronic form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable digital
footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly
for referenced statements you decide to use in your own work. Attribute
statements by persons other than you by using terms like according to, he
said/she said, and the like.
7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All
assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure your
competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your
disposal, and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is going to be
your independent work that will be judged against the standards set for this
course. The only way for you to maximize this course to your advantage is to
learn as much from it as an individual. Make it count.
Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

• If you are a student opting for the offline mode of distance learning, you will
be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at given stages of
the course through express mail correspondence on or before the scheduled
date to me. Make sure you will follow it up with me through text or any other
media available for you.
• While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue
doing the task in the succeeding units of the module.
• If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available
means. Remember, if there is a will, there is a way.
Study Schedule
Below are details in the conduct of this course arranged in chronological order vis-à-vis the
topic learning outcomes and activities designed for you to undergo the five stages of the 5E
constructivist learning model.
DATE TOPIC ACTIVITIES

MODULE 1& 2
Thermodynamic basic principles and Online discussions and quizzes
Properties
Conservation of Energy
MODULE 3
Ideal Gases Online discussions and quizzes
PRELIM EXAM
MODULE 4 & 5
Ideal Gas Processes Online discussions and quizzes
Thermodynamic Cycles
MODULE 6
Internal combustion engine cycles Online discussions and quizzes
MIDTERM EXAMS
MODULE 7 & 8
Pure Substances Online discussions and quizzes
Processes of Pure Substances

MODULE 9
Rankine Cycle Online discussions and quizzes
FINAL EXAMS
Evaluation
The course modules rely on formative and summative assessments to determine the progress
of your learning in each module. To obtain a passing grade in this course, you must:
1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions.
2. Submit all assignments and graded quizzes
3. Take the Midterm Examination.
4. Submit the all Experiments.
5. Take the Final Examination.
• If you are a student under the offline DL mode, accomplish all print-based and
electronically saved discussion activities and requirements, and submit them on
time via express mail correspondence.
Formative Assessment Activities

Formative assessments for this course are applied to ungraded activities that are used to
monitor your learning experience and provide feedback to improve both your learning
approach as well as my instructional approach.
• You are required to answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities,
and reflection questions but your scores in activities will not be included in the
computation of your final grade.
• The reflection questions are designed to help you to critically analyze the course
readings for better understanding while the pre-assessment quizzes and self-
assessment activities are designed as a review management tool to prepare you
for the graded quizzes and examinations.
• Successfully answering formative activity questions and requirements will serve as
prompts to tell you if you need to study further or if you may already move forward
to the next unit of the module.
• The completeness of your answers to the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions will still be checked and will still be part of your
course completion. Hence, all pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities,
and reflection questions must be answered.
• In doing your formative assessment activities, you can always ask the help of your
family and friends.
• The pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities, and reflection questions are
required so you can take it anytime within the scheduled days assigned for each
module.
Summative Assessment Activities

The evaluative assessments are graded activities designed to determine if your acquisition
of learning and performance in tests is at par with standards set at certain milestones in this
course.
A. Quizzes, Examinations, and Assignments

Graded quizzes, examinations, and assignments are essential to determine whether your
performance as a student is at par with standards/goals that need to be achieved in
this course. The scores obtained from each of the graded activities will contribute to
your final grade, the weights of which are presented in the grading system described in
the succeeding sections of this text. Direct scoring can be used on straightforward
requirements like short answers and multiple-choice responses, while scoring rubrics will
be provided for answers that are typically lengthy and involve a more complex level of
thinking on your part.
B. Final Course Requirement

To achieve the course learning outcome, a final design submission of all experiments
is required. You are going to accomplish this in groups and present learning outputs
as scheduled in the study plan. For online students, a live presentation will be
scheduled on Google Meet. For offline students a recorded and saved presentation
will be accommodated for submission on a USB flash drive. A separate rubric will be
used for the write up and the presentation.
Technological Tools
To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will need a computer or a laptop
with the following software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, and Publication for
requirements that do not require online access. A smart phone with video recording and
editing features will also be used for activities that will require you to record videos for saving
and submission.
If you are a student online, access to the institutional Google Classroom will be provided
through your institutional account. An invitation to join the Google Classroom will be sent to
you through the SLU Student Portal and your institutional email account, so make sure to
activate your institutional email account. It is equally important that you check your SLU
Student Portal account at least twice a week and turn your Gmail Notifications on in your
mobile phone and computer.
If you are a student offline, the delivery of instructions and requirements will be primarily
through express mail correspondence of printed modules and saved digital content on a
USB flash drive. Feedback and clarifications will be facilitated through text messaging and
voice calls; hence, you need to have regular access to a cell phone. If you need to call, or
you want to talk to me, send me a message first and wait for me to respond. Do not give my
CP number to anybody. I will not entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not
registered in my phone. Hence, use only the CP number you submitted to me.
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
This module aims to allow you as a student to understand and determine the
basic concept, properties and laws of thermodynamics, and will be able to apply
This module describes the five models that will be used for the entire
component and are define below:
Engage: Introduction to connection of thermodynamics to previous subjects

taken.
Explore: Discuss thermodynamics, properties comprehensively
Explain: Solve problem sets, using basic concept of thermodynamics.
Elaborate: Solve complicated problems in relation to basic concepts earlier
discussed
Evaluate: Conduct of assessment,
Thermodynamics is that branch of physical science that treats of various phenomena of
energy and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat
into other forms of energy and vice versa.
Example: converting of heat into electrical work (electrical power generation)
Converting electrical work into cooling (air conditioning)
1.1 The Working Substance
Working substance – a fluid in which energy can be stored or from which energy can be
removed.
Fluid – a substance characterized by low resistance to flow and the tendency to assume the
shape of its container.
Phase – refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both chemical

composition and physical structure. (ex. solid phase, liquid phase, vapor phase)
Pure Substance – is one that is uniform and invariable in chemical composition. It can exist in
more than one phase but its chemical composition must be the same in each phase. (ex.
Water)
1.2 The System (Thermodynamic System)
A system is that portion of the universe, an atom, a galaxy, a certain quantity of matter, or a
certain volume in space, that one wishes to study. It is a region enclosed by specified
boundaries, which may be imaginary, either fixed or moving.
Surroundings or Environment – the region about the system,
- Anything external to the system

-
Boundary – it is a partition that separates the system from the surroundings.
Types of System:
1. Open system (control volume) - is one in which there is an exchange of matter with the
surroundings. Mass can cross its boundary and there is a crossing of energy between system
and surroundings.
2. Closed system (control mass) – is one in which there is no exchange of matter with the
surroundings. Mass cannot cross its boundary however energy can.
3. Isolated system – is one that is completely impervious to its surroundings- neither mass nor
energy cross its boundary.
1.3 Classification of Property
1. Intensive Properties – those that are independent of the mass (ex. Density, pressure,
temperature)
2. Extensive Properties – those that are dependent of mass and are total values (ex. Total
volume, total internal energy)
1.4 Systems of Units

Isaac Newton made the momentous statement that the acceleration of a particular body is
directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.
F
a  or a = k F ; F = ma
m m k
where:
mks units cgs units fps
m mass of the body kgm gm slug or lbm
a acceleration m/s2 cm/s2 ft/s2
k proportionality constant k =1 kgm-m/N-s2 or k =1 gm-cm/dyne-s2 or k = 1 slug-ft/lbf-s2 or
k = 9.81 kgm-m/kgf-s2 k = 981 gm-cm/gf-s2 k = 32.2 lbm-ft/lbf-s2 or
k = 1 lbm-ft/poundal-s2
F force N or kgf Dyne or gf lbf or poundal
1.5 Mass and Weight
Mass (m) – is the absolute quantity of matter in a body. An unchanging quantity when
the speed of the mass is small compared to the speed of light.
Weight (W)– the force of gravity on the body.
W=
mg
k
Where g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81m/s2 = 981 cm/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2 at the surface of
the earth
Note: At the surface of the earth (sea level), k and g are numerically equal, so are m and Fg.
1.6 Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight
Density (ρ) – mass per unit volume
ρ = m where V = total volume

V
Specific volume (ν) – volume per unit mass
v= V =
1
m ρ
Specific weight (  ) – force of gravity per unit volume
W ρg
= =
V k
Note: At the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are ρ and  .
7.481 gallons = 1 cu. ft
1.7 Pressure
Pressure (P) – normal force applied to a unit area.
F
P=
A
Atmospheric Pressure (Patm) – normal force exerted by the atmosphere on a unit area.
At sea level atmospheric pressure Patm = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in Hg
Gage Pressure (Pg) – is the pressure difference between system’s absolute pressure and
surrounding /atmospheric pressure.
Absolute Pressure (Pabs) – sum of atmospheric and gage pressures
Pabs = Patm + Pg
Note: Pg is negative if it involves vacuum or negative reading relative to atmospheric

pressure.
Fluid Pressure – pressure due to a column of a fluid or liquid.
P= h ; where h is the depth
1.8 Temperature
Temperature – measure of the hotness or coldness of a body. It is also defined as the

measure of the internal energy of a body.
Conversion of temperature reading to another temperature scale:
t(oF) = 1.8 t(oC) + 32

o
[t( F) − 32]
t(oC) =
1.8
T(K) = t(oC) + 273
T(R) = t(oF) + 460
Conversion of change in temperature from one scale to another temperature scale:
t(oC) = T(K)
t(oF) = T(R)
t(oF) = 1.8[t(oC)]
1.9 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
States that when two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
1.10 Law of Conservation of Mass
States that mass is indestructible; i.e. mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula
V = A
V A
m= =
v v
Where: V = volume flow rate
 = average velocity
m = mass flow rate
A = cross sectional area of stream

in A2 V2 2 2 m2
out
SYSTEM
2
fluid 1
A1 V1 1 1 m1
Sample Problem
1. A system has a mass of 20 kg. Determine the external force necessary to accelerate
it 10 m/s2 .
a. Horizontally along a frictionless plane, (N)
b. Vertically in a region where g= 9.81 m/s2 if the external force is applied
vertically upward, (N)
c. Vertically Downward (N)
Solution:
In this problem we are required to find the External forces given in the above
situation using Newton’s Law.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
a.) F= 𝑘
20 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 10 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝐹𝑒𝑥 = = 200𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝑚
1
𝑁 − 𝑠2
b.) ΣF = mass x acceleration
𝑚
𝑚 𝑥 𝑔 20 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 9.81 𝑠 2
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑔 = = = 𝟏𝟗𝟔. 𝟐𝑵 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑘 𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝑚
1
𝑁 − 𝑠2
all forces are acting on different direction, we can say that
(all forces going upward is positive and going downward is
negative).
Therefore:
𝑚𝑥𝑎
(𝐹𝑒𝑥 − 𝐹𝑔) =
𝑘
10𝑚
20𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 2
𝐹𝑒𝑥 − 196.2 𝑁 = 𝑠
1
𝑁 − 𝑠2
𝑭𝒆𝒙 = 𝟑𝟗𝟔. 𝟐𝑵 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
c). ΣF = mass x acceleration
all forces acting on the same direction.

Therefore:
𝑚𝑥𝑎
𝐹𝑒𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔 =
𝑘
10𝑚
20𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 2
𝐹𝑒𝑥 + 196.2𝑁 = 𝑠 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝑵 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
1
𝑁 − 𝑠2
2. A 10 ft diameter x 15 ft height tank is receiving water at the rate of 350GPM and is

discharging through a 6in. ID pipeline at a constant velocity of 5 ft/s. At a given
instant, the tank is half-full; find the water level in the tank 15 min later.
Required: the height of water inside the tank after 15 mins.
Solution:
In this problem we are required to find the height of the water in the tank whose half
full
Note the tank has a suction and discharge, we can say that the water are coming
in and out of the tank.
Therefore:
∆𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜌𝛥𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉̇ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜌𝑉̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
∆𝑉 = 𝑉̇ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑇
Compute the volumetric flow rate of water
𝑥1𝑓𝑡 3 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉̇ 𝑖𝑛 = 350𝐺𝑃𝑀 = 46.78
7.481 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑉̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜋 1𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓𝑡
= (5𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) 𝑥 (5 𝑥60 ) = 58.9048
4 12𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐 min 𝑚𝑖𝑛3
∆𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑉̇ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
= 46.78 3
− 58.9048
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛3
𝑓𝑡
∆𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = −12.1248
𝑚𝑖𝑛3
(-) means that the discharge water is greater than the water flowing into the
tank, therefore we can say that the water after 15 minutes decreases
∆𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
∆𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑓𝑡 ∆𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
12.1248 =
𝑚𝑖𝑛3 15𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 181.372𝑓𝑡 3
∆𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑥 (∆ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝜋
181.382𝑓𝑡 3 = 𝑥102 𝑥(∆ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
4
∆ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 2.315
∆ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2.315 𝑓𝑡 − (15𝑥. 5)𝑓𝑡 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝒇𝒕 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
The height of the tank after 15 minutes will be 5.185 ft.
3. A vertical composite fluid column whose upper end is open to the atmosphere is
composed of 50 cm of Hg (SG=13), 80 cm of oil (SG=0.8) and 65 cm of water.
Determine the pressure at the,
a. Oil-water interface
b. Water-mercury interface
c. Base of the column
Given the data we are required to find the pressure of the following
interface.
Solution:
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝛾𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Solve for the specific of the following substances
𝜌 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛾=
𝑘
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
1000 𝑥9.81 2 1𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁
𝛾 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑚3 𝑠 𝑥 = 9.81 3
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝑚 1000𝑁 𝑚
1
𝑁 − 𝑠2
9.81 𝐾𝑁
𝛾 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝜌𝑔 = 1000𝑥. 8 𝑥 = 7.848 3
1000 𝑚
9.81 𝐾𝑁
𝛾 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 1000𝑥13.5 𝑥 = 132.43 3
1000 𝑚
For Oil – water interface

𝐾𝑁 𝑲𝑵
𝑃𝑥 = 𝛾ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 7.848 3
𝑥. 80𝑚 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟒 𝟐 = 𝑲𝑷𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑚 𝒎
For water-mercury interface
𝐾𝑁
𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑥 + 𝛾ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 6.7284 𝐾𝑝𝑎 + 9.81 𝑥. 65𝑚 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟓𝟒𝟗 𝑲𝒑𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑚3
At the base of the column
𝐾𝑁
𝑃𝑧 = 𝑃𝑦 + 𝛾ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 12.6549𝐾𝑝𝑎 + 132.439 𝑥 .5𝑚 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟖𝟕𝑲𝒑𝒂. 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑚3
Note: if you have question in the sample problem feel free to ask help.
Review Examples:
1. Four bodies are located in a region where g = 9.67 m/s2.

Body1 = 750 gm; Body2 = 4 poundals; body3 = 4.5 N and body4 = 32.2 lbf.
a) What is the total mass expressed in lbm?

b) What will be the total weight (lbf) if the bodies are located 15,000 ft above
the earth’s surface? (gravitational acceleration decreases by 0.003 ft/s2 for
every 1000 ft ascent above sea level)
c) At what distance (miles) from the earth’s surface will these objects weigh
zero.
2. A mass of 2 kg is subjected to a vertical force of 35 N. The local gravity g = 9.6 m/s2,

and frictional effects are neglected. Determine the magnitude in m/s2 and direction
of the acceleration of the mass if the external vertical force is acting a) upward, b)
downward.
3. A 700 lbm rocket is accelerated at a rate of 20 ft/s2. What total force is required in lbf
if: a) the rocket is moving horizontally and without friction, b) the rocket is moving
vertically upward in a location where g = 31 ft/s2.
4. Saponification is a process wherein soap is added to a certain type of oil to produce

grease. One such grease is said to have 75.7 % by volume oil and 24.3% by volume soap,
wherein the oil and soap have densities 760 kgm/m3 and 6,250 kgm/m3, respectively. This
kind of grease is sold by packs shaped like a sphere with a diameter of 20 cm for
convenience. Calculate: a) the mass of oil per pack (kgm), b) the mass of soap per pack
(kgm),c) the weight of each pack (kgf), d) the specific weight of grease (N/m3), e) will the
grease float if it is placed in water whose density is 1000 kgm/m3? Explain
5. A spherical tank 1 ft in diameter contains steam at 150 psia and 400 oF. If the mass of
steam is 0.165lbm:
a. Determine the specific volume of steam.
b. What is its specific weight if g = 30 ft/s2
6. An 11-m3 rigid tank of air is separated by a thin membrane into side A with a volume
of 6 m3 and side B with an initial specific volume of 0.417 m3/kgm. The membrane is
broken and the resulting specific volume is 0.55 m3/kgm. Find the initial density of air
inside A in kg/m3.
7. Barometric Pressure is 29.89 in Hg. Convert the following

a. 68 psig to mm Hg absolute
b. 100 kPag to psia
c. 1000 mm Hg absolute to kPag
d. 5 psia to in Hg vacuum
8. A hiker is carrying a barometer that reads 101.3 kPaa at the base of the mountain.
The barometer reads 85 kPaa at the top of the mountain. If the average air density is
1.22 kgm/m3, determine the height of the mountain.
9. The pressure in the pressurized water tank is measured by a multi-fluid manometer

with one end open to the atmosphere. Determine the absolute pressure of air in the
tank (pressure at point 1) assuming that the air pressure is uniform. The densities of
mercury, water and oil are 13,600 kgm/m3, 1000 kgm/m3, 850 kgm/m3, respectively. h1
= 20 cm, h2 = 30 cm and h3 = 46 cm
10. A tank, initially empty, is in the form of a right circular cylinder with hemispherical
ends. The overall length of the tank is 3 meters and the diameter of the hemisphere
is 1 meter. If a pump discharges a fluid, whose density is 1.2 kgm/Liter, in this tank at a
rate of 300 liters per minute determine a.) Weight of liquid inside the tank after 5
minutes, b) total time to fill the tank
11. A 10 ft diameter x 15 ft height cylindrical tank is receiving water at the rate of 350
GPM and discharging it through a 6 inch ID pipeline at a constant velocity of 5 ft/s.
At a given instant the tank is 2/3 full. Find the water level in the tank 15 minutes later.
End of Module 1
MODULE 2: 1st Law of Thermodynamics
This module aims to allow you as a student to understand the First Law of
Thermodynamics (simply known as the Law of Conservation of Energy), and will be
able to apply engineering methods in solving problems.
Engage: Introduction to connection of energy and thermodynamics to
previous subjects taken.
Explore: Discuss different forms of energy comprehensively
Explain: Solve problem, using basic concept of thermodynamics.
discussed.
Conservation of Energy
Energy – capacity to produce an effect.
1. Gravitational Potential Energy (PE)
The energy of the body with respect to a specified datum is the work done by
force due to gravity should the body move from datum to another. The
potential energy of a body is the energy due to its position or elevation in a
gravitational field.
Where z = position of body measured form datum
2. Kinetic Energy (KE)

The energy or stored capacity for performing work possessed by a moving
body, by virtue of its momentum is called kinetic energy.
3. Internal Energy ( U, u)
The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy of a system or the sum of the
energies of all molecules in a system is called the internal energy.
U = mu
Where: U = total internal energy
m = mass of the body
u = specific internal energy
The change in internal energy from initial condition (1) to final condition (2)
ΔU = U2 – U1
Δu = u2 – u1
4. Flow Work (Wf)

Flow work or flow energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary,
usually into or out of a system.
5. Work (Wn)
Work is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. It is the
product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in
the direction of the displacement.
Work of a Nonflow System
Sign convention: if a system’s work is positive, work is done by the system; it is

negative if work is done on the system.
6. Heat (Q)
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system
and its surroundings) by virtue of their temperature difference. It is energy in
transition.
Sign convention: heat is positive if it is added into the system; it is negative if the
system rejects heat.
The Law of Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy may be
converted into another.
Energy Equations (Steady flow and Nonflow systems)
For any system: Energy in = Energy out + change of stored energy in the
system
Σ Ein = Σ Eout + Δstored Enegy
1. Steady Flow System:
Energy diagram of a steady flow system
For steady flow system Δstored Enegy = 0
P1 + K1 + U1 + Wf1 + Q = P2 + K2 + U2 + Wf2 + Ws
Q = ΔP + ΔK + ΔU + ΔWf + Ws -------- steady flow energy equation
Enthalpy (H, h) – is a composite property applicable to all fluids.
H = mh
Where: H = total enthalpy; m = mass; h = specific enthalpy
H = U + PV
h = u + Pv
ΔH = (U2 + P2V2) - (U1 + P1V1) = ΔU + ΔWf
Therefore: Q = ΔP + ΔK + ΔH + Ws -------- steady flow energy equation
Note: the − ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + 𝑊𝑠
2. Nonflow System:
Q = ΔU + ΔWn
Conversion Factors
1 kCal = 4.187 kJ
1 BTU = 778 ft-lbf = 1.055kJ
Sample problem.
1. An air compression 4.5kg/s of air at 100 Kpa and specific volume of 0.026m3/kg. the
air flow steady through the compressor and is discharged at 690 Kpa and 0.005 m3/
kg. The initial internal energy of the air is 1594 J/kg; at discharges the internal energy
is 6240 j/kg. the cooling water circulated around the cylinder carries away 4380 J/kg
of air. the change in kinetic energy is 9000J/kg (increase). Compute the steady flow
work.
Given:
m= 4.5 kg/s P1= 100 Kpa v1= 0.025 m3/kg u1= 1594
kJ/kg
P2= 690 Kpa v2 0.05 m3/kg u2= 6240 kJ/kg
Q=-4.3 kJ/kg (cooling) ∆KE= 9000J/kg
Note: main equation for energy equation of a steady flow.

𝑄 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑠
SOLUTION:
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = −4.38 𝑥 4.5 = −19.71
𝑘𝑔 𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐾𝐸 = 9 𝑥 4.5 = 40.5
𝑘𝑔 𝑠 𝑠
∆𝑃𝐸 = 0 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
∆𝑈 = 𝑚 𝑥 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝑈 = 4.5 𝑥 (6.240 − 1.594) = 20.907
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
∆𝑊𝑓 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑥 (𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 )
𝑘𝑔 𝐾𝑁 𝑚3 𝑘𝐽
∆𝑊𝑓 = 4.5 𝑥 (690𝑥0.005 − 100𝑥. 026) 2 𝑥 = 3.825
𝑠 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
−19.71 = 0 + 40.5 + 20.907 + 3.825 + 𝑊𝑠
𝒌𝑱
𝑾𝒔 = −𝟖𝟒. 𝟗𝟒
𝒔
2. A water pump operating under a steady flow conditions delivers 33kg/s of water
from initial pressure of 82 Kpa to a final pressure 275 kpa. The diameter of the inlet
pipe to the pump is 15cm and the diameter of the discharge pipe is 10 cm. what is
the work?
Given:
m=33 kg/s P1=82Kpa P2=275 Kpa also density of

water; 10000kg/m3
D1=0.15m D2=0.10 m Q= 0 (neglible)
SOLUTION:
𝑚
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝜌𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
33 𝑚
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜋 = 1.867
1000𝑥 𝑥. 152 𝑠
4
33 𝑚
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 𝜋 = 4.201
1000𝑥 𝑥. 102 𝑠
4
𝑄 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑠; 𝑄 = 0, ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0 ∆𝑈 = 0
1 1 𝑘𝑔 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑥 (𝑣𝑒𝑙22 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙12 ) = 𝑥 33 (4.2012 − 1.8672 ) = 233.68 = .23368
2 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 1 1
∆𝑊𝑓 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑥 (𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 ) = 33 (275 𝑥 − 82𝑥 ) = 6.369 𝐾𝑝𝑎
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
1000 3 1000 3
𝑚 𝑚
0 = 0 + .23369 + 0 + 6.369 + 𝑊𝑠
𝒌𝑱
𝑾𝒔 = −𝟔. 𝟔𝟎𝟐
𝒔
Review Problems
1. A water pump operating under steady flow conditions delivers 33 kgm/s of

water from initial pressure of 82 kPaa to a final pressure of 275 kPaa. The
diameter of the inlet pipe is 15 cm and the diameter of the discharge pipe is
10 cm. What is the steady flow work if Q=0 and density of water is 1000
kgm/m3?
2. A steady state, steady flow compressor draws in 236 liters per second of air
whose density is 1.268 kgm/m3 and discharges it with a density of 4.88 kgm/m3.
At suction P1= 103.39 kPaa; at discharge, P2 = 551.428 kPaa. The increase of
specific internal energy is 78.45 kJ/kgm and the heat from the air by cooling is
30.17 kJ/kgm. Neglecting the change in potential and kinetic energies,
determine the work in kJ/min.
3. A working substance undergoes a reversible non flow process during which P
= (-3V + 100) psia, where V changes from 10 ft3/min to 30 ft3/min. The change
of internal energy for the process is – 100 BTU/min. For a non-flow process,
determine a) work (BTU/min) b) heat transferred (BTU/min).
4. A sphere 4 inches in diameter is made of steel with a specific gravity of 8.

Determine its kinetic energy (BTU) if it rolls with a velocity of 10 ft/s.
End of Module 2
MODULE 3 : Ideal Gas and Ideal Gas Laws
Ideal gas and Ideal gas laws of a certain gases, and will be able to apply
Engage: Introduction of Ideal gas and ideal gas laws to thermodynamics
Explore: Discussion of practical examples where these laws can be observed
discussed.
Ideal Gas and Ideal Gas Laws.

- All gases approach the ideal gas behaviour as pressure decreases because
molecules are then getting farther apart so that forces of attraction between
molecules are approaching zero, and molecules themselves are occupying a
negligible part of the volume. They are called ideal gases because they conform to
simple ideal gas laws.
Boyle’s Law
If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas varies inversely
with the absolute pressure during a change of state.
1 C
Vα or V = or PV = C
P P
Then, for a change of state from 1 to 2
P1V1 = P2V2 or P1v1 = P2v2
Charles’ Law
1. If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change of state, the
volume will vary directly as the absolute temperature.
V
V α T or V = CT or =C
T
V V
1= 2
T T
1 2
2. If the volume of a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then with any change of state, the
pressure will vary directly as the absolute temperature.
P
P α T or P = CT or =C
T
P P
1= 2
T T
1 2
Equation of State or Characteristic Equation of a Perfect Gas
Combining Boyle’s and Charles’ Law:
P1V1 P2 V2
= =C
T1 T2
PV
= mR
T
PV = mRT or Pv = RT or PV = NŘT
Where:
P – absolute pressure
V – total volume
T – absolute temperature
J ft - lb f
R – specific gas constant (for air R = 287.08 = 53.342 )
kg mK lbmR
v – specific volume
N– number of moles; N = weight / MW
MW – molecular weight of a given gas
Ř – universal gas constant (8.3143 kJ/kgmol-oK = 1545ft-lbf/lbmol-oR)
Specific Heat (c)
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to change the
temperature of unit mass through 1 degree.
In differential quantities
dQ
c= or dQ = mc dT
m dT
and for a particular mass m, change of state from 1 to 2
2
Q = m  cdT
1
(The specific heat equation)
If the mean or instantaneous value of specific heat is used,
2
Q = mc  dT = mc(T − T )
1 1 2
(for constant specific heat)
Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas
cp – constant pressure specific heat
cv – constant volume specific heat
Ratio of Specific Heats (k)
cp
k=
cv
Internal Energy and Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas
Joule’s law states that “the change in internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of only the
temperature change. Therefore ΔU is given by the formula:
ΔU = mcv(T2-T1)
The change in enthalpy of an ideal gas is given by the formula
ΔH = mcp(T2-T1)
Relation between cp, cv and R of an ideal gas
Cp = c v + R
Cv = R
k-1
Cp = kR
k-1
Entropy (S, s)
Entropy is a certain property of a substance which remains constant if no heat enters or leaves the
substance, while it does work or alters its volume, but which increases or diminishes should a small amount
of heat enter or leave. The change of entropy is defined by:
dQ 2 dQ
dS = or ΔS = 
T 1T
where: dQ = heat transferred at the temperature T
∆S = total change of entropy
2
mcdT
S = 
1 T
2 dT T
ΔS = mc  = mcln 2
1T T
1
Sample Problem
1. Two vessel A and B of different sizes are connected by a pipe with a valve. Vessel A
contains 142L of air at 2,767 Kpa,93C. Vessel B of unknown volume contains air at 70
KPa, 5 C. The valve is opened and when the properties have been determined, it is
found that the mixture pressure and temp and 1380 Kpa and 43C respectively. What
is the volume of Vessel B.
GIVEN:
VESSEL A VESSEL B MIXTURE
PRESSURE 2767 Kpa 70 Kpa 1380 Kpa
VOLUME 142LITERS UNKNOWN Va + Vb
TEMPERATURE 93C 5C 43C
Solution:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝐵
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑉
𝑚=
𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉
𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐴+ 𝐵
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
Note: for ideal gas always use absolute data.
1380 (0.142𝑚 + 𝑉𝑏) 2767𝑥. 142 70𝑉𝑏
= +
(43 + 273) 93 + 273 5 + 273
3
𝑉𝑏 = 0.1101𝑚 𝑜𝑟 110.1 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
2. For a certain ideal gas R=25.8 ft-lbf/lbm-R and k=1.09(a) what are the values of Cp
and Cv? (b) what mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 15ft3 at 75 psia and
80F (c) if 30 Btu are transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what are the
resulting temperature and pressure?
Given:
R=25.8 ft-lbf/lbm-R k=1.09
V1=15 ft3 P1= 75 Psia T1=80F
SOLUTION:
a.)
𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑅 25.8 1𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝐶𝑣 = = 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑅 𝑥 = .3685
𝑘−1 1.09 − 1 778𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑅
𝑘𝑅 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝐶𝑣 = 1.09 (. 3685) = .4016
𝑘−1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑅
b.)
for ideal gas PV=Mrt
𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛2
𝑃𝑉 2 𝑥144 𝑥15 𝑓𝑡 3
74
𝑖𝑛 1𝑓𝑡 2
𝑚= = = 11.63 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑅𝑇 25.8 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑥(80 + 460)
𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑅
c.) 𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐶
𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑄 = 11.63 𝑙𝑏 𝑥 .3685 (𝑇 − 540)
𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑅 2
𝑇2 = 547𝑅
3. For a certain gas R=320 J/kg-K and Cv= .084 Kj/kg-K (a) find Cp and k (b) if 5 kg of
this gas undergo a reversible non-flow constant pressure process from V1 = 1.133m3
and P1 =690 Kpa to a state where T2= 555C find change internal energy and change
in enthalpy.
GIVEN:
R= 0.320 KJ/kg-K T2= 555C +273 = 828 K
m= 5 kg V1= 1.133m 3 P1= 690 KPa
SOLUTION;
𝐾𝐽
a. 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅 = .84 + .320 = 1.16 −𝐾
𝑘𝑔
Always remember that Cp>Cv
𝐶𝑝 1.16
𝑘= = = 1.381, 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝑣 . 84
b. for ideal gas PV=mRT
𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑉 690 2 𝑥1.1330
𝑇1 = = 𝑚 = 488.6𝐾
𝑚𝑅 5 𝑘𝑔 (0.320 𝑘𝐽 )
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 5 𝑥 .84 (828 − 488.6) = 1425 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 5 𝑥 1.16 (828 − 488.6) = 1968 𝑘𝐽
Review Problems
1. An automobile tire is inflated to 32 psig pressure at 50 0F. After being driven,

the temperature rose to 75 0F. Determine the final gage pressure assuming
the volume remains constant. (34.29 psig)
2. If 100 ft3 of atmospheric air at zero Fahrenheit temperature is compressed to

a volume of 1 ft3 at a temperature of 200 0F, what will be the pressure of air in
psia? (2109 psia)
3. A 10 ft3 tank contains gas at a pressure of 500 psia, temperature of 85 0F and
a mass of 25 lbm. A part of the gas was discharged and the temperature and
pressure changed to 70 0F and 300 psia, respectively. Heat was applied and
the temperature was back to 85 0F. Find the final mass, volume and pressure
of the gas. (15.43 lbm, 10 ft3, 308.5 psia)
4. A motorist equips his automobile tires with a relief-type valve so that pressure
inside the tire will never exceed 240 kPag. He starts a trip with a pressure of
200 kPag and a temperature of 23 0C in the tires. During the long drive, the
temperature of the air in the tires reaches 83 0C. Each tire contains 0.11 kgm
of air. Determine a) mass of air escaping each tire, b) pressure on the tire
when the temperature returns to 23 0C. (0.0064 kgm, 182.48 Kpag)
5. A spherical balloon is 40 ft in diameter and surrounded by air at 60 0F and

29.92 in Hgabs. If the balloon is filled with hydrogen at a temperature of 70
0Fand atmospheric pressure, what total load can it lift? R of hydrogen is
766.54 ft-lbf/lbm-R. (2381 lb)
6. For a certain gas, R = 0.277 kJ/kg-K and k = 1.384. a) What are the value of cp
and cv? b) What mass of this gas will occupy a volume of 0.425 m3 at 517.11
kPaa and 26.7 0C? c) If 31.65 kJ are transferred to this gas at constant
volume, what are the resulting temperature and pressure?
7. Two cubic-meters of CO2 gas (MW = 44 kg/mol) measured at 105 kPaa, 30 oC

are withdrawn from a 5 m3 tank containing CO2 gas initially at 600 kPaa and
60 oC. What is the pressure of the gas remaining inside the tank if its
temperature is 55 oC?
END of Module 3
MODULE 4 : Ideal gas Processes.

processes of the ideal gas, and will be able to apply engineering methods in
solving problems.
This modules is focus only on Carnot Cycle.
Engage: Understand ideal gas processes and
discussed.
Isometric process
- Isometric process is an internally reversible (quasi-static, if non-flow) constant volume

process involving pure substance. Also called isochoric process.
Important equation
𝑇2 𝑃2
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 , =
𝑇1 𝑃1
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ln
𝑇1
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑛 = 0
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑄 = ∆𝑈
For steady flow equation

𝑄 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 = −(∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑊𝑓)
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 = − ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = −𝑉(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
Isobaric Process
- Isobaric is an internally reversible (quasi-static if non-flow) constant pressure process

involving a pure substance. The curve P=c is called isobar.
important equations;
𝑇2 𝑉2
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 , =
𝑇1 𝑉1
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ln
𝑇1
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = ∆𝐻
𝑄 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝐻 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 = −(∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸)
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 = − ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = −𝑉(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 0
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑊𝑠 = −(∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸)
Work non- flow system
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
Isothermal Process
- Isothermal process is an internally reversible (quasi –static if non flow) constant

temperature process involving a pure substance. The curve representing the process
is called an isotherm.
Important equations.
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 , 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 0
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 0
𝑄 𝑉2
∆𝑆 = = 𝑚𝑅 ln
𝑇 𝑉1
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛 = ∆𝑈 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄 = −𝑊𝑛
work of non-flow system

𝑉2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln
𝑉1
𝑄 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + 𝑊𝑠
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 = − ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃
𝑉2
= ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln
𝑉1
Isentropic Process
- Isentropic process is a reversible thermally insulated (adiabatic, Q=0) system where

there will be negligible heat transfer into or out of the system.
𝑃1 𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑘
𝑘
𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑘−1 𝑃2 𝑘−1
=( ) =( )
𝑇1 𝑉1 𝑃1
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑄=0
∆𝑆 = 0
Work of non-flow System

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 =
1−𝑘
Steady flow energy equation
𝑄 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝐻 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑘(𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )
− ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑃 =
1−𝑘
Polytropic process
- Polytropic is an internally reversible process during which, PVn=c; where n is the

polynomial index.
Important equation.
𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛
𝑛
𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑛−1 𝑃2 𝑛−1
=( ) =( )
𝑇1 𝑉1 𝑃1
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Amount of heat transfer

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑛 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶𝑣((𝑘 − 𝑛)/(1 − 𝑛)
Work of non-flow System

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 =
1−𝑛
Steady flow energy equation
𝑄 = ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝐻 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑛(𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )
− ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑃 =
1−𝑛
Polynomial index n has a value which reflects a process,
n=1 if a compression or expansion is performed slowly, and if the piston cylinder assembly is
cooled perfectly, then the process will be isothermal.
n=k if a compression or expansion is performed rapidly, and if the piston-cylinder assembly

is perfectly insulated, then process will be adiabatic.
1<n<k if a compression or expansion is performed at a moderate speeds, and if the piston-

cylinder assembly is cooled to some degree than the process will be somewhere between
isothermal and adiabatic.
Example
Compression is a stationary air compressor (n=1.3)
Compression in an air compressor cooled by a fan (n=1.2)
Compression in water cooled in air compressor (n=1.1)
Irreversible process: Change of Entropy of an ideal Gas
From equation Pv=RT then; R/v =P/T
From equation dQ=du+ pdv; also dQ= Tds then ds= dQ/T
𝑑𝑢 𝑝𝑑𝑣 𝐶𝑣𝑇𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑠 = + =∫ + 𝑅 ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑑𝑇 𝑅𝑑𝑣 𝑇 𝑉
For ideal gas ∆𝑆 = 𝐶𝑣 ( 𝑇 ) + 𝑣
= 𝐶𝑣 ln (𝑇2 ) + 𝑅 ln (𝑉2 )
1 1
𝑑ℎ 𝑣𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑇 𝐶𝑝𝑇𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑠 = − = 𝐶𝑝 ( ) = ∫ + 𝑅 ln(𝑃2 /𝑃1 )
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇2 𝑃2
∆𝑆 = 𝐶𝑝 ln ( ) − 𝑅 ln ( )
𝑇1 𝑃1
Sample problem.
1. Air at 2075 Kpa, .285 m3 and 205 C is cooled to 60 C at constant volume, for air
R=287.08 J/kg-K and k=1.4. what are (a) final pressure (b) work non –flow (c) change
of internal energy (d) heat transferred (e) change in enthalpy (f0 change in entropy.
GIVEN:
V=C P1= 2075 KPa V1= .285m3=V2 T2= 205 +273 =478K
T2= 60 + 273= 333K R=.28708 kJ/kgm-K k air =1.4
Cv= .7177 kJ/kg-K Cp=1 kJ/kg-K
SOLUTION:
𝑃2 𝑇 𝑃2 333𝐾
a. 𝑃1
= 𝑇2 ; 2075
= 478𝐾 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟐𝑲𝒑𝒂
1
b. Wn=0 (by definition V=C)
c. ∆𝑈 = 𝑚 𝑥 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑃𝑉 2075𝑘𝑝𝑎 𝑥 0.285𝑚3
𝑚= = = 4.30954𝑘𝑔𝑚
𝑅𝑇 . 28708 𝑘𝐽 (478𝐾)
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
𝐾𝑁
Note: 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 𝑚2 ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝐽 = 𝐾𝑀 − 𝑚
𝑘𝐽
∆𝑈 = 4.30954𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 .7177 (333 − 478) = −𝟒𝟒𝟖. 𝟓 𝒌𝑱
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 (𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑉 = 𝐶)𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 = −𝟒𝟒𝟖. 𝟓 𝒌𝑱
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 𝑘∆𝑈 = 1.4(−448.5) = −𝟔𝟐𝟕. 𝟗𝒌𝑱
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ln ( )
𝑇1
𝑘𝐽 333 𝒌𝑱
∆𝑆 = 4.30954 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 .7177 ln ( ) = −𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟖
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝐾 478 𝑲
2. A certain gas with Cp=0.529 BTU/lbm-R and Cv= 0.4053 BTU/lbm-R expand from 5ft3
and 80 F, to 15ft3 while its pressure remains constant at 20 Psia, compute a) final
temperature, b) change in internal energy and enthalpy, change in entropy d) work
non-flow and heat transferred.
GIVEN
P1=P2=20 psia V1=5 ft3 T1=80F+460=540R
V2= 15ft3
Cp=0.529 BTU/lbm-R Cv= 0.4053 BTU/lbm-R

Rgas =Cp-Cv = .1237 BTU/lbm-R = 96.24 ft-lbf/lbm-R k=Cp/Cv=1.305
SOLUTION
𝑇2 𝑉
a) 𝑃 = 𝐶; 𝑇1
= 𝑉2
1
3
𝑇2 15𝑓𝑡
= 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟐𝟎𝑹
540𝑅 5𝑓𝑡 3
b)
𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛2
𝑃𝑉 2 𝑥14420 𝑥5𝑓𝑡 3
𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑚= = = 0.2771 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑅𝑇 96.24 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 (540 𝑅)
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐵𝑇𝑈
∆𝑈 = 0.2771 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑥 .4053 (1620 − 540)𝑅 = 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟗𝑩𝑻𝑼
∆𝐻 = 𝑚 𝑥 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 𝑘∆𝑈 = 1.305(121.9) = 𝟏𝟓𝟖. 𝟑𝟏 𝑩𝑻𝑼
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚 𝑥 𝐶𝑝 ln(
)
𝑇1
𝐵𝑇𝑈 1620 𝑩𝑻𝑼
∆𝑆 = 0.2771 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑥 .529 ln ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟒
𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑅 540 𝑹
c)
𝑄 = ∆𝐻 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖. 𝟑𝟏 𝑩𝑻𝑼 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃 = 𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑙𝑏𝑓 144𝑖𝑛2 1𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑃 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 20 2
𝑥 2
(15 − 5)𝑓𝑡 3 𝑥
𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡 778 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑾𝒏 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟏𝟕 𝑩𝑻𝑼
3. During a reversible process there are abstracted 320KJ/s of heat from 1.15kg/s of a
certain gas, with Cp=2.232 and Cv= 1.713 Kj/Kg-K, while the temp remains constant
at 27 C. the initial pressure is 600 Kpa. For steady flow system (∆KE= 10kj/s) determine;
a. Initial and final volume flow
b. Change in internal energy and enthalpy
c. Change in entropy
d. Work.
GIVEN:
Q=-320 kJ/s (rejection m =1.15 kg/s

Cp= 2.232 kJ/kg-K Cv= 1.713 kJ/kg-K
R=Cp-Cv= .519 kJ/kg-K
P1=600 Kpa T1= 27+ 273 = 300 K=T2
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐾𝐸 = 10 𝑠
SOLUTION:
𝑇=𝐶 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑚𝑅𝑇 1.15 𝑥 .519 𝑥 300𝐾
a. 𝑉1 = 𝑃1
= 𝑠 𝑘𝑔𝑚−𝐾
600𝐾𝑝𝑎
= 0. 𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟒𝒎𝟑
𝑉2
𝑄 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln ( )
𝑉1
𝐾𝑁 𝑉2
−320 𝑘𝐽 = 600 2 𝑥. 2984𝑚3 ln ( )
𝑚 . 2984𝑚3
𝑉2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝟑
b. ∆𝑈 = 0, ∆𝐻 = 0; (𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇 = 𝐶)𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑄 320𝑘𝐽 𝒌𝑱
c. ∆𝑆 = =− = −𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟕
𝑇 300𝐾 𝑲
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑄; ( 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇 = 𝐶) = −𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑱 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒
Review Problems
1. A vessel of 58L capacity is well insulated and is divided equally by a rigid conducting
diaphragm. Initially both halves contain air at pressure of 137.8 Kpa and 413.4 Kpa
and temperature of 27C and 177C respectively. Find the increase of entropy of the
system
2. A group of 50 persons attended a secret meeting in a room 12m x 10m x 3m high. The
room is completely sealed off and insulated. Each person gives off 150 kcal/hr of heat
and occupies a volume of 0.2 cubic meters. The room has an initial pressure of 101.3
kpa and 16C. calculate the room temp after 10minutes.
3. How much work is necessary to compress air in an insulated cylinder from 0.20 to 0.01
m3. Use T1= 20C and P1= 100Kpa
4. The work required to compress a gas reversibly according to PV1.3 =C is 68KJ. if there is
no flow determine the change in internal energy, enthalpy and heat if the gas is CO2.
5. Air is compressed polytropically so that the quantity PV1.4 is constant. If 0.02 m3 of air at
atmospheric pressure of 101.3 KPA and 4C are compressed to a gage pressure of
405KPAg, determine the final temperature of air in C.
END of Module 4
MODULE 5: Thermodynamic Cycle

This module aims to allow you as a student to understand the
thermodynamic cycle (Carnot, and Air- standard Cycle), and will be able to apply
Engage: Understand, and apply the ideal gas process in thermodynamics
cycle.
Explore: Discussion of practical examples where these cycles can be
observed
discussed.
- A combination of two or more processes which when completed returns the system
to its initial state. The system goes through a number of states and finally reaches the
original state again. The state of a system can be changed by the transfer of energy
(work or heat), and that path traced during this change of state is process.
- In many machines, such as a refrigerator or a

steam power plant, a working fluid is made to follow a
series of various thermodynamic processes before
being returned to once again to the original state.
The working fluid thus undergoes a particular
thermodynamic cycle. This is the basis of operation of
many heat engines.
- The mechanical work done by the shaft is
converted to the internal energy of the water. This
energy may then leave the water as heat. We know
from experience that any attempt to reverse this
process will fail. That is, transferring heat to the water
will not cause the shaft to rotate. We conclude that
work can be converted to heat directly and some
special devices. These devices is called heat engine.
Heat Engines Characteristic
1. They receive heat from a high temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace,
nuclear reactor and so many others)
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft)
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low temperature sink (the atmosphere,
rivers, etc)
4. They operate on a cycle.
Essential elements of a thermodynamics heat engine
1. A working substance, matter that receives heat, reject heat, and does work.
2. A source of heat (also called hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source), from which
the working substances receives heat.
3. A heat sink (receiver, a cold body, or just sink), to which the working substance can
reject heat.
4. An engine, wherein the working substance may do work or have work done on it.
Schematic diagram of a Power Cycle
- The work producing device that best fit into

the definition of a heat engine are the steam
power plant, refrigerator cycle, and air
conditioning system.
- Applying the first law of thermodynamics it
states that the algebraic sum of the energy
transfer which takes place during the cycle
must be zero.
ΣQ + ΣE = 0
- If we are analyzing each components of
the system power plant, it is treated as an
open system because it involves mass flow in
and out. But if we consider all the
components in one system it can be
analyzed as a closed system.
Schematic Diagram of a Steam Power Plant
- For closed system undergoing a

cycle, the change in internal energy dU
is zero. So the net work output of the
system is equal to the net heat transfer of
the system.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜; 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
= 𝑊𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡
Limitations of the first law.

1. It set no limits on the percentage of heat supplied which can be converted into
work.
2. It does not place restrictions on the direction of flow of heat and work.
The shortcoming of the first law are corrected by the second law of
thermodynamics, through a property of the working fluid called entropy.
Statement of the second law applied to a heat engine may be expressed as
follows;
“ it is impossible to construct a heat engine which will operate in a cycle, receive
heat from a reservoir, and convert all of it into work output”
Alternative statement of the second law is express as follow;
“heat cannot flow by itself from a low temperature to a high temperature’
- If the heat engine is physically able to convert a flow of heat into a flow of work, the
second law sets a limit on the amount which it can be converted. The fraction of
heat input that is converted to net work output of a heat engine is always less than
the amount of heat input. Only part of the heat transferred to the heat engine is
converted to work. The ability of the heat engine to convert the heat input to a
useful work depends on its efficiency called the thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency: et= net work output/ heat supplied.
∫ 𝑑𝑊 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑖𝑛 − |−𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 | 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟

𝑒𝑡 = = = =
𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎
When the heat Qa supplied to a cycle (or engine) from an external source
corresponds to some unit of work, as a hp-hr or Kw-hr, it is called a heat rate which
is use to indicate the efficacy of an engine or cycle delivering power.
The CARNOT CYCLE
- The carnot cycle is the most efficient conceivable cycle. There are other ideal
cycle, but none more, so such a perfect cycle forms as a standard of comparison
for actual engine and actual cycles and also for other less efficient ideal cycle,
permitting us to judge how much room there might be for improvement.
Process of Carnot Cycle
Process 1-2 isothermal heat addition

(T=C)
Process 2-3 isentropic expansion (S=C)
Process 3-4 isothermal heat rejection
(T=C)
Process 4-1 isentropic compression
(S=C)
Important equation:
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln = 𝑇1 ∆𝑆1−2
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑉3 𝑉3
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑃3 𝑉3 ln = 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln = 𝑇1 ∆𝑆3−4
𝑉4 𝑉4
𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ∆𝑆1−2 = ∆𝑆3−4 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 ( = )
𝑉1 𝑉4
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) ∆𝑆1−2
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑒𝑡 =
𝑇1
Pressure, Volume and Temperature Relationship
Process1-2: 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 ; 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑘
𝑇3 𝑃 𝑘−1 𝑃3 𝑉 𝑘 𝑇 𝑉 𝑘−1
Process 2-3: = (𝑃3 ) ; = (𝑉2 ) ; 𝑇3 = (𝑉2 )
𝑇2 2 𝑃2 3 2 3
Process 3-4: 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 ; 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑘
𝑇4 𝑃 𝑃4 𝑉 𝑘 𝑇 𝑉 𝑘−1
Process 4-1:
𝑘−1
= (𝑃4 ) ; = (𝑉1 ) ; 𝑇4 = (𝑉1 )
𝑇1 1 𝑃1 4 1 4
Sample Problem
1. A Carnot power cycle operates on 5lb of air between the temperature limits 70F
and 500F. The pressure at the beginning and end of isothermal expansion are
400psia and 200psia, respectively. Determine a) volume at the end of isothermal
compression, b) ∆S during an isothermal process, c) Qa, Qr, Wnet, Thermal
Efficiency, d) Isothermal ratio of expansion, overall ratio of expansion, e) mean
effective pressure.
GIVEN:
FOR AIR R= 53.34 ft-lbf/lbm-R k=1.4

m=5lbm P1=400 psia P2=200 psia
T1=T2=500F+460= 960R
T3= T4= 70F+460=530 R
Solution:
note:
• Always draw the P-V and T-S diagram. For less confusion of the values of
each property.
• Always remember to find and complete all properties of all the state
condition.
a.
𝑚𝑅𝑇 5𝑥53.34𝑥960
𝑉1 = 1= = 4.445𝑓𝑡 3
𝑃 400𝑥 144
𝑚𝑅𝑇 5𝑥53.34𝑥960
𝑉2 = 2= = 8.890 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑃 200𝑥144
𝑘−1 1.4−1
𝑇3 𝑃3 𝑘 530𝑅 𝑃3 1.4
=( ) =( ) 𝑃3 = 25 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑇2 𝑃2 960𝑅 200𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑚𝑅𝑇 5 𝑥 53.34 𝑥 530
𝑉3 = 3= = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑃 25 𝑥 144
Note: V3 is the highest Volume of the Carnot Cycle.
𝑘−1 1.4−1
𝑇4 𝑃4 𝑘 530𝑅 𝑃4 1.4
=( ) =( ) 𝑃4 = 50.012𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑇1 𝑃1 960𝑅 400𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑚𝑅𝑇 5 𝑥 53.34 𝑥 530
𝑉4 = 4= = 19.632𝑓𝑡 3
𝑃 50.012 𝑥144
b.
𝑉2 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 8.890 1𝐵𝑇𝑈
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑅 ln ( ) = 5 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑥53.34 𝑥 ln ( )𝑥
𝑉1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑅 4.445 778 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝐵𝑇𝑈
∆𝑆 = 0.2376
𝑅
𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑇1 ∆𝑆 = 960𝑅 (. 2376 ) = 228.1 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑅
𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑇1 ∆𝑆 = 530𝑅 (. 2376 ) = 125.6 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑅
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 = 102.5 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 102.5
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 45%
𝑄𝑎 228.1
c.
𝑉2 8.89
𝑟12 = = =2
𝑉1 4.445
𝑉3 39.264
𝑟𝑂 = = = 8.883
𝑉1 4.445
d.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑚𝑒𝑝) = =
𝑉𝑑 𝑉3 − 𝑉1
102.5 𝐵𝑇𝑈 778𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 1𝑓𝑡 2
𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 𝑥 𝑥 = 19.906 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
(39.264 − 4.445)𝑓𝑡 3 1𝐵𝑇𝑈 144𝑖𝑛2
Note: mean effective pressure is a quantity relating to the operation of a

reciprocating engine and is a valuable measure of an engine’s capacity to do
work that is independent to engine displacement. I can also define as the average
pressure acting on a piston during the different portion of its cycle.
2. A Carnot engine operating between 527C and 27 C produces 600Kw of work.

Determine, Qa,Qr, ∆S during heat rejection, thermal efficiency of the cycle.
GIVEN :
T1=527 C +273= 800K T3=27C + 273 = 300K

Wnet= 600 kJ/s
SOLUTION:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 𝑄𝑟
𝑒=
𝑥100% = 𝑥100% = (1 − ) 𝑥100%
𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎
𝑉3
𝑚𝑅𝑇3 ln (𝑉 )
4
𝑒 = (1 − ) 𝑥 100%
𝑉2
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 ln (𝑉 )
1
Note: that (V3/V4)=(V2/V1) and T1=T2
𝑇3
𝑒 = (1 − ) 𝑥100
𝑇2
300𝐾
𝑒 = (1 − ) 𝑥100 = 62.5%
800𝐾
𝑘𝐽
600 𝑠
62.5% = 𝑥100%
𝑄𝑎
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑎 = 960 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑊
𝑠
𝑘𝐽
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 𝑄𝑟 = 360 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑊
𝑠
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑇3 ∆𝑆3−4
360𝐾𝑊 𝐾𝑊
∆𝑆 = = −1.20 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡)
300𝐾 𝐾
Note: if you have question feel free to ask.
Review Problems
1. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2lb/min of air between the limits of 70F and 500
F. The pressure at the beginning of isothermal expansions is 400 psia and at the end
of isothermal expansion 185.psig, determine;
a. The volume at the end of the isothermal compression
b. ∆S during an isothermal process
c. Qa, Qr, Wnet
d. Thermal efficiency
e. The mean effective pressure.
2. Gaseous nitrogen actuates a Carnot power cycle in which the respective volumes
at the four corners of the cycle, starting at the beginning of the isothermal
expansion, are V1= 10.10, V2= 14.53, V3= 226.54, V4= 157.73 liter, what is the thermal
efficiency of the cycle? k=1.399 (for these problem use pressure, volume and
temperature relationship).
3. In a Carnot cycle operating on nitrogen, the heat supplied is 40 BTU and the
adiabatic expansion ratio is 12.5. If the receiver temperature is 60F, determine;
a. The thermal efficiency
b. The work
c. The heat rejected
4. There are developed 10hp by a Carnot engine between 1000F and 100F.
Determine;
a. The thermal efficiency
b. The heat supplied per seconds
c. The change in entropy each second during heat rejection
5. Show that the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle in terms of the isentropic
compression ratio rk is given by the equation e=1-1/rkk-1
Note:
• Do not proceed in module 4b if you didn’t understand Module 4a
• You must know how to draw the P-V T-S Diagram.
END of Module 5
MODULE 6: Internal Combustion Engine Cycles
This module aims to allow you as a student to understand the
thermodynamic cycle (Carnot, and Air- standard Cycle), and will be able to apply
This module will focus on the following topic;
• OTTO Cycle- Air- Standard Cycle
• DIESEL Cycle – Air- Standard Cycle
Engage: Understand, and apply the ideal gas process in thermodynamics
cycle specifically internal combustion engines.
discussed.
OTTO CYCLE
OTTO CYCLE- Air –Standard Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is the ideal prototype of spark ignition engines or gasoline engines.
Air – standard cycle means that the air alone is the working fluid in the cycle.
Processes of Otto Cycle
Process 1-2 isentropic compression of the gas

Process 2-3 constant volume addition of heat
Process 3-4 isentropic expansion
Process 4-1 constant volume rejection of heat.
Important equation for OTTO Cycle.
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒= =
𝑄𝑎 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 = 1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
Where rk =V1/V2 = is the compression ratio
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1 𝑇2
=( ) 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑇1
𝑇3 𝑉4 𝑘−1 𝑇3
=( ) 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1
𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑇4
Therefore
1
𝑒 = 1−
𝑟𝑘𝑘−1
Relationship of clearance and compression ratio

𝑉1 𝑉𝑑 + 𝑉2 𝑉𝑑 + 𝑐𝑉𝑑 1 + 𝑐
𝑟𝑘 = = = =
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑐𝑉𝑑 𝑐
Where
c = is the percent clearance
cVd= is the clearance volume
Vd= is the volume displacement of the engine
Ideal standard of comparison

For cold-air standard: k=1.4
For hot-air standard: k< 1.4
The thermal efficiency of an ideal OTTO Cycle
1. Increases when the compression ratio increases
2. Increases when the value of k increase
3. Is independent to the heat added.
Sample problem.
1. The condition at the beginning of compression in an ideal Otto engine operating on
hot-air standard with k=1.34 are 101.3 Kpa, 0.4m3 and 30C, respectively. The
clearance is 10% and 125 KJ of heat are added per cycle. determine T4, P4,Qr, Work
net, thermal efficiency, mean effective pressure, power (for 1000 cycles/min).
GIVEN:
Rair= .28708 Kj/kg-K
k air (hot-air) =1.34
P1=101.3 kPa V1=V4= 0.4 m3
(V1= V4= highest volume of the cycle)
T1= 30C + 273 K= 303K c=10%

Qa=125 kJ/cycle
NOTE:
• Always draw the P-V and T-S diagram

• You must now know how to get Cv and Cp , if ever see Module 3a.
SOLUTION:
𝑃𝑉 101.3 𝑥 0.4
𝑚= 1= = 0.4658 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑇 . 28708 𝑥 303
1 + 𝑐 1 + .10
𝑟𝑘 = = = 11
𝑐 0.10
𝑉1 0.4
𝑉2 = = = 0.0364 = 𝑉3 , 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑟𝑘 11
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 𝑟𝑘𝑘 = 101.3 𝑥 111.34 = 2518 𝐾𝑝𝑎
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 = 303 𝑥 111.4−1 = 684.7𝐾
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑘𝐽
125 𝑘𝐽 = 0.4658 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 0.844 (𝑇 − 684.7)
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝐾 3
𝑇3 = 1003𝐾
𝑇3 1003
𝑃3 = 𝑃2 ( ) = 2518 ( ) = 3688 𝐾𝑝𝑎 (ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝑇2 684.7
𝑇3 𝑉4 𝑘−1 𝑇3
=( ) 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1
𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑇4
1003𝐾
= (11)1.34−1 = 443.8𝐾
𝑇4
𝑃4 𝑉3 𝑘 0.0364 1.34
= ( ) = 3688 ( ) = 148.36 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃3 𝑉4 .4
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) = .4658 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 .8444 (443.8 − 303)
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑟 = 55.38
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝒌𝑱
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟔𝟐
𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 69.62𝑘𝐽
𝑒= 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟕%
𝑄𝑎 125𝑘𝐽
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 69.62𝐾𝑃𝑎

𝑚𝑒𝑝 = = = = 𝟏𝟗𝟏. 𝟓 𝑲𝒑𝒂
𝑉𝑑 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 . 4 − .0364
𝑘𝐽 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝑱
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 69.62 𝑥 1000 𝑥 = 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑲𝑾
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝒔
2. An Otto cycle operates on 1lb/s of air from 15 psia and 130F at the beginning of
compression. The temperature at the end of combustion is 5000R; compression ratio
is 5.5. for hot-air standard k=1.32. find T4, P4,Qr, Work net, thermal efficiency, work
in(HP)
GIVEN
R= 53.34 ft-lbf/lbm-Rk 1.32

Cv=0.2142 BTU/lbm-R
Cp=0.2827 BTU/lbm-R m= 1 lb/s
P1= 15 pisa T1= 130+460=590 R T3=500R
rk=5.5
SOLUTION:
lbm ft − lbf
mRT 1 s x53.34 x590
𝑉1 = 1= lbm −R = 14.57 ft 3 = 𝑉4
P 15psia x144
𝑉1 14.57
𝑉2 = = = 2.649 ft 3
𝑟𝑘 5.5
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 𝑟𝑘𝑘 = 15 𝑥5.51.32 = 142.35 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 = 590𝑥 5.51.32−1 = 1018𝑅
𝑇3 5000
𝑃3 = 𝑃2 ( ) = 142.35 ( ) = 699.16𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑇2 1018
𝑉3 k 1 k 1 1.32
𝑃4 = 𝑃3 ( ) or 𝑃3 ( ) = 699.16 ( ) = 73.67 psia
𝑉4 𝑟𝑘 5.5
𝑃4 73.67
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) = 5000 ( ) = 2898R
𝑇1 699.16
lbm Btu 𝐁𝐓𝐔
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 1 = .2142 (5000 − 1018) = 𝟖𝟓𝟐. 𝟗
s lbm − R 𝐬
𝑩𝑻𝑼
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) = 1 𝑥0.2142(2898 − 590) = 𝟒𝟗𝟒. 𝟒
𝒔
𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 = 𝟑𝟓𝟖. 𝟓
𝒔
𝑒= 𝑥 100 = 100 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟎𝟑%
𝑄𝑎 852.9
𝐵𝑇𝑈 1ℎ𝑝
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 358.5 𝑥 = 𝟓𝟎𝟕. 𝟏 𝑯𝑷
𝑠 𝐵𝑇𝑈
. 707
𝑠
DIESEL CYCLE
DIESEL Cycle- Air-Standard Cycle
Processes:
Process 1-2 isentropic compression of the

gas
Process 2-3 constant pressure heat addition
Process 4-3 isentropic expansion
Process 4-1 constant volume hear rejection
Important equation.
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒= =
𝑄𝑎 𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑒 = 1−
𝑘(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
Where
rk= V1/V2 is the compression ratio
rc= V3/V2 is the cut-off ratio
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1 𝑇2
=( ) 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑇1
𝑇3 𝑉3
= = 𝑟𝑐
𝑇2 𝑉2
𝑇4 𝑉1 𝑘−1 𝑉2 𝑟𝑐 𝑘−1 𝑟𝑐𝑘−1

=( ) =( ) = 𝑘−1
𝑇3 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑟𝑘
Therefore
1 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 1
𝑒 = 1− ( )
𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 𝑘(𝑟𝑐 − 1)
Ideal Diesel and Otto engine comparison

- For a particular compression ratio rk, the Otto cycle is more efficient because the
cut-off ratio is always greater than 1. However, since the Diesel engine compresses
air only, the compression ratio is higher than in an Otto engine. An actual Diesel
engine with a compression ratio of 15 is more efficient than an actual Otto engine
with a compression ratio of 9. It is not possible to increase the compression ratio of
gasoline engine since gas inside the cylinder is already a mixture of air and fuel. It
may burn pre-maturely inside the cylinder because of high temperature of air-fuel
mixture after compression if compression ratio is very high.
Relation among compression ratio, Cut-off ration and expansion ratio
rc= V4/V3=V1/V3
rk= V1/V2=V3/V2
re= rc x rk
Sample Problem
1. There are supplied 320 KJ/cycle of heat to an ideal engine operating on 0.225 kg of
air. Pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are 98Kpa, and 47C
respectively. At the end of compression, the pressure is 3900Kpa. Find the
compression ratio, cut-off ratio, Qr, Wnet, thermal efficiency and mean effective
pressure.
GIVEN:
Qa = 320 Kj
m=0.225 kg
P1=98 Kpa
T1= 47 C +273 =320
P2=3900
kPa
R= .28708 kJ/kg-K k= 1.4
Cv=.7177 Cp=1
Kj/kg-K
SOLUTION:
Note: Always draw the P-V and T-S Diagram.
𝑘𝐽
𝑚𝑅𝑇 . 225𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 .28708 (320𝐾)
𝑉1 = 1= = 0.2109 𝑚3
𝑃 98 𝐾𝑝𝑎
1 1
𝑃1 𝑘 98 1.4
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 ( ) = .2109 ( ) = 0.0152 𝑚3
𝑃2 3900
𝑘−1 1.4−1
𝑃2 𝑘 3900 1.4
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 320 ( ) = 916.7𝐾
𝑃1 98
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇1 )
𝑘𝐽
320𝑘𝐽 = 0.225 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 1 (𝑇 − 916.7)𝐾, 𝑇3 = 2332𝐾
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝐾 3
𝑇4 𝑉1 𝑘−1 𝑉1 𝑘−1 0.0387 1.4−1
=( ) , 𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) = 2332 𝑋 ( ) = 1184𝐾
𝑇3 𝑉2 𝑉2 . 2109
𝑉1 0.2109
𝑟𝑘 = = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟕𝟓
𝑉2 . 0152
𝑉3 0.0387
𝑟𝑐 = = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝟔
𝑉2 0.152
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) = .225 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 .7177 (1184 − 320)𝐾 = 𝟏𝟑𝟗. 𝟓𝟐𝑲𝒋
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝒌𝑱
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 180.48
𝑒= 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟒 %
𝑄𝑎 320
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 180.48
𝑚𝑒𝑝 = = = = 𝟗𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑉𝑑 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 0.2109 − 0.0152
2. A Diesel Cycle operates with a compression ratio of 13.5 and with cut-off ratio
occurring at 5% of the stroke. At Point 1; P1= 14 psia, T=140F, V=1ft3. For hot-air
standard with k=1.34, determine, P4, T4, Qa,Qr, Wnet, thermal efficiency, horsepower
for circulation rate of 1000CFM
GIVEN:
\
rk= 13.5 V3=V2+ 5% Vd
P1=14 psia T1=140 F=600R
V1=1 ft3=V4
R=53.34 ft-lbf/lbm-R
k=1.34 Cv=.2016
BTU/lbm-R Cp=0.2702
BTU/lbm-R
SOLUTION:
𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛2
𝑃𝑉 2 14
𝑥 144 𝑥 1𝑓𝑡 3
𝑖𝑛 1𝑓𝑡 2
𝑚= 1= = 0.063 𝑙𝑏
𝑅𝑇 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
53.34 (600)
𝑉1 1
𝑉2 = = = 0.0741 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑟𝑘 13.5
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 𝑟𝑘𝑘 = 14 (13.51.34 ) = 457.9 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 = 600 𝑥 13.51.34−1 = 1454𝑅
𝑉3 = 𝑉2 + 0.05(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = 0.0741 + 0.05 (1 − 0.0741) = .1204𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉3 . 1204
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 ( ) = 1454 ( ) = 2363 𝑅
𝑉2 . 0741
𝑉4 𝑘−1 . 1204 1.34−1
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 = ( ) = 2363 ( ) = 1150𝑅
𝑉3 1
𝑉3 𝑘 0.1204 1.34
𝑃4 = 𝑃3 ( ) = 457.9 𝑥 ( ) = 26.84 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑉4 1
𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 0.063 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑥 .2702 (2363 − 1454)𝑅 = 15.47 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) = 0.063 𝑥. 2016 (1150 − 600) = 6.985 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟 = 8.485 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑒= 𝑥100 = 𝑥100 = 54.48%
𝑄𝑎 15.47
𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝑓𝑡 3 1ℎ𝑝
𝑊 = 8.485 𝑥1000 𝑥 = 200𝐻𝑃
1𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛 42.42 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Note: Feel Free to ask question.
Review Problems
1. An Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 7.5 operates from the suction conditions
of 97.91 Kpa, 29.4C. find the pressure and temperature at the end of compression,
a) if cold air (k=1.4) is the working substance, b) if hot air (k=1.32) is the working
substance.
2. An ideal Otto engine, operating on the hot-air standard with k=1.34, has a
compression ratio of 5. At the beginning of compression the volume is 6ft3 , the
pressure is 13.75 psia and temperature is 100F. during constant – volume heating ,
350 Btu are added per cycle. Compute T3,P3,T4,Qa,Qr,Wnet,thermal Efficiency,
and mean effective pressure.
3. An ideal Diesel engine operates on 1 lb of air with a suction state at 14.1 psia and
100F. The pressure at the end of compression is 470psia and the cut –off is 6% of the
stroke from head –end dead - center. Using air properties(r=53.34 ft-lbf/lbm-R,
k=1.4, Cp=.24,Cv=.1714 Btu/lbm-R), determine compression ratio, percentage
clearance, Qa, Qr, Thermal Efficiency, mean effective pressure.
4. There are supplied 317 Kj/cycle of Diesel engine operating on 227g of air P1=97.91
KPa, T1=48.9C. At the end of compression, P2 =3930KPa. Assume that air and the
product within the cycle have air properties. Determine compresion ratio, cut-off
ratio,Wnet, thermal efficiency, and mean effectivepressure.
5. For an ideal Diesel cycle with the over-all value of k=1.33,rk=15, rc=2.1, P1= 97.9
Kpa, find P2 and mean effective pressure.
END of the Module 6
MODULE 7: Pure Substances
This module aims to allow you as a student to understand the concepts of
pure substances and its properties and will be able to apply engineering methods
in solving problems.
• Pure Substances and its Properties
•
Engage: Understand what pure substances are.
Explore: Discussion of practical examples where these concepts and
properties can be observed
discussed.
Pure Substance
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure
substance. Water , nitrogen, helium and carbon dioxide are all pure substances. A
mixture of various chemical elements or compounds also qualify as a pure
substance as long as the mixture is homogeneous
A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance as
long as the chemical composition in all phases is the same. A mixture of ice and
liquid water, for example, is a pure substance because both phases have the same
composition, H2O
Phases of Pure substances

Substances can exist in three states (also called phases)
• Solid
• Liquid
• Vapor
For water, that would be ice for solid phase, liquid water for liquid phase, and
steam for vapor phase
Within these three principal cases, a substance may have several phases within a
principal phase, each with a different molecular structure. Carbon may exist as
graphite or diamond in the solid phase depending on how the carbon atoms are
arranged. Helium has two liquid phases; iron has three solid phases.
The molecules in a solid phase are tightly packed in a three dimensional pattern
(lattice) which is repeated throughout the solid. At a sufficiently high temperature,
the velocity of the molecules may reach a point where the inter-molecular forces
are partially overcome and groups of molecules break away, and this is the
beginning of the melting process
The molecular spacing in the liquid is not much different from that of the solid
phase, except the molecules are no longer at fixed positions relative to each other.
In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other and a molecular
order is nonexistent. Gas molecules move about at random, continually colliding
with each other and the walls of the container they are in. Molecules in the gas
phases are at a considerable higher energy level than they are in the liquid or solid
phase. Therefore the gas must release a large amount of its energy before it can
condense or freeze.
Compressed Liquid (Sub-cooled Liquid)
Liquid that exist at a temperature lower than the saturation temperature at a given
pressure (water at 20C at 1 atm, see state 1)
***take note that liquid water will boil at 100C at a pressure of 1 atm. The boiling
temperature changes with respect to the pressure. Water will boil at around 71C
where the pressure is about 34kPa. Water will boil inside a pressure cooker at
around 120C where the pressure is set to around 200kPa.(values are approximated,
but can be corrected using the steam table to be discussed later on)
Saturated Liquid
Boundary between a sub-cooled liquid to that of a wet mixture. In this state, the
addition of heat will start a conversion of liquid water to vapor. (water at 100C and
1atm, see state 2)
Wet Mixture
A combination of a liquid and a vapor state (liquid water and water vapor mixture
at 100C and 1atm, see state 3)
Saturated Vapor
Boundary between a wet mixture and a superheated vapor. In this state, the
rejection of heat will start a conversion of vapor to liquid water. (water vapor at
100C and 1atm, see state 4)
Superheated Vapor
Vapor that exists at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature at a
given pressure (see state 5)
Figure 1
In the given figure above, a transition is provided from a sub-cooled liquid state to
a superheated state by continuously adding heat to a piston cylinder setup as to
maintain a pressure.
Property Diagram for Phase Change Process
The relationship of saturation temperature and saturation pressure are presented by

figure 2. Figure 3 represents a T-v diagram of the process that occurred in figure 1.
Now, consider using various weights for the piston and repeating the process in
figure 1, we can plot a diagram that looks like figure 4. The higher the pressure, the
higher the boiling point. The lines for the wet mixture gets shorter as the pressure
increases until it reaches a pressure of 22.09MPa. This point is called the critical point
and it may be defined at which the saturation liquid and saturated vapor
temperatures are identical (374.14C)
Properties by tables and charts
Properties of Wet Mixture

***Those with subscript “f” are for Saturated Liquid,
***Those with subscript “g” are for Saturated Vapor,
Let: x = is the quality of the mixture, fractional mass of vapor in the mixture;
x=mg/mt
y = 1 – x = is the quantity, fractional mass of liquid in the mixture; y=mf/mt
mtotal = mliquid + mvapor or mt = mf + mg
Vtotal = Vliquid + Vvapor or mtv = mfvf + mgvg = (mt – mg)vf +mgvg
Divide both sides of the equation by mt
v = yvf+ xvg = (1 – x)vf + xvg = vf – xvf + xvg = vf +x(vg –vf)
but since vfg = vf - vg
v = vf + xvfg
Other properties are as follows
u = uf + xufg
h = hf + xhfg
s = sf + xsfg
Saturated Vapor and Liquid

**** use saturated pressure or temperature tables
Superheated Vapor
****use superheated table
***Double interpolation takes place when the given values of pressure and
temperature are not available. For example, we are to determine the enthalpy of
0.23MPa and 350C of water. Note that the set of values bring us to the superheated
region. Since the 0.23MPa and 350C pressures and temperatures are not available
in the superheated table, we must interpolate between the temperature and
again the pressure to determine the unknown enthalpy.
@0.2MPA h @0.23MPA h @0.3MPA h
300C 3071.8 300C (a) 300C 3069.3
350C (1) 3174.2 350C (3) 3174.82 350C (2) 3172.15
kJ/kg
400C 3276.6 400C (b) 400C 3275.0
1. We first obtain the enthalpy at 350C at 0.2MPa by interpolating the

temperatures and enthalpy and we will get, 3174.2
2. Then we obtain the enthalpy at 0.3MPa at the same temperature again by
interpolating and we get, 3172.15
3. Last, we interpolate the enthalpies at 350C at 0.2MPa, 0.23MPa and 0.3MPa
to get the final desired enthalpy which is, 3174.82 kJ/kg
4. You can still obtain the same result by interpolating first between the
pressures and enthalpy (a and b) and interpolate again between the
temperatures at 0.23MPa to obtain the same enthalpy of 3174.82kJ/kg
Wet Mixture
****Use saturated tables
Sub-cooled or Compressed Liquid
***use Sub-cooled Tables
Example 8. Determine the Properties of water at 5MPa and 100C
Solution:
At 5Mpa, tsat = 263.99C, then the state of water is sub-cooled because tgiven < tsat of
263.99C corresponding to the given pressure of 5MPa
Or at 100C, Psat = 101.325 kPa, then the state of water is a compressed liquid
because Pgiven of 5MPa > Psat corresponding to the given temperature of 100C
Using the tables, we will obtain the following
v = 0.0010410 m3/kg
u = 417.52 kJ/kg
s = 1.3030 kJ/K-kg
h = 422.72 kJ/kg
*** If the compressed liquid table is not available, we can approximate the
properties using the temperature of the saturated water. Using a temperature of
100C and assuming incompressibility of fluid, then
v = vf = 0.001044 m3/kg, and its enthalpy can be computed using the
formula;
h = hf + vf(Pgiven – Psat) = 419.04kJ/kg + 0.001044 m3/kg (5000kPa – 101.325kPa)
h = 424.15 kJ/kg
Note: this approcimation is only for 5MPa and above
Example 10. Determine the properties of water at 20C at standard atmospheric
pressure of 101.325 kPa
Solution:
Since the pressure is low and below 5MPa, we can simply use the properties of
saturated liquid at the given temperature of the liquid of 20C
Therfore:
v = vf = 0.001002 m3/kg
h = hf = 83.96 kJ/kg and the remaining properties follows
Review Problems
1. Complete the following table (if applicable) for H2O, show computations
Temp C Pressure Specific Quality, % Enthalpy Entropy Phase or

kPa Volume or degree kJ/kg kJ/kg-K State
m3/kg of
Superheat
100 101.325 1.6729 2676.1 7.3549 Saturated
Vapor
201 Saturated
Liquid
300 1000
200 7.0592
101.325 1.6
1906.2 897.76
3478.5 7.7622
300 3045.8
20 5000
200 15000
2. Ten kilograms of steam at 1.2 MPa has an internal energy of 31,228 kJ and
occupy a container with an internal volume of 2.946 m3. Determine a) its
temperature (500C) b) Total enthalpy
3. A 0.09 m3 drum contains saturated liquid-vapor mixture at 300C. Find the
mass of each phase if their volumes are equal and what is the percent
quality of the mixture (6.08%)
4. A tank contains exactly one kilogram of water consisting of liquid and vapor
In equilibrium at 1MPa. If the liquid and vapor each occupy one half of the
volume of the tank, what is the enthalpy of the contents of the tank?
(774.4kJ)
5. Water is being heated in a vertical piston cylinder device. The piston has a
mass of 20kg and a cross sectional area of 100cm2. The local atmospheric
pressure is 100.38kPa. Determine the temperature at which the water will boil
(104.7C)
6. A 0.5m3 rigid vessel initially contains saturated liquid vapor mixture at 100C.
The water is now heated until it reaches the critical state. Determine the mass
of the liquid water and the volume occupied by the liquid at initial state.
(158.27 kg, 0.1652 m3)
7. Determine the specific volume, internal energy and enthalpy of compressed
liquid at 100C and 15MPa using the saturated liquid approximation.
Compare these values to the ones obtained from compressed liquid tables.
8. A 60 liter rigid tank with adiabatic walls is divided into equal parts A and B by
a partition. On one side is saturated steam at 600kPa; on the other side is
steam at 4MPa and 400C. the partition is removed and thorough mixing
occurs. Determine the equilibrium state and its pressure (2300kPa)
Note: Feel Free to ask questions
END of the Module 7
MODULE 8: Processes Pure Substances

This module aims to allow you as a student to understand the Processes of
pure substances and its properties and will be able to apply engineering methods
in solving problems.
• Processes of pure substances
• Other Processes of Pure substances in engineering devices
Engage: Understand the processes of pure substances.
discussed.
Processes of Fluids
Isobaric Process
Isobaric process is an internal (quasi-static, if non-flow) process of a pure
substance during which the pressure remains constant.
Assuming change of state from compressed liquid (1) to superheated state
(2)
From energy equation of non-flow system,

Q = ΔU + Wn and Wn = P(V2 – V1) = P2 V2 – P2 V1
Then Q = (U2 – U1) + (P2 V2 – P2 V1) = (U2 - P2 V2) - (U1 – P1 V1) = H2 – H1
Q = ΔH, (this equation is applicable for non-flow or open system)
From Energy Equation of steady flow system
Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔH + Ws but Q = ΔH then,
Ws = - ΔPE – ΔKE
Example. There are 10kg/min of saturated liquid heated until the temperature was
300C with the pressure remaining constant at 100kPa. Determine the initial and final
enthalpy, the amount of heat absorbed and the kW rating of the electric heater
required for an over-all heat transfer of 90%
Example. A piston cylinder device contains 0.2 kg of water initially at 800kPa and
500C. Now, 250 kJ of heat is transferred from the water while its pressure remains
constant. Determine the initial volume of the piston cylinder, the final temperature
and the non-flow work
Isometric Process
Isobaric process is an internal (quasi-static, if non-flow) process of a pure
substance during which the volume remains constant. It is also called isochoric
process.
Assuming a change of state from superheated state (1) to liquid vapor
mixture (2)
Q = ΔU + Wn but Wn = 0
Then Q = ΔU, (this equation is applicable for non-flow or open system)
From Energy Equation of steady flow system
Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔU + ΔWf + Ws but Q = ΔU then,
Ws = - ΔPE – ΔKE – ΔWf
Example. A rigid tank contains 1kg of saturated liquid vapor mixture of water at
100kPa. Determine the amount of heat supplied to completely vaporize the water if
initially ¼ of the mass is in the liquid phase
Example. The radiator of a steam heating system has a volume of 150L and is filled
with superheated vapor at 200kPa and 200C. At this moment both the inlet and exit
valves to the radiator are closed. Determine the amount of heat that will be
transferred to the room when the steam pressure drops to 100kPa
Adiabatic Processes: Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Adiabatic means no heat transferred from or into the system. There are
several adiabatic processes such as isentropic and throttling processes which are
reversible adiabatic or irreversible processes as the case maybe. Isentropic process
is a reversible adiabatic process and is one of constant entropy process.
Assuming change of state 1m superheated vapor to state 2, liquid vapor
mixture
By definition in a S=C process Q=0
Q = ΔU + Wn or Wn = -ΔU
From energy equation of steady flow
Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔH + Ws
Ws = -(ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔH)
if ΔPE and ΔKE are equal to zero, then
Ws = -ΔH
Example. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 5MPa and 450C and leaves at a
pressure of 1.4MPa. Determine the work output of the turbine per unit mass of
steam flowing through the turbine if the process is irreversible and the changes in
kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
Example. The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5MW and the inlet and
exit conditions of the steam are described in the figure. Compare the ΔH, ΔPE, ΔKE
per unit mass of steam. Determine the Work done per unit mass of steam. Calculate
the required mass flow rate of the steam. Calculate the actual mass flow required
considering adiabatic efficiency of 80%. Actual enthalpy of the steam at the
exhaust.
*** the change of potential energy is negligible compared to the change of
enthalpy and kinetic energy and the change of kinetic energy is small compared
to the change of enthalpy. These two values are sometimes neglected.
Example. Determine the required work to compress water from 100kPa to 1MPa
assuming the water exists as a) saturated liquid b) saturated vapor at the initial
state given the changes in potential and kinetic energies to be negligible.
***Compressing water in the vapor state would require 500 times more work than
compressing it in the liquid from between the same pressure limits
Isothermal Process
Isothermal process is an internally reversible (quasi-static, if non-flow) constant
temperature process of a pure substance; a curve that is the locus of points
representing a particular temperature is called an isotherm.
Figure: Assuming a change of state1, saturated liquid to state 2, superheated
steam
From non-flow energy equation
Q = ΔU + Wn and Wn = Q – ΔU
From steady Flow
Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔH +Ws
Or, Ws = Q – ΔH if ΔPE = ΔKE = 0
Since T = Constant, T1=T2 ,ΔT=0
ΔS = Q/T or Q = TΔS and ΔS = m(s2 – s1)
Example. If one kilogram of saturated liquid at 500kPa is heated with the

temperature remaining constant until its pressure is 2000kPa. Determine the amount
of heat transferred, the change in internal energy and enthalpy and the Work
Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices

Turbines and Compressors
In a steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants, the device that drives the
electric generator is the turbine. As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is
done against the blades which are attached to the shaft as a result, the shaft
rotates and the turbine produces work
Compressors as well as pumps and fans, are devices used to increase the
pressure of a fluid. A compressor is capable of compressing gas to very high
pressure. Pumps work very much like compressors, except that they handle liquids
instead of gases.
Example. The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 50MW and the inlet
and exit conditions of the steam are described in the figure. Compute the ΔH and
ΔKE per unit mass of steam, the work done per unit mass of steam flowing and the
actual mass flow rate of steam required.
Nozzles and Diffusers

Nozzles and diffusers are commonly utilized in jet engines, rockets, space
craft and even garden hoses.
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of fluid at the expense of
pressure
Diffusers is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down.
Nozzles and diffusers perform opposite tasks. The cross-sectional are of a
nozzle decreases in the flow direction for subsonic flows and increases for
supersonic flows. The reverse is true for diffusers. The rate of heat transfer between
the fluid and the surrounding is very small (Q = 0), the work term for nozzles and
diffusers is zero since these devices involve no shaft (W = 0). Potential energy
changes are also minimal to negligible (ΔPE = 0). Example. Steam at 250 Psia and
700F enters the nozzle whose inlet are is 0.2 ft2. The mass flow rate of steam through
the nozzle is 10lb/s. steam leaves the nozzle at 200psia with a velocity of 900ft/s. the
heat loss through the nozzle per unit mass of steam are estimated to be 1.2BTU/lb.
Determine the inlet velocity and the exit temperature of the steam
Throttling Process: Throttling Valves

Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a
significant pressure drop in the fluid, such as adjustable valves, capillary tubes and
porous plugs. Throttling valves are usually small devices and the flow through them
maybe assumes to be adiabatic (Q =0) since there is neither sufficient time nor
large are for any effective heat transfer to take place. Also, there is no Work (Wk =
0) and the change of potential energy is very small (ΔPE = 0) even though the exit
velocity is often considerably higher than the inlet velocity, in many cases, the
increase in kinetic energy is insignificant (ΔKE = 0). Then the conservation of energy
equation for this single stream devices reduces to a h1 = h2 process, a constant
enthalpy process (Isenthalpic)
Example. A well-Insulated valve is used to throttle steam from 10MPa and 550C to
8MPa. Determine the final temperature of the steam
Mixing Chambers
In engineering application, mixing two steams of fluids is not a rare
occurrence. The section where the mixing process takes place is usually referred to
as a mixing chamber. The mixing chamber does not have to be a distinct chamber
or container. An ordinary T-elbow or Y-elbow in shower, for example serves as a
mixing chamber for cold and hot water streams. Mixing chambers are usually well
insulated (Q = 0) and does not involve work (W = 0). Also the kinetic and potential
energies of the fluids are usually negligible (ΔPE and ΔKE = 0)
Example. It is desired that a steady stream 100kg.min of warm water be available
at 40C by mixing hot water at 60C and cold water at 10C. Assume that mixing
chambers to occur at a standard atmospheric pressure. Determine the required
amount of hot and cold water and the ratio of hot water to cold water streams.
Heat Exchangers)
Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange
heat without mixing. Heat exchangers typically involve no work interaction (W = 0)
and negligible kinetic and potential energy changes (ΔPE and ΔKE = 0). Heat
exchangers are intended for heat transfer between two fluids within the device,
and the outer shell is usually insulated to prevent any heat loss to the surrounding
medium.
Example. Saturated Steam at 100kPa enters the condenser with a mass flow rate of
5kg/s. the cooling water enters at 25C and leaves with a temperature rise of 15C.
Neglect pressure drop and change of kinetic and potential energies. Compute the
amount of cooling water needed.
Review Problems
1. Aniston cylinder device contains 0.10m3 of liquid water and 0.90m3 of water
vapor in equilibrium at 500kPa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the
temperature reaches 200C. Determine the initial temperature of water, the
total mass of water, the final volume, and the heat added.
2. A frictionless piston cylinder device contains 8kg of superheated water vapor
at 500kPa and 300C/ Steam is now cooled at constant pressure until 70% of
its mass condenses. Determine the work done during the process, change of
internal energy, and the heat transferred.
3. A 2-L rigid tank contains 1kg of saturated liquid-vapor mixture at 50C. The
water is now slowly heated until it exists in a single phase. At the final state,
will the water be in the liquid state or vapor state? What would your answer
be if the volume of the tank was 200L instead of 2L?
4. A rigid tank contains water vapor at 200C and unknown pressure. When the
tank is cooled to 150C, the vapor starts condensing, What is the initial
pressure in the tank?
5. A mass of 10kg of saturated liquid vapor mixture of water is contained in a
piston-cylinder at 100kPa. Initially, 4 kg of water is in the liquid phase and the
rest is in vapor phase. Heat is now transferred to the water, and the piston,
which is resting in a set of stops, start moving when the pressure inside
reaches 200kPa. Heat transfer continues until the tital volume increases by
20%/ Determine the initial and final temperature, mass of liquid water when
the piston starts moving, and the work done during the process.
6. Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of the
steam are 12.5 MPa, 500C and 80m/s and the exit conditions are 10kPa, 92%
quality and 40m/s. The mass flow rate of the steam is 25kg/s. Determine the
change of kinetic energy, the power output and the turbine inlet area.
7. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 10MPa and 500C at a rate of 3 kg/s
and leaves at 20kPa. If the power output of the turbine is 2MW, determine
the actual temperature of the steam at the exit. Neglect energy changes.
8. There are 180 grams of saturated liquid at temperature of 95C undergo
evaporation process until all the water completely vaporized. Determine the
change in volume.
9. Water substance at 70 bar and 65C enters a boiler tube of constant diameter
of 25mm. The water leaves the boiler tube at 50 bar and 700k at a velocity of
100m/s. Calculate the inlet volume.
10. Steam leaves an industrial boiler at 827.4 kPa at 171C. A portion of steam is
passed through a throttling calorimeter and is exhausted to the atmosphere
when the calorimeter pressure is 101.4 kPa. How much moisture does the
steam leaving the boiler contain if the temperature of steam at the
calorimeter is 115.5C.
11. Two rigid tanks (not insulated) are connected by a valve. Tanks A contains
0.2 m3 of water at 400kPa and 80% quality. Tank B contains 0.5 m3 of water at
150kPa and 250C. The valve is now opened and the two tanks eventually
were to the same state. Determine the pressure and the amount of heat
transfer when the system reaches thermal equilibrium with the surrounding at
25C.
12. Two rigid tanks (insulated)are connected by a valve. Tanks A contains 0.2 m3
of water at 400kPa and 80% quality. Tank B contains 0.5 m3 of water at
150kPa and 250C. The valve is now opened and the two tanks eventually
were to the same state. Determine the pressure and the amount of heat
transfer when the system reaches thermal equilibrium.
13. A hot water stream at 70C enters a mixing chamber with a mass flow rate of
0.6 kg/s where it is mixed with stream of cold water at 20C. if it is desired that
the mixture leave the chamber at 42C, determine the mass flow rate of cold
water stream. Assume all the streams are at the same pressure of 300 kPa.
14. Liquid water at 200kPa and 20C is heated in a chamber by mixing it with
superheated steam at 200kPa and 300C. Cold water enters the chamber at
a rate of 2.5 kg/s. if the mixture leaves the mixing chamber at 60C, determine
the mass flow rate of the superheated steam required.
END of the Module 8
MODULE 9: Rankine Cycle
This module aims to allow you as a student to understand the Rankine cycle
and its properties and will be able to apply engineering methods in solving
problems.
• Rankine Cycle
Engage: Understand the Rankine cyelc.
discussed.
Rankine Cycle
A simple Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic power cycle that utilizes two
isentropic processes and two constant pressure that converts heat into mechanical
work while undergoing phase change. Reheating, regenerating are additional
processes that can be included in a simple Rankine cycle to increase its thermal
efficiency. In the following discussion, water will be used as the working fluid
Processes in a Simple Ranking Cycle
The figure shows the schematic diagram of a simple Rankine cycle. Though the
location of the points may vary according to the properties provided in a given
situation.
Considering the steady flow energy equation
Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔH + Ws
Considering ΔPE = ΔKE = 0
Q = ΔH + Ws
• Process 1 – 2 Isentropic Expansion through the Steam Turbine
This is where work is done by the fluid. The steam which is enters the turbine
expands as it turns the turbine and decreases its temperature.
Since the process is an isentropic process and Q = 0
WT = -ΔH = m(h1 – h2) (turbine work, positive)
• Process 2 – 3 Constant pressure heat rejection at the condenser.
This is where the remaining heat from the medium is removed. From the term
itself the “condenser” will turn the water from the turbine into saturated liquid. It is
often an assumption that the water leaving the condenser is a saturated liquid.
Since the process is Ws = 0
QR = ΔH = m(h2 – h3) (heat rejected, negative)
• Process 3 – 4 Isentropic compression by the pump
This is where the water pressure will be increased back to the higher boiler
pressure.
Since the process is an isentropic process and Q = 0
Wp = -ΔH = m(h3 – h4)
Or by approximation
Wp = Vf3(P3 – P4) (Pump Work, negative)
In solving problems, the specific pump work is obtained first before the h4
• Process 4 – 1 Constant pressure heat addition by the boiler
This is where heat will be added to the working medium to turn it into steam
of high quality or saturated, or superheated (in the T – S diagram above, saturated
vapor).
Since the process is Ws = 0
QA = ΔH = m(h1 – h4) (heat added, positive)
Work Net of the cycle

Wnet = ΣW = Wout - Win = WT - WP
Wnet = ΣQ = Qin – Qout = QA – QR
*** the negative sign from the formulas stated earlier were already carried
over
Thermal Efficiency of the cycle
e = Wnet/QA
Deviations of Actual Cycles from Ideal Cycles
From the figure above, a simple Rankine cycle with actual values for enthalpy are
noted with prime ( ‘ )
Turbine Losses are primarily associated with the flow of working fluid through the
blades and passages, with heat transfer to the surroundings also being a loss of
secondary importance.
Turbine stage efficiency, turbine isentropic expansion efficiency; nt
nt = actual expansion/ideal expansion = (h1 – h2’)/(h1 – h2)
Actual work output of the steam turbine: WT’
WT’ = Work ideal x Turbine efficiency = WT x nT
WT’ = h1 – h2’ where h2’ is the actual condition after steam expansion
Pump Losses are similar to those of the turbine and are primarily due to the
irreversibilities with the fluid flow. Pump losses are much smaller than those of the
turbine since the associated work is very much smaller.
Pump stage efficiency, Pump isentropic compression efficiency; np
np = ideal compression/actual compression = (h4 – h3)/(h4’ – h3)
Actual pump work required, WP’
WP’ = Ideal pump work/ pump efficiency = WP / nP
Other losses are piping losses that causes pressure drops due due friction and heat
transfer to the surroundings. Friction causes increase in entropy. Pressure drops and
heat transfer both decrease the availability of energy from steam entering the
turbine. Condenser losses are relatively small. One of these minor losses is cooling
below saturation temperature of the liquid leaving the condenser and this
represents a loss because of additional heat required to bring the water to
saturation temperature.
Example. A simple Ranking cycle operates with a boiler pressure of 2MPa. The
steam leaves the boiler and enters the steam turbine saturated. Steam exhausts at
condenser pressure of 10kPa. For a steam Mass flow rate of 100kg/s, determine the
turbine output, pump work required, work net available from the plant, heat
rejected in the condenser, heat added in the boiler and the thermal efficiency of
the cycle.
Example. (cont’d) Considering a turbine efficiency of 80% and pump efficiency of
70%. The new values would be
Example. In a Rankine cycle, steam leaves the boiler and enters the turbine at
4MPa and 400C. Condenser pressure is 10kPa. Determine the turbine output, pump
work, work net of the cycle, heat rejected in the condenser, heat added in the
boiler, and the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Check the work net by considering the formula Wnet = ΣQ. What was your answer?
Was it the same?
Review Problems
1. A Rankine cycle operates on a boiler pressure of 2MPa and condenser
pressure of 10kPa. Steam enters the turbine at 500C. The power plant
produces 500MW. Determine the mass flow rate of water required for the
plant. If the cooling water temperature increases by 15C, determine the
amount of cooling water required in GPM. Determine also the thermal
efficiency of this cycle.
2. A Rankine cycle operates on a boiler pressure of 10MPa with steam leaving
at 550C. Condenser pressure is 50kPa. Turbine and pump efficiencies are 80%
and 75% respectively. Determine the ideal and actual work net of the cycle
in kJ/kg.
END of the Module 9
Contact Information of the Facilitator

Engr. Ferdinand B. Itliong
ME 2121 Course Facilitator
Cellphone : +6398206942
Institutional email address : fbitliong@slu.edu.ph

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MODULE IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

CLO 1: Solve problems on the

CLO 2: Solve problems on the law of

CLO 3: Solve problems on and

CLO 4: Solve problems apply the second

CLO 5: Recognize and solve problems

Module and Unit Topics

MODULE 1: Introduction to Thermodynamics - This module aims to allow you as a student to

Course Study Guide

Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

DATE TOPIC ACTIVITIES

Processes of Pure Substances

Formative Assessment Activities

Summative Assessment Activities

A. Quizzes, Examinations, and Assignments

B. Final Course Requirement

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

Engage: Introduction to connection of thermodynamics to previous subjects

Example: converting of heat into electrical work (electrical power generation)

Converting electrical work into cooling (air conditioning)

1.1 The Working Substance

Phase – refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both chemical

1.2 The System (Thermodynamic System)

Surroundings or Environment – the region about the system,

- Anything external to the system

1.3 Classification of Property

1.4 Systems of Units

mks units cgs units fps

m mass of the body kgm gm slug or lbm

a acceleration m/s2 cm/s2 ft/s2

k proportionality constant k =1 kgm-m/N-s2 or k =1 gm-cm/dyne-s2 or k = 1 slug-ft/lbf-s2 or

k = 9.81 kgm-m/kgf-s2 k = 981 gm-cm/gf-s2 k = 32.2 lbm-ft/lbf-s2 or

F force N or kgf Dyne or gf lbf or poundal

Weight (W)– the force of gravity on the body.

1.6 Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight

Density (ρ) – mass per unit volume

ρ = m where V = total volume

7.481 gallons = 1 cu. ft

Pressure (P) – normal force applied to a unit area.

Absolute Pressure (Pabs) – sum of atmospheric and gage pressures

Note: Pg is negative if it involves vacuum or negative reading relative to atmospheric

Fluid Pressure – pressure due to a column of a fluid or liquid.

P= h ; where h is the depth

Temperature – measure of the hotness or coldness of a body. It is also defined as the

Conversion of temperature reading to another temperature scale:

t(oF) = 1.8 t(oC) + 32

T(K) = t(oC) + 273

T(R) = t(oF) + 460

Conversion of change in temperature from one scale to another temperature scale:

1.10 Law of Conservation of Mass

Where: V = volume flow rate

A = cross sectional area of stream

c). ΣF = mass x acceleration

all forces acting on the same direction.

2. A 10 ft diameter x 15 ft height tank is receiving water at the rate of 350GPM and is

The height of the tank after 15 minutes will be 5.185 ft.

For Oil – water interface

1. Four bodies are located in a region where g = 9.67 m/s2.

a) What is the total mass expressed in lbm?

2. A mass of 2 kg is subjected to a vertical force of 35 N. The local gravity g = 9.6 m/s2,